Para 1001. 1002. 1003. 1005. 1006. 1007. 1008. 1009. 1010. 1011. 1012. 1013. 1014. 1015. 1016. 1017. 1018. 1019. 1020. 1021. 1022. 1024. 1025. 1026. 1027. 1028. 1029, BRd 45(1) CHAPTER 10 TIDES, CURRENTS AND TIDAL STREAMS CONTENTS Introduction and Scope of Chapter Primary Definitions SECTION 1 - TIDAL THEORY Newton's Law of Gravitation The Earth-Moon System Gravitational Forces Tide Raising Force Effect of the Earth's Rotation Change of Moon's Declination The Earth-Sun System Springs and Neaps SECTION 2 — THE TIDES IN PRACTICE Diurnal and Semi-Diurnal Tides Shallow Water and Other Special Effects Meteorological Effects on Tides Tsunamis (Seismic Waves) SECTION 3 - TIDAL HARMONICS Harmonic Constituents Principles of Harmonic Tidal Analysis ‘Simplified Harmonic Method for Windows SECTION 4 - TIDAL STREAMS AND CURRENTS Types of Tidal Stream Currents Tidal Stream Data Atlases and Observations Tidal Streams at Depth Eddies, Races and Overfalls Calculation and Use of Percentage Springs Tidal Nurdles SECTION 5 - TOTALTIDE AND TIDE TABLES TotalTide and TotalTide Fleet Admiralty Tide Tables (ATT) Co-Tidal and Co-Range Charts/Atlases Scope of ATT 10-4 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) SECTION 6 - LEVELS AND DATUMS 1030. Tidal Levels 1031 Chart Datum and Land Survey Datum 1032. Definitions of Tidal Levels and Heights 10-2 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) CHAPTER 10 TIDES, CURRENTS AND TIDAL STREAMS 1001. Introduction and Scope of Chapter One of the fundamental forces that all navigators must take into account is the action of tides, currents and tidal streams upon their craft. This Chapter introduces the basic theory and practice behind the mechanisms which creates tides, currents and tidal streams. It also discusses the various methods available for making predictions about the same. See also NP 120, The Admiralty Manual of Tides. 1002. Primary Definitions Although the terms tide, tidal stream and current are often used interchangeably, they are in fact distinct terms with their own specific meaning. The primary terms used within this chapter, and indeed the rest of the book and the BRd 45 series are defined below. a. Tides. ‘Tides’ are the period vertical reversing movements of the water covering the surface of the Earth, caused by the tide raising forces of the Moon and Sun. b. Tidal Streams. Tidal streams are the period horizontal reversing movements of the water accompanying the vertical rising and falling of the tides. c. Currents. Ocean currents are non-tidal movements of water, which may flow steadily at all depths in the oceans and may have both horizontal and vertical component; a surface current can only have a horizontal component. In rivers and estuaries, there is often a permanent current caused by the flow of river water. d. Tidal Currents. Tidal current are the term widely used in North America for tidal streams. The term ‘tidal currents’ is not used in this book.BRa 45(1) SECTION 1 - TIDAL THEORY 1003. Newton’s Law of Gravitation Fundamentally, tides are caused by the effects of the Sun and Moon's gravity, and the rotation of the Earth, on the surface of the Earth, including the water. Strictly speaking, all heavenly bodies exert a tidal force on Earth, but due to the inverse square law (see below), the effect of all bodies other than the Sun and Moon can be considered negligible for all practical purposes. Newton's law of universal gravitation, one of the building blocks of classical mechanics, states that: For any two heavenly bodies, a force of attraction is exerted by each one on the other, the force being: 1) Proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies 2) _ Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them 3) Directed from the centre of one to the centre of the other Mathematically, this may be expressed thus: MyM Fa Where F is the force, m; and mz are the masses of the two bodies, and d is their distance apart. There are other ways of describing gravity, including Einstein's theory of relativity, but for the purposes of understanding tidal forces, classical (Newtonian) theory is sufficient. Whilst the fact that gravity exists is known, exactly what causes it, or how it operates, remains unknown. 1004. The Earth-Moon System The Earth and Moon can be considered as a single ‘system’. In any system of two bodies, the common centre of gravity is known as the ‘barycentre’. Thus, considering the Earth-Moon system in isolation, the Moon does not strictly speaking orbit the Earth but rather both bodies orbit the barycentre. In the Earth-Moon system, the barycentre lies on the line connecting the centres of the Earth and Moon at a depth of about 1000 kilometres below the centre of the Earth. This is shown in Fig 10-1 below. 10-4 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-4. The Earth-Moon System (NOT TO SCALE) Orbit of the Moon around the Barycentre Orbit of the Earth around the Barycentre Earth-Moon Barycentre The Earth describes a very small ellipse around the Earth-Moon barycentre, whilst the Moon describes a much larger ellipse around the same point, taking approximately 27.5 days to complete a single orbit. Of course, the entire Earth-Moon system is itself in orbit around the Sun. 1005, Gravitational Forces a. Lunar Gravity Acting on Water. Lunar gravity acts on the entire Earth, including its physical structure and atmosphere, but its effects are most noticeable on the water on the surface of the Earth. Lunar gravity is the major cause of the tides, b. Lunar Gravity Acting on the Earth. Consider Fig 10-2 below. MM; is the diameter of the Earth on the line joining the centres of the Earth and Moon. Mis the point on the Earth's surface directly ‘under’ the Moon, and is known as the sublunar point. M; is on the opposite side of the Earth from M and is known as the antipode (or antipodal point). circle whose plane is perpendicular to MM; and A and B are two points on the great Se ie careies at all points on this great circle, the Earth-Lunar distar that from the centre of the Earth. 10-5 ‘Auaust 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-2. Lunar Gravity Acting on the Moon A GHG M(Sublunar Point) My (Antipode or Antipodal Point) B Thus the gravitational force G exerted by the moon anywhere on AB is the same. At M, the distance to the Moon has decreased, thus increasing the gravitational force by the small amount 5G, whereas at M; the gravitational force has decreased by a similar amount. Thus, the total gravitational force acting at M is (G + 5G) and that at Mz is (G - 5G). slightly more than that at C, but as the radius of the Earth is so small compared with the distance from the Moon (the ratio is approximately 1:60), @ Note. Strictly speaking, the distance of A and B from the Moon is very the differences are also very small. c. Differential Gravitational Force on the Surface of the Earth. If the Earth is assumed to be a smooth sphere covered with water, the gravitational force acting on the waters may be considered to be the difference between the gravitational force G acting on the centre of the Earth and the actual gravitational force anywhere on the surface of the Earth. This is demonstrated in Fig 10-3 below. Fig 10-3. Differential Gravitational Force on the Earth’s Surface at M/M; 10-6 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) d. Direction of Gravitational Force at Di Earth. At the antipodal point M;, the differential gravitational force is ‘negative’ (ie. - 6G). This is equivalent in magnitude to the di i 56). i e diff tai acting in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig ‘vai eee ifferent Points on the Surface of the Fig 10-4. Direction of Differential Gravitational Force at Different Points on the Earth's Surface 1006, At a given location D on the surface of the Earth, the differential gravitational force acting on the waters must by definition be between 5G and zero. If D is © above the sublunar plane, then the differential gravitational force at D is equal to 5G cos ®°. Similarly, at Dy it is again equal to 6G cos * but acting in the opposite direction. e. Centrifugal Force. As the Earth and Moon orbit around a barycentre, centrifugal force acts at M; and Mz which has the effect of reinforcing the differential gravitational forces. Tide Raising Force a. Horizontal and Vertical Components of Differential Gravitational Forces. If it is assumed that the entire surface of the Earth is covered with a layer of water of uniform thickness, then the differential gravitational forces acting at a point on the surface of the Earth may be resolved into a horizontal component (FH) directed towards the sublunar or antipodal points, and a vertical component (FV) at right angles to the surface of the Earth. These are illustrated in Fig 10-6 below. 10-7 August 2018 Version 4BRd 45(1) Fig 10-5. Vertical and Horizontal Components of Differential Gravitational Forces 10-8 M(Sublunar Point) FH E56 cosa FV b. Vertical and Horizontal Components. The vertical component is only very small in comparison to the local gravitational field of the Earth itself, so that the actual ‘lifting’ of the water against local gravity is infinitesimal. Tides are produced by the horizontal component which causes water to move across the surface of the Earth and ‘pile up’ at the sublunar and antipodal points. The horizontal component of the differential gravitational force is known as the tide raising or tractive force. Its magnitude at a given point X may be expressed as: By Mel Fy a5 X 5 sin 28 Where Fi is the magnitude of the horizontal tide raising force, mz is the mass of the Moon, ris the radius of the Earth, d is the distance between the centres of the Earth and the Moon, and @ is the angle at the centre of the Earth between the line joining the sublunar and antipodal points and the line joining the Earth's centre with point X. It may be seen that that tide raising force varies directly with the mass of the Moon and the radius of the Earth, and is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance between the Earth and the Moon. c. Effect of the Tide Raising or Tractive Force. The effect of the tide raising force is shown in Fig 10-6 below. (1) Minimum (Zero). The tide raising force is zero at the sublunar and antipodal points M and My and along the great circle AB, the plane of which is perpendicular to MM;. (2) Maximum. The maximum tide raising force will be experienced along the small circles EF and GH which are 45° from the sublunar and antipodal points respectively. August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-6. Effect of the Tide Raising or Tractive Force d. Lunar Equilibrium Tide. An equilibrium is reached when the tides formed at the sublunar and antipodal points are at such a level that the tendency to flow away from them is balanced by the tide raising force. The resultant tide, the lunar equilibrium tide, has high waters at M and M; and low waters at A and B. Fig 10-7. Lunar Equilibrium Tide 10-9 ‘August 2018 Version 1Oe BRd 45(1) 14007. Effect of the Earth’s Rotation a. Zero Lunar Declination — Lunar Equilibrium Tide. The effect of the tide raising force on the Earth and at points M and P/P; ~ Ps when the Moon is above the Earth's equator (je. when lunar declination is zero) causes a lunar equilibrium tide (gee above and Fig 10-8 below). However, the Earth rotates relative to the Moon Once every lunar day (approximately 24 hours 50 minutes) and thus during this period observers at points M and P/P; - Ps would experience two equal HWs at Intervals of 12 hours 25 minutes, interspersed with two equal LWs also 12 hours 25 minutes apart. Such tides, with one full cycle per % day, are called semi-diurnal tides — see Para 1011 for more details. Fig 10-8. Moon’s Declination Zero and the Effects of the Earth’s Rotation (1) b. Lunar Equilibrium Tide - Parameters. The magnitude of the tide raising force varies with the cosine of latitude °. HW occurs shortly after the Moon's transit (upper and lower) of the observer's meridian, the slight delay being a manifestation of the Earth's rotation in space. The tidal range (HW highs — LW lows) of the lunar equilibrium tide is less than one metre at the equator. Fig 10-9. Moon’s Declination Zero and the Effect of the Earth’s Rotation (2) Tide Raising Force (Observer at Sublunar Point M) 5G (Observers at Pr-Pa) 5G Cos B Ps P2 Ps Pa ob Bhi2%m —12h25m_—_— 137% 240m 10-10 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) 4008. Changes of Lunar Declination a. Diurnal Inequality. When the lunar declination is not Zero, maximum tides stil occur at the sublunar and antipodal points M and M;. At a given point P af om Earth's surface, not only are the heights of successive HW and LW different, but the time intervals between them also change. This effect is known as diurnal inequality and affects both diurnal and semi-diurnal tides. Fig 10-10. Effects of Changing Lunar Declination Fig 10-11. Diurnal Inequality (Semi-Diurnal Tides) Tide Raising Force 86 cos(a-p)|------------->> 8G Cos(a+D) JPY Tit "On Snizam t2h2sm — 1eh37m — 24h50m n the Earth's surface, where its latitude is greater than 90° minus the Moon's declination (90° - D), the tide raising force never reaches % i i is only one HW zero; by inspection of Fig 10-12 below it can be seen that at Q there and one LW every lunar day. Such tides, with only one cycle per day, are called diurnal tides. See Para 1011 for full details. b. Diurnal Tides. Ata point Q of 10-11 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-12. Diurnal Tides Tide Raising Force 8G Cos(2-D). 8G Cos(@+D) ehi24m — 12h25m ——18h37%4m —_24h50m c. Declination Cycles. The Moon's declination changes between Northerly and Southery maxima and back every 27 1/3 days, causing a similar effect on the tide to be experienced roughly every fortnight. In addition, over an 18.6 year cycle, the Moon's maximum monthly declination oscillates between about 18.5° and 28.5°. d. Distance of the Moon. As the moon orbits the Earth approximately once every 275 days in an elliptical orbit, the tide raising force is strongest when the Moon is at perigee (closest to the Earth), producing a ‘perigean’ tide. Conversely, the tide raising force is at its weakest when the Moon is at apogee (furthest away), producing an ‘apogean' tide. Variation in the lunar distance causes a 15% - 20% difference in the lunar tide raising force; thus, perigee tides are usually appreciably higher than those at apogee. 1009. The Earth-Sun System a, The Earth-Sun Barycentre. Just as the Earth and Moon orbit around a common barycentre, so the combined Earth-Moon system (i.e. the Earth-Moon barycentre) and the Sun form a system, with an Earth-Sun barycentre. The Earth- Moon barycentre describes an elliptical orbit around the Earth-Sun barycentre (which is located about 4000 kilometres from the true centre of the Sun). It takes ‘one year (approximately 365.25 days) for the Earth to complete one orbit of the Sun. 10-12 August 2018 Version 4 lee atBRd 45(1) Fig 10-13. The Earth-Sun System Orbit of the Earth-Moon Bar around the Earth-Sun Barycentre” Earth-Moon Barycentre Earth-Sun Barycentre Note. The above is really only true as a first order approximation; the true point that the Earth orbits is difficult to describe in a the true solar system which includes many different planets and other massy objects; the solar system's centre of mass itself moves as the planets move, but is commonly determined to be just outside the surface of the Sun. Moreover, gravity appears to propagate at the speed of light, further complicating calculations (ie. the Earth does not orbit the barycentre, but rather, the location the barycentre was at eight minutes ago...). Regardless, for the purpose of tides, the Sun and Moon are the only bodies which need be considered. b. Magnitude of Solar Tide Raising Force. Although the Sun has a much greater mass than the Moon (the Sun masses more than 27 million times as much as the Moon), the solar tide raising force is less than half that of the lunar force (roughly 45%). This is because, as explained above, the tide raising force is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance between bodies (and it is this inverse cube factor which makes other heavenly bodies irrelevant for all practical Purposes). ¢. Effect of Solar Tide Raising Force. Although the solar tide raising force is significantly weaker than the lunar force, the tide raising effects of the Sun on the Earth are nevertheless similar to those of the Moon. Thus, tides caused by the Sun will vary according to the factors listed below. The solar day approximates to 24 hours; thus, when i-diurnal equilibrium tide will have two HWs 12 42 hours apart. The time interval @ six hours. (1) Earth’s Rotation. solar declination is zero, the semi hours apart interspersed with two LWs also between successive (solar) HWs and LWs will be 10-13 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) 1010. Full Moon. (2) Change of the Sun's Declination. The Sun’s declination changes much more slowly than that of the Moon, reaching a maximum of about 23.5° North and South of the equator on about 22% June and 22™ of December respectively. These dates are known as the solstices; for more information, see BRd 45(2). (3) Distance of the Sun. As described above, it takes the Earth one year to orbit the Sun. Perihelion (closest approach of the Earth to the Sun) occurs on about the 2° of January, and aphelion (furthest approach) on about the 1* of July. The solar tide raising force thus varies from a maximum in January to a minimum in July, but this variation in magnitude is very small (in the order of about 3%). Springs and Neaps a. Spring Tides (‘Springs’). Twice every lunar month, the Earth, Moon and Sun are in line with each other when viewed from the plane of the ecliptic. At new moon, the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth (which is not visible to an observer on the Earth except on the rare occasion of a lunar eclipse); the lunar and solar tide raising forces are thus working in conjunction. About 14 % days later, at full moon (when the Moon is seen as a bright, full disc), the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun, and the lunar and solar tide raising forces are thus working in opposition. In both cases, the result is to produce the maximum tide raising force, producing ‘spring’ tides (or simply ‘springs’). At springs, the HWs are at their highest and LWs. are at their lowest (ie. the tidal range is greatest). Springs occur shortly after the new moon and full moon. See BRd 45(2) for full details of the phases of the Moon. Fig 10-14. Spring Tides LW Springs Earth CO N.Bole sit {not visible to observer on Earth) Net 10-14 ‘Augu b. Neap Tides (‘Neaps’). Twice every lunar month, the Moon and Sun lie at 90° to each other; they are said to be in ‘quadrature’. This occurs during the Moon’s first and last quarter, and when it happens, the lunar and solar tide raising forces are working at 90° to one another. This produces the minimum tide raising forces, Producing neap tides (‘neaps’), which have lower HWs and higher LWs than usual. Neaps occur shortly after first and last quarter Moons. ist 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-15. Neap Tides c. Frequency of Springs and Neaps. As springs and neaps occur due to relative movement of heavenly bodies, their primary determinant is astronomical. Two spring tides thus occur each month, along with two neaps, the interval between springs and neaps being about 7 % days. This is true across the globe, although local conditions can sometimes alter these intervals d. Timing of Springs and Neaps. Springs and neaps usually follow the appropriate phase of the Moon, lagging by two or three days. This is due to the time-lag inherent in the action of the force and the reaction to it of the water mass, which must overcome inertia and friction before moving. Springs and neaps wil occur at approximately the same time of day at any particular place, since the Moon at that time is in a similar position relative to the Sun. e. Equinoctial and Solstitial Declinations. When the Moon and Sun have the same declination, then it stands to reason that their tide raising forces act more in concert than when their declinations are different. However, the Moon's declination changes rapidly over a four week period. It can be at any value at the actual equinox or solstice, although it is bound to reach zero or its maximum declination respectively within a few days. At the equinoxes (March and September), when the f. Equinoctial Tides. = er) n linatic Moon are both zero, the semi-diurnal luni-solar’ tide said eae va ata jinoctial tides. At these times raising force will be at its maximum, thus causing equinoctial ti semi-diumal spring tides are normally higher than other spring tides. une and December), when the declinations imum, the diurnal luni-solar tide raising I tides. At these times, diurnal tides and 9. Solstitial Tides. At the solstices (J of the Sun and Moon are both at their max force is at is maximum, thus causing solstitial the diurnal inequality are at a maximum. 10-15 mnths tein 2BRd 45(1) h. Priming and Lagging. \t was explained in Para 1007 that the effect of the Earth's rotation and that of the Moon relative to one another is to cause a HW at intervals of about 12 hours 25 minutes. The effect of the Earth's rotation and that of the Sun relative to each other is to cause a (smaller) HW at intervals of about 12 hours. Thus, when the effects of both Moon and Sun are taken together, the intervals between successive HWs and LWs will be altered. When the Moon is in a Position between new/full and quadrature, the Sun's effect will be to cause the time of HW either to precede the time of the Moon's transit of the meridian, or to follow the time of the Moon's transit. This is known as priming and lagging respectively. (1) Priming. The tide is said to prime between the new moon and the first quarter, and between the full moon and last quarter. HW then occurs before the Moon's transit of the meridian. (2) Lagging. The tide is said to lag between first quarter and full moon, and between the last quarter and new moon. HW then ocours after the Moon's transit of the meridian. Fig 10-16. Priming and Lagging PRIMING LAGGING 10-16 August 2018 Version 4 _ eeBRd 45(1) SECTION 2 - THE TIDES IN PRACTICE 4011. Diurnal and Semi-Diurnal Tides In practice, the actual tides experienced at from those that would be expected based on the This is due to a number of factors, including the size, depths and bathymetie r f fe d , configuration of the ocean basins, the friction and inertia to be overcome in a given deter mass, and more local factors such as atmospheric pressure, rainfall and so on. ‘ ta particular place may differ considerably Purely theoretical discussion in Section 1. a. Tidal Waves. For an appreciable tide to be raised in a body of water, it is essential to generate a large enough tide raising force; in order for this to happen, the body of water must be large. The world's great oceans — the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans — are all large enough to permit tides to be generated, although tides do not appear as a single tidal wave form but rather as the ‘sum of a number of oscillating tidal wave forms. Strictly, all bodies of water will experience tides, but in all but the largest their extent is so small as to be unnoticeable; in the Great Lakes, for example, considered to be non-tidal, the spring tide is less than Som and so is lost in the background noise of rainfall, atmospheric pressure, ice melt and other phenomena. b. Diurnal, Semi-Diurnal and Mixed Tides. The natural period of tidal wave oscillation is the decisive factor in determining whether the body of water responds to diurnal or semi-diurnal tide raising forces, or a mixture of the two. Hence, tides in practice are often referred to as being semi-diurnal, diumal, or a mixture of both. (1) Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic is more responsive to semi-diumal tide raising forces. Thus, tides on the Atlantic coast and around the British Isles tend to be semi-diurnal in character (i.e. two HWs and two LWs per day), and are more influenced by the phases of the Moon than by its declination. Large spring tides occur near full or new Moons, with small neap tides near the first and last quarters. The largest tides of the year occur at springs near the equinoxes when the declinations of the Sun and Moon are both zero (i.e. they are over the equator) (2) Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is generally more responsive to the diurnal tide raising forces, and so tides here tend to have a large diurnal component. In these areas, the largest tides are associated with the greatest declination of the Sun and the Moon (i.e. at the solstices). Areas in the West Pacific off New Guinea, Vietnam and in the Java Sea, are predominantly diurnal with a single HW and LW per day; on the North/East coasts of Java, tides are purely diurnal. (3) Mixed Tides. Mixed tides, where both diural and semi-diumal tide Taising forces are important, tend to be characterised by large diurnal inequality. This may be apparent in the heights of successive HWs, LWs or both; such tides are common along the Pacific coast of the USA, the East coast of West Malaysia, Borneo, Australia and the waters of South-West Asia. Occasionally, the tides may even be purely diurnal. 10-17 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) 1012. (4) Mediterranean and Baltic Seas. The Mediterranean and Baltic Seas both consist of bodies of water which are too small to enable any appreciable tide to be generated. The Straits of Gibraltar are too restricted to allow the Atlantic tides to have any meaningful influence other than at the extreme Western end. The greatest tides are to be found in the Adriatic, where they are predominantly mixed, with a diurnal inequality at both HW and LW. The tidal range may exceed 0.5m in several places in the Adriatic but is rarely greater than im. ‘Shallow Water and Other Special Effects a. Oscillating Tidal Wave Distortions. Tides travel as oscillating tidal waves and, like all waves, as they enter shallow water they slow down. The trough is retarded more than the crest, leading to a progressive steepening of the wave front, accompanied by a considerable increase in the wave height (amplitude). This distorts the timing, so that the period of rise becomes shorter than the period of fall These shallow water effects are present to some extent in the tides of all coastal waters. b. Estuaries. The amplitude (height) of the tidal wave increases even more if it travels up an estuary which narrows from a wide entrance. This may result in very large tides such as those to be found in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, the Severn Estuary, UK (the Severn Bore), and the Channel Islands (UK). c. Tidal Bores. Where a river is fed from an estuary with a large tidal range, a Phenomenon known as a tidal bore may be created. The crest of the rising tide overtakes the trough and tends to break. Should it break, a tidal bore occurs in which half of more of the total rise of the tide occurs in only a few minutes. Notable tidal bores are found on the River Severn, Seine, Hooghly (India) and Chien Tang Kiang (China). d. Double HWs/LWs. At certain places, the shallow water effects are such that more than two HWs or LWs occur on the same day. In the UK, at Southampton, double HWs occur with an interval of about two hours between them; further west, at Portland, double LWs occur. Double HWs/LWs also occur at various points on the Dutch coast and other places. The practical effect of this is to create a longer stand at HW/LW, a stand being defined as the period at HW or LW between the tide ceasing to rise/fall and starting to fall/rise. Fig 10-17. Tidal Curves for Southampton, UK, Showing Double HW at Springs & am E 3 3 2 3m 2m- Uta) HW HW+6h 10-18 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) Fig 10-18. Tidal Curves for Portland, UK, Showing Double LW at Springs 3 Ee 8 z 3 z 1013. e. Special Tidal Curves for the Southern UK. Such is the extent and magnitude of the shallow water effects on the waters of the Southem UK that special curves based on LW for determining the height of tide on the South coast of the UK between Swanage and Selsey are found in ATT Vol 1 (eNP 201). The tidal curve at Southampton is also based on LW because of the complexity of the tides around HW. The data is encapsulated within TotalTide but effectively invisible to the user. Meteorological Effects on Tides Non-standard meteorological effects can have a significant impact on the actual tides experienced at a given place and time, in comparison with predictions. The true effects of such conditions are complicated, and inherently difficult to forecast as they are hugely dependent on weather conditions which themselves difficult to forecast. Meteorological effects can lead to otherwise inexplicable changed to tides, noting that the tides in an area can be effected by storms several hundred miles away, and the navigator must be aware that heights of tides can only ever be predictions. An adequate safety margin should always be allowed when planning underkeel clearances. In the Royal Navy, the safety margin is normally to be 2m — see detailed guidance in BRd 45(4). Some of the main meteorological factors which can affect tides are given below. a. Barometric Pressure. Tidal predictions are made based on the observed historic average barometric pressure for the region. However, tides can be very sensitive to pressures, with a 34 millibar change being sufficient to cause a difference in HOT of about 0.3m. Low barometric pressure will tend to raise sea level and high pressure to lower it, but the water level does not tend to react immediately to a change in pressure. Rather, it responds to the average change in pressure over a considerable area. Changes in sea level due to barometric Pressure rarely exceed about 30 centimetres but, in conjunction with other facts, this effect can be important. b. Wind. The effect of wind on HOT and times of HWILW is unpredictable, but depends largely on the topography of the area. In general, wind will raise hp eee level in the direction to which it is blowing. A strong onshore wind ‘piles up" ra water and cause higher HWs than predicted, and these effects can be substantial in harbours such as Portsmouth where strong onshore winds with low pressures s increase the HOT by as much as one metre. Offshore winds Mate the cara effect, drawing water away from the coastline, making LWs lower t! i pred 7 Winds blowing along the coast will tend to setup long tidal waves trave! lin a at coast, raising sea levels where the crest of the tidal wave appears én them in the corresponding trough. 10-19 otndh Uarelion 4BRd 45(1) © some places sea levels were more than 5.6 metres above mean sea level. 10-20 ¢. Seiches. Abrupt changes in meteorological conditions such as the passage of an intense depression or line squall can establish a standing tidal wave known as a seiche. The period between successive tidal waves may vary from a few minutes to about two hours, and the height of the tidal waves may vary from one centimetre to one metre. d. Positive and Negative Surges. A change in the sea level which is ‘superimposed on the predicted tidal cycle, caused by a combination of pressure, wind or other factors, is known as a ‘surge’; a rise is known is a positive surge anda fall is known as a negative surge. In addition to changing the HOT, surges may alter the predicted times of HW and LW by as much as an hour. Positive ‘surges have the greatest effect when confined to a gulf or bight, such as the North Sea. Ina bight such as the North Sea, northerly winds will raise sea levels at the southern end, causing a positive surge; except in the cases of a storm surge, positive surges are unlikely to amount to more than one metre. Negative surges are of great importance, especially to vessels navigating with small underkeel clearances. Negative surges are most evident in estuaries and areas of shallow water, and ‘ypically occur when strong winds blow water away from shore over a significant fetch of shallow water. Falls in sea level of up to one metre are common, whilst falls of two metres have been recorded. In the North Sea, strong Southerly winds will lower sea levels at the Southern end. Negative surges may also occur due to storm surges (see below). Negative surge warnings may be given in the Southern North Sea, Thames Estuary and Dover Straits from 6-12 hours (and possibly up to 30 hours) ahead. €. UK Storm Surges. Storm surges in the UK are wave forms which occur when an intense depression with storm force winds sets up a wave running down the UK coast at a similar speed to that of the tidal wave. The tidal wave is then reinforced by the storm and increased in amplitude, reaching up to three metres in height. Ifa storm surge crest coincides with HW springs, a strong positive surge is created, which may cause significant flooding and damage along the coast (see Note below). If the trough of a storm surge coincides with LW springs, a strong negative surge occurs. Lesser negative surges can occur at any part of the tidal cycle, thus reducing underkeel clearances. Note. In 1953, a storm surge in the UK in the Southern North Sea raised sea levels by 2.7 to 3 metres; this coincided with HW springs, meaning that in This caused severe flooding in East Anglia, Kent and London, with the loss of more than 300 lives, and similar severe floods, and almost two thousand dead, were experienced in the Netherlands. As a result, the Thames Barrage was built such that, in 2007, a storm surge of 2.8m was held by the barrier and no damage was caused. August 2018 Version 4BRd 45(1) 4014. Tsunamis (Seismic Waves) Tsunamis (often incorrectly referred to as tidal waves) are groups of seismic waves with a very long wavelength (sometimes many hundreds of kilometres) and a very high speed (300 to 500 knots) which are created by seismic action (subterranean earthquake or ‘seaquake’) on the sea floor. Tsunamis are entirely unconnected to tides. The seismic activity which causes tsunamis is concentrated at the boundaries of the tectonic plates, and Japan is particularly vulnerable to them (it was a tsunami which caused the Fukushima nuclear disaster), but anywhere with an uninterrupted fetch to a plate boundary is potentially vulnerable to tsnumais. Tsunamis generally pass unnoticed in the open ocean, but ashore they can cause great damage and loss of life. They are a serious hazard to coastal shipping and ships in port. See NP 100 and BRd 45(6). a. Open Ocean. Above the epicentre, if in open ocean then the tsunami will have a wave height of perhaps one metre, but a wavelength of more than 100 miles. It is most unlikely to even be noticed, let alone dangerous. b. Shallow Water/Shore. On entering shallow water, as with any wave once they wave feels the bottom then the wave becomes shorter and higher. Due to the immense wavelength and speed of the tsunami, it can reach enormous heights (17 metres or more). The first indication of a tsunami’s approach is likely to be a sudden drop in the sea level or the sea ‘drawing back’ from the beach. A group or ‘wave train’ of waves may then strike at intervals of between 10 and 40 minutes; contrary to what might be expected, the second and third waves are usually higher than the first, with following waves gradually lessening in intensity. The destructive potential of these wave trains is enormous as shown in Fig 10-19 below. Fig 10-19. The Power of a Tsunami 10-21 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) SECTION 3 — TIDAL HARMONICS 1015. Harmonic Constituents a. Harmonic Constituents. Analytically, the tide raising forces can be resolved to a series of harmonic constituent curves, the periods and relative amplitudes of which can be calculated from astronomical theory. Some 400 harmonic constituents have been identified but in practice it is seldom necessary to use so many. Up to 160 harmonic constituents are used for major standard ports, and up to 36 for ‘secondary ports. The harmonic constituents are denoted by symbols which indicate their significance. For example, the letter M indicates a lunar constituent, whereas S indicates a solar constituent. Subscript ; is used for diurnal and 2 for semi-diurnal components. b. Tidal Observations. To predict with accuracy the HOT at a given place, it is Necessary to carry out extensive tidal observations on site. The results can then be analyses in order to quantify the harmonic constituents making up the tide raising forces at that place. For full accuracy, due to the number of cycles involved, it is strictly speaking necessary to carry out observations over an 18.6 year period in order to fully establish all the harmonics constituents. However, for practical Purposes, one full year is normally considered sufficient for a standard port (allowing up to 160 harmonic constituents to be determined), and one month will suffice for a secondary port (allowing up to 36 harmonic constituents to be determined). 1016. Principles of Harmonic Tidal Analysis a. The Four Principal Harmonic Constituents. There are four principal harmonic constituents with which the navigator will come into contact. (1) Ma. This is the principal lunar semi-diurnal harmonic constituent, which Permits calculations of the amplitude caused by a theoretical Moon in circular orbit around the Earth at the average speed of the real Moon, halfway between apogee and perigee, and at an average Northerly or Southerly declination. (2) S2. This is the principal solar semi-diurnal harmonic constituent, which Permits calculation of the amplitude caused by a theoretical Sun in similar Circumstances to that for the Moon (described above). (3) K;. This is the lunar declinational diurnal harmonic constituent which allows for part of the Moon's and Sun’s declinations. (4) Or This is the lunar declinational diurnal harmonic constituent which allows for the remainder of the Moon's declination. 10-22 August 2018 Version 1 el |b. Components of Harmonic Constituen: speed (in degrees per hour, with one cycle phase lag g. Cycle and speed details for are shown in Table 11-1 below, BRd 45(1) ts. Each harmonic constituent has a le being 360°), an amplitude H, and a the four principal harmonic constituents Table 10-1. Cycle and Speed Details for the Four Principal Harmonic Constituents HARMONIC CYCLES PER DAY CONSTITUENT ~ SPEED TIMETO (DEGREES/HOUR) | COMPLETE ONE ws CYCLE 28.98 | 12h 25 min 30 12h 00 min 15.04 23 h 56 min [ro] [ro 13.94 25 h 50 min 1017, c. Harmonic Constants. The amplitude H and phase lag g of a harmonic constituent are known as the ‘harmonic constants’ of that constituent. (1) Amplitude H. The amplitude H is equal to half the tidal range (i.e. half of HW minus LW heights for each oscillation). (2) Phase Lag g. The phase of a harmonic constituent is its position in time, in relation to its theoretical position as deduced from astronomical theory. Tide raising forces do not act instantaneously, and so each harmonic constituent has a time lag, represented by its phase lag, g. d. Tidal Analysis and Predictions. The purpose of tidal analysis is to determine the harmonic constants for a particular location. Tidal predictions are then made using an appropriate number of harmonic constituents. In many places, such as Portsmouth, the harmonic constituents for shallow water effects are very complex and additional shallow water corrections must be applied. The authority for the observations, harmonic constants, predictions, method of prediction and year of observation are in the Admiralty Tide Tables. ‘Simplified Harmonic Method for Windows Simplified Harmonic Method for Windows (DP 560) is a software programme Produced by UKHO which allows the user to make tidal predictions based on harmonic Constants and shallow water corrections. Although the software is safe, accurate and user- friendly, it is probably true that most users will now use TotalTide (see Section 5 below) and thus SHM for Windows is probably obsolescent. Full instructions for using the software are included in the accompanying documentation. Note. SHM for Windows may not be compatible with Windows 10. 10-23 ‘August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) 1018. 1019. SECTION 4 - TIDAL STREAMS AND CURRENTS Types of Tidal Stream There are two types of tidal stream: rectilinear and rotary. Each is discussed below. a. Rectilinear Tidal Streams. Rectilinear tidal streams broadly flow only in two directions (with small variations), which are known as the ‘flood’ (incoming tidal stream) and the ‘ebb’ (outgoing tidal stream). Whilst the terms ebb and flood suffice for general descriptions, it is usually more helpful to describe the water's direction and rate (eg 090 at 2.0 kn). Rectilinear tidal streams are usually found in port approaches, estuaries, channels and straits, where the direction of flow is constricted by the surrounding land and/or shoals. b. Rotary Tidal Streams. Rotary tidal streams continually change in direction, going through 360° in one complete cycle. The rate of flow normally changes across the cycle, with two maxima in approximately opposite directions interspersed with two minima about halfway between the maxima in time and direction. Rotary tidal streams are most often experienced offshore, where there are no constraints on the flow of the water. c. Semi-Diurnal and Diurnal Components of Tidal Streams. Tidal streams may have semi-diurnal and diurnal components, including diurnal inequality, and can be analysed harmonically or non-harmonically. In European waters (where tides are semi-diurnal) tidal stream rates are usually related to the range fo the tide, and the times of slack water are usually related to (but not necessarily the same as) the times of HW and LW at the nearest standard port. For example, in the UK, slack water occurs at half tide on the East coast but at HW/LW on the South coast. Significant differences in the times of slack water can occur between ports/harbours and adjacent offshore areas. Currents As explained in Section 1 and Section 2 above, tides and tidal streams are caused by the tide raising forces. However, a given water mass may be subject to currents, which are non-tidal movements of water and are caused by a variety of factors which are entirely ‘separate and distinct from the tide raising forces. 10-24 a. Causes of Currents. Currents are caused by meteorological factors (wind, barometric pressure etc), oceanographic factors (eg water of different sea levels, salinity or temperature) and by topographical factors (eg irregularities in the sea-bed, and run-off from land in rivers and estuaries). A detailed explanation of the ocean currents is given in Chapter 11. b. Causes of River Currents. In rivers and estuaries, there is often a permanent (but variable in magnitude) current caused by the flow of river water from the land. The flow of river water in such currents is heavily dependent on rainfall (and snow melt) inland. c. Assessment of Currents at Sea. WECDIS is capable of determining the set and drift being experienced; this will include components relating to both current and tidal stream. See Chapter 11 for details. August 2018 Version 11020. BRd 45(1) Tidal Stream Data, Atlases and Observations a. Semi-Diurnal Tidal Streams. Semi-diurnal tidal streams (eg European water may be predicted from Mean High Water Springs MHWSyeceerion Water cae (MHWN) at a ‘standard port’. Tidal stream Predictions are displayed in tables on the chart, in ENC databases and in tidal stream atlases (see Fig 10-20 below), showing the rate and direction at MHWS/MHWN, by reference to the time of HW at a suitable standard port. The rate on occasions other than MHWS/MHWN may be found by using the (tidal) ‘range of the day’ to interpolate or extrapolate from the two mean rates (see Para 1023), thus avoiding the need for date-specific predictions to be published. b. Tidal Stream Atlases. Where the tidal stream is related to a standard port (see above), tidal stream atlases show tidal streams in pictorial form (see Fig 10-20 below); they are available from UKHO (with instructions for their use) for the waters around UK and the west coast of France. RN/RFA vessels have access to more detailed (classified) tidal stream atlases and guidance for HM Naval Bases. c. Admiralty Sailing Directions (Pilots). Limited tidal stream information is also contained in Admiralty Sailing Directions (Pilots). d. Tidal Streams with Large Diurnal Inequality. Where the diurnal inequality of the tidal stream is large (eg Malacca and Singapore Straits), the procedure at Para 1020 sub para a (above) is not possible and individual date-specific predictions are needed. (1) Tidal Stream Tables. Daily tidal stream predictions for important areas are published as ‘Tidal Stream Tables’ in Volumes 3 and 4 of the Admiralty Tide Tables (NPs 203-204). (2) TotalTide®. UKHO's TotalTide software can predict all tidal streams with the integrity of the Admiralty Tide Tables; see details at Para 1026. (3) SHM. Harmonic Constants for some Tidal Streams are also published in Volumes 2, 3 and 4 of the Admiralty Tide Tables (NPs 202-204) so that Predictions may be made using SHM for Windows® software; see Para 1017. ©. Tidal Stream Observations and Predictions. Tidal stream predictions for UK waters are generally based on observations extending over a period of 25 hours, which is a far shorter period than the equivalent observations for tide predictions. Permanent currents in rivers and estuaries are included, but for coastal predictions any variable current is removed before the predictions are compiled. The observation of tidal streams presents greater difficulties than the observation of tides and thus a lesser degree of observational accuracy is achievable for the following Teasons. idly changing effect of sea-bed (1) Sea-bed Topography. Because of the rapidly j ic ; topography on the direction and rate of the tidal Stream, it is often impossible to give more than an indication of how a vessel will be affected by tidal streams. 10-25 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) (2) Channels. In a channel, the tidal stream may be running strongly (eg 3 kn) in the centre with virtually no tidal stream (or even a tidal stream running in the opposite direction) at the edges of the channel. The tidal stream may vary significantly (eg from zero to 3 kn) in the navigable part of the channel. Thus tidal stream predictions for any given position in a channel will be correct for that exact position, but may well be incorrect for a position a few metres either side. (3) Complexity. While the tidal stream predictions must be accurate enough for navigational purposes, the methods of prediction to achieve an adequate result are not as complex as those for tide predictions. {International Regulations for Charts, Tide Tables and Tidal Stream Data. Gertain countries and ports may make the carriage and use of specified tide tables, tidal stream atlases, charts and diagrams compulsory for ships proceeding to and from their ports. Mariners are advised to check the necessary regulations in good time. 4021. Tidal Stream at Depth Published tidal stream data normally refers to the uppermost 10 metre layer of the sea. Many operations (such as dived submarine navigation, the deployment of remote operating vehicles ete) require at least an basic indication of tidal streams at greater depths below the surface. The following guidance is provided but it is of necessity generalised and local conditions may vary from it. a. 0% to 75% of Depth of Water. Except for areas fed by river water in addition to the tides, tidal streams at depths below 10 metres tend to be very similar to those on the surface to a depth of about 75% of the total depth of water. However, the times of slack water may be different by as much as one hour compared with surface slack water times; slack water at depth is usually early but sometimes late. b. 75% to 100% of Depth of Water. At depths greater than 75% of the total depth of water, until about one metre above the sea-bed, tidal streams fall away in strength to a value which may be about 50% to 60% of the surface rate, and also change direction slightly by about 10° to 20°. In the bottom metre to the sea-bed, tidal streams may undergo a marked change from those on the surface. c. Effect of River Water. The situation described in Para 1021 sub para a may be quite different in ports which are fed by river water in addition to the Tides (eg Devonport [UK]). The strength and direction of the tidal stream may vary considerably with depth, dependent on the amount of fresh water flowing down-river, and the depth to which it penetrates. 10-26 August 2018 Version 14022. BRd 45(1) Eddies, Races and Overfalls a, Causes of Eddies, Races and Overfalls. Eddies, tide-ti it ¢ ; tide-tips, overfall are different forms of water turbulence caused by any of the ‘olowiner ere « Abruptly changing topography of the sea-bed. . Configuration of the coastline, * — Constriction of channels. « Sudden changes in tide or tidal stream characteristics. b. Eddies. An eddy is a circular movement of water, the diameter of which may extend from a few inches to a few miles (eg at Portland [UK] there is an anti- clockwise eddy of the tidal stream south-east of Portland between one and five hours after HW Devonport [UK] - see Fig 10-20 below). Where the effects of eddies are of a permanent nature, they are taken into account when predicting tidal streams. c. Overfalls. An overfall is another name for a tide-rip and is caused by a strong tidal stream near the sea-bed being deflected upwards by obstructions on the bottom, thus causing a confused sea on the surface. d. Races. A race is an exceptionally turbulent tidal stream, usually caused by a strong water flow around a headland or where tidal streams converge from different directions. The tidal stream atlas for Portland [UK] shows an almost permanent race (for nine out of twelve hours), south of Portland Bill (see Fig 10-20 below). Fig 10-20. Tidal Stream Atlas - showing Circular ‘Eddy’ (to South East) and Turbulent ‘Race’ (to South) off Portland - both 1 Hour after HW Devonport (UK) 10-27 August 2018 Version 1BRd 45(1) 1023. ‘Percentage Springs’ (Tides and Tidal Streams) - Calculation and Use This method applies to semi-diurnal tidal streams only, but can be adapted for use with reasonable accuracy if moderate diurnal Inequality is present. If large diurnal inequality is present, tidal stream predictions must be made in accordance with Para 1020 sub para d. See also the ‘Computation of Rates’ diagram/worked example in each Tidal Stream Atlas (NPs 209-266,337 & 628-636). a. Definitions. Mean Spring Range (MSR) and Mean Neap Range (MNR) are defined below. (1) MSR. MSR is the difference between MHWS and MLWS. Tide Level definitions are at Para 1030. (2) MNR. MNR is the difference between MHWN and MLWN. Tide Level definitions are at Para 1030. b. Reason for Calculation. Semi-diurnal tidal stream predictions are linked to the MSR/MNR. In order to calculate the tidal stream at any particular time and date, it is necessary to establish the tidal ‘range of the day’ between successive HWs/LWs at the port to which the data is referenced, compare it to the MSR/MNR and interpolate or extrapolate appropriately to give a ‘percentage springs’ (% springs) figure. c. Nomenclature. It is convenient to refer to MSR as 100% springs and to MNR as 0% springs. The range of the day may thus be given a ‘% springs’ figure (ie percentage of the day) by interpolation/extrapolation, and this may be used to interpolate/extrapolate from the MSRIMNR tidal stream rates given at the tidal stream diamond or in the tidal stream atlas. When the range of the day exceeds the MSR at the port to which the data is referenced, ‘% springs’ may be greater than 100%. Similarly, when the range of the day is less than MNR, ‘% springs’ will be negative (and tidal streams will be less than the lower figure given on the chartlatlas).. Example. MSR and MNR for Portsmouth are 3.9m and 1.9m respectively. At Portsmouth the heights of HW and LW are as follows: 18 February 1446 HW 4.2m 2008 LW 1.3 In this case, the ‘range of the day’ is 2.9m; interpolation by inspection gives 50% springs. 27 February 1112 HW 4.7m 1653 LWO0.5 In this case, the ‘range of the day’ is 4.2m; interpolation by inspection gives 115% springs. 2 September 0618 HW 3.7m 1206 LW 2.2 In this case, the ‘range of the day’ is 1.5m; interpolation by inspection gives -20% springs. 10-28 August 2018 Version 1