Welding in the World

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-023-01605-4

RESEARCH PAPER

Sequence effects on the life estimation of welded tubular structures

made of S355J2H under uniaxial fatigue loading
Josef Neuhäusler1 · Jakob Roth1 · Markus Oswald1 · André Dürr1 · Klemens Rother1

Received: 15 September 2022 / Accepted: 6 October 2023

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
The use of hollow sections to form lightweight structures is widespread in common steel processing industries such as crane,
commercial vehicle, steel bridge and agricultural machinery construction. The hollow sections are mainly designed as truss or
frame structures, in some cases using high-strength and higher-strength steels in order to achieve optimum utilization of the
component and material. A new collection of fatigue life data covering sequence effects and the accuracy of the linear damage
accumulation is presented. Effects of the shape of the applied load spectra and sequence effects of different amplitudes have
been investigated. This document covers tubes of 4 to 8 mm thickness made by low-carbon or mild steel S355J2H. In general, it
was found that the spectrum shape and the loading sequence have an influence on the service life. Depending on the shape of the
spectrum, random tests tended to lead to shorter service lives than tests with block-loading sequences. An influence of overloads
was also found for the tests with interspersed overloads. Typical maximum linear damage sums taken from recommendations
and codes of 0.2 or sometimes 0.5 are exceeded for all spectra investigated and in some of the cases even significantly above
1.0. Transferability of the recommendations to component-type structures like tubular joints needs revision to lift its lightweight
potential. Using stress concentration factors (SCF) from finite element analysis, typical strength values for the structural and
effective notch stress concepts are checked. All joints investigated show a significantly higher strength compared to the IIW
recommendations using the structural stress approach or compared to the DVS 0905 with the effective notch stress approach.

Keywords Tubular constructions · Carbon steels · Fatigue tests · Fatigue strength · Finite element analysis · Variable
loading

Nomenclature ΔF (N) Range of applied forces

Δf (Hz) Drop of resonance frequency
Symbols
ΔS (MPa) Nominal stress range
100 k (–) Interspersed overload every 100,000 cycles
DV(–) Relative damage Dtest/Dcalc
of applied spectrum
Δw (mm) Change of displacement under load-con-
10 k (–) Interspersed overload every 10,000 cycles
trolled testing due to crack propagation
of applied spectrum
E (MPa) Modulus of elasticity
A ­(mm2) Area of nominal cross-section
F (N) Force
a (mm) Length of weld throat
f(R) (–) Factor for mean stress correction
cN (MPa/kN) Transfer coefficient load vs. nominal stress
H0 (cycles) Cumulative frequency of spectrum
D (–) Damage sum according to Miner elemen-
Kt (–) Stress concentration factor (SCF)
tary, if not stated otherwise
Kw (–) Seam shape factor σk/σhs
d(mm) Diameter of CHS or width of SHS
LF (–) Load factor = magnitude of ratio high vs.
low load level
* Klemens Rother m (–) Slope exponent of Basquin equation
klemens.rother@hm.edu n (–) Number of specimens or applied number
Josef Neuhäusler of cycles
josef.neuhaeusler@hm.edu ν (–) Damage potential of a VAL spectrum or
Poissons ratio
1
Institute of Material and Building Research, Munich N (cycles) Cycles at failure
University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany

Vol.:(0123456789)
 Welding in the World

Näq (–) Equivalent cycle to failure assuming CAL Abbreviations

at max. load level of VAL-spectrum AHSS Advanced high-strength steel
PA (%) Failure probability CAL Constant amplitude loading
R (–) Stress ratio min/max stress of cycle CHS Circular hollow section
s (–) Standard deviation CIDECT According to CIDECT
σ (MPa) Local stress (structural or notch stress) DVS According to DVS 0905
SR (–) Stress ratio of characteristic values test vs. EC3 According to EC3
IIW/DVS FAT Characteristic fatigue strength for low PA =
T (–) Scatter factor 2.3%, 2·× ­106 cycles, and R = 0.5
t (mm) Thickness of hollow section FZ Fused zone
HAZ Heat-affected zone
Indices, superscripts
HCF High cycle fatigue
N Cycle to failure
LCF Low cycle fatigue
0 Chord related dimension
LDA Linear damage accumulation
1 Brace-related dimension or counter
SCF Stress concentration factor
2 Counter
SHS Square hollow section
0.3 mm Fictitious radius r = 0.3 mm at toe and root
UHSS Ultrahigh-strength steel
1E4 10,000 cycles
VAL Variable amplitude loading
1 mm Position 1 mm distance from hot-spot or
fictitious radius at toe and root
2E6 2 × ­106 cycles
1 Introduction
2 mm Position 2 mm distance from hot spot
calc Related to computational analysis
The use of hollow sections for tubular lightweight structures
CIDECT According to CIDECT
is widespread in common steel processing industries such
corr Correction (for small sample)
as crane, commercial vehicle, steel bridge, and agricultural
DVS According to DVS 0905
machinery design. Tubular structures mainly consist of a
EC3 According to EC3
truss or frame-type topology. To achieve optimum utilization
ES Residual stress
of the component and material the use of high-strength steels
h High stress level
is an ecological and economical option.
hs Structural or hot-spot stress
The question about the sequence effects of hollow section
IIW According to IIW recommendations
constructions has been explored in several research projects
ISO According to ISO 14347
[1, 2]. Results for thin-walled welded tubular structures
k Notch stress
made of HSS under bending from [1] have already been
l Left or low stress level
covered in [3]. The main findings were that the recom-
lgN log10 of cycle number
mended critical damage sums by various codes were not
lin Linear extrapolation scheme for structural
exceeded by the tests conducted in the study. In addition to
stress concept
that, a comparison of the experimental data with the notch
max Maximum stress range in spectrum
stress concept revealed a significantly higher fatigue strength
mean Arithmetic mean value
than the code-based FAT values for the notch stress concept.
MinerElem According to Miner elementary
An even higher difference has been found for the structural
MinerOrig According to Miner original
stress concept using the quadratic extrapolation method.
o CAL load level
With the present paper, the goal is to give the results on
prEC3 According to prEC3
thin- and additionally some thick-walled welded tubular
quad Quadratic extrapolation scheme for struc-
structures made of S355J2H under uniaxial fatigue loading.
tural stress concept
The fatigue strength values and SN curves for hollow
spec Specified cycles for spectra yielding D = 1
section joints have so far been derived from tests with
theoretically
constant amplitude fatigue testing on low-strength steels
test Related to test results
for the nominal and structural stress concept [4–9]. The
Toe Toe of weld seam
transfer to real operating load spectra is performed with
x% Probability of failure (2.3%, 10%, 50%,
the current design methods in mechanical engineering
90%, 97.7%)
and crane construction as well as in the building sector
[10–15]. This requires so-called damage-equivalent stress
ranges on the basis of the Palmgren-Miner rule with a limit
Welding in the World
value for the damage sum of D = 1.0 [16, 17] which is
independent of the strength and the shape of the spectrum.
Favorable but also unfavorable sequence effects from
the real operating load spectrum remain unconsidered.
Various investigations show that the simply applicable
linear damage accumulation of the Miner rule is partly
not very accurate, cf. [18–20]. In the IIW guideline [21]
or the DVS 0905 [22], it is therefore already recommended
to conservatively apply a damage sum of D = 0.2–0.5 as a
limit in case of non-constant amplitudes and mean stresses
of the respective loading cycles.
The existing inaccuracies in the LDA were already
determined by Schütz [20] for tests with blocked loading.
According to this, failures occurred in 348 test series with
a damage sum of D = 0.2 to 10.0. The operational strength
tests by Bucak [18] with different blocked spectra (VAL)
on hollow section nodes showed damage sums from D =
0.3 to 20.0. A tendency showed where the higher calcu-
lated damage sums occurred in spectra with lower damage
potential. Recent studies show that in certain cases, the
LDA of the original Palmgren-Miner rule is less applica-
ble. In the IIW and in the FKM guidelines [19, 20], it is
therefore recommended to conservatively apply a damage
sum of D = 0.5 as a limit value. The investigations in [23]
on butt joints made of ultrahigh-strength steels have shown
that between ­104 and ­105 load cycles to failure, a damage
sum of D = 1.0 leads to very good agreements, and above
­1 0 5 load cycles the value of D = 1.0 is conservative in
some cases.
One goal is to investigate the performance of the linear
damage accumulation by providing a broad test base of dif-
ferent load sequences for different welded hollow sections
made of typical mild steel S355J2H. The series of tests on
welded X-joints in crane construction comprised a total
of 108 specimens made of circular hollow sections (CHS)
and square hollow sections (SHS) of different dimensional
ratios. In addition to the constant amplitude loading (CAL)
tests, the test series also included variable amplitude loading
(VAL) using the crane spectra p(1/3), a tower crane spec-
trum developed on the basis of real measurements in the
FOSTA P778 research project [2], the North Sea spectrum,
and test series with interspersed overloads and tests with a
two-step block loading.
Residual stress measurements were used to determine
possible residual stress reduction as a result of operating
loads and overloads. Since high residual stresses are formed
in welded joints, the currently applicable standards in steel
construction [10] assume a worst-case scenario. That sce-
nario is when welded components have residual welding
stresses equal to the yield strength at the critical cracking
point. Even at low load levels, local plasticization can occur
in the connection area of the hollow section junctions due
to the high-notch effect [24].
A similar situation can be seen regarding the influence
of overloads. Overloads are also frequently referred to as
misuse loads in commercial vehicle design. A comparison of
a large number of tests with overloads in [25, 26] shows that
overloads, depending on their magnitude and type (tensile
or compressive overloads), lead to a delay or an accelera-
tion of crack growth and thus have an influence on service
life. Investigations from [24] show that in many cases, indi-
vidual overloads lead to an increase in service life. This is
especially true for welded structures made of higher-strength
structural steels [27]. The lower strains at the notch due to
the larger elastic strain component of higher-strength struc-
tural steels may cause this. However, the question arises at
what level and at what frequency overloads have a positive
effect on service life in hollow section joints.
The first investigations on the influence of operating loads
on the fatigue strength of hollow section joints were predom-
inantly carried out as blocked load spectra [18]. Although
the stresses follow the same spectrum, the fatigue life of
blocked and fully random loading can be very different. It
is known from previous studies [2] that the same spectrum
leads to longer lifetimes in block tests than in random mixed
loading. In [28], it is shown that on a conical round steel,
machined and without welds, the service life of a well-
mixed (random) load sequence compared to a loading with
an 8-step block program can reduce by a factor of up to 5
despite high numbers of load cycles [29].
In summary, this paper aims to provide new experimen-
tal data on welded hollow section joints for a variety of
test scenarios and investigate the performance of the linear
damage accumulation rule for those scenarios. Besides the
assessment of the limiting damage sums provided by codes,
the CAL tests were evaluated with the structural and notch
stress concept. The results show significantly higher endur-
able stresses compared to the appropriate FAT classes.
2 X‑hollow section joint under uniaxial
fatigue loading
2.1 Materials, specimens, and test setup
Typical joint designs used for steel and crane design can be
seen in Fig. 1.
For this investigation X-joints made of circular hollow
sections (CHSs) and square hollow sections (SHSs) were
used. All test specimens have been made from the same
material S355J2H. For the test specimens made of CHS and
SHS with larger wall thickness (t = 8 mm), hot-rolled tubes
according to DIN EN 10210-1 [30] were used, whereas the
SHS with 4-mm-thickness cold-rolled profiles according
to DIN EN 10219 was used [31]. In the case of the cold-
rolled specimens, no attention was paid to the position of
 Welding in the World

Fig. 1  Typical joint topologies for circular hollow sections: X-joint (left), K-joint (middle), N-joint (right)

Table 1  Specimen dimensions Chord Brace Ratios

Tests
d0 t0 d1 t1 b = d1/d0 t = t1/t0 g = d0/2t0
Type Material in to-
(mm) (mm) (-) tal
CHS-
101.6 5.6 51.0 4.0 0.5 0.71 9.1 50
51.0
CHS-
101.6 5.6 82.5 4.0 0.8 0.71 9.1 22
82.5 S355J2H
SHS-50 100 4.0 50 4.0 0.5 1.0 12.5 25
SHS-100 200 8.0 100 8.0 0.5 1.0 12.5 12

CHS specimens SHS specimens

the longitudinal weld seam to cover possible unfavorable
influences due to the production process. An overview of the
different specimen types and their dimensions and ratios can
be found in Table 1. The total length of the chord is 800 mm
for all specimens. The lengths of the braces were chosen to
get a total length of the X-joint of 900 mm (except for SHS-
100 specimens with 1000 mm).
Within the scope of the CAL tests, production optimiza-
tion by different weld seam preparations was carried out on
a total of four test specimens using CHS. According to DIN
EN 1090-2 chapter 7.5.1.2 and chapter E.3 [32], the weld
seam of the joint can be executed both as a butt weld with
a weld seam preparation and as a fillet weld without weld
seam preparation. The SHS specimens were butt-jointed and
welded with a fillet weld. The welding process used was the
MAG process with solid wire. The tubes were cut by water-
jet cutting. The corresponding weld seam preparations can
be seen in Fig. 2.
Due to manufacturing tolerances, ovalization of the tubes
can occur which might lead to a gap between the brace and
the chord tube. To avoid weld seam irregularities resulting
from the residual gap, these gaps must be limited and not
exceed a maximum value of 2 mm [32]. During produc-
tion, random checks did not reveal that this dimension was
exceeded due to the relatively small chord diameter d0.
The influence of the seam preparation on the fatigue
strength was checked using four tests with and without edge
preparation. Due to the very small differences in the results
Welding in the World

Fig. 2  Weld preparation for CHS specimens: weld preparation (left), no weld preparation (middle), water cuts (right)

the larger welding volume required as a result, the test speci-

mens of the SHS-100 series could not be welded in one layer
but 3 layers with a weld throat thickness of 8 mm.

3 Test equipment

3.1 VAL using block‑type load sequences

Different testing machines were used to perform the block

tests to keep the test times short. The areas of the partial
sequences that exhibited high stress amplitudes with a
low number of load cycles were tested in a universal spin-
dle machine with a maximum upper load of 250 kN from
Schenck with a test frequency of 0.5 Hz. The respective
blocks were connected via ramps.
Fig. 3  Results of the CAL tests for specimens having different weld A resonance testing machine from SincoTec with a maxi-
preparation
mum load of 600 kN was used for the blocks with low stress
ranges but a higher number of load cycles, see Fig. 5 (right).
With this type of testing machine, the load is applied by exci-
as shown in Fig. 3, and the significantly more cost-effective
tation of the specimen in the range of its natural frequency
and simplified design without seam preparation, all further
by unbalanced masses. The test frequency ranged from 34 to
test specimens were manufactured using a circumferential
38 Hz depending on the shape of the spectrum and the load
fillet weld.
level. The tests were stopped when a through-thickness crack
Since excessive welding-induced distortion of the test
could be detected. This was the case at a frequency drop of
specimens can sometimes falsify the results of the fatigue
∆f = 1.0 Hz, see Fig. 6 for typical crack lengths. Due to the
tests, an attempt was made to manufacture the test specimens
mode of operation of the testing machine, the transitions
with as little distortion as possible. For this purpose, the
between blocks could not be executed as ramps as in the
welding layers were made symmetrically. The tack welds
spindle machine. The transitions were rather performed by
required for positioning were ground out before welding.
a continuous increase of the frequency and thus a continuous
The exact welding sequence can be seen in Fig. 4. The speci-
increase of the oscillation width until the target value was
mens of test specimens CHS-51.0, CHS-82.5, and SHS-50
reached. The cycles of these transitions were not recorded
were each welded with only one layer, since the required
separately since they are approximately balanced out again
dimension was 4 mm. Due to the greater wall thickness and

Fig. 4  Tack welds and welding

sequence: CHS (left), SHS
(right)

Fig. 6  Typical crack size at test
termination: CHS specimens
(left), SHS specimens (right)
Fig. 5  Specimens and test
setup: CHS-82.5 hydraulic
cylinder 250 kN (left), SHS-100
resonance pulsator (right)
in the block stages due to the up-down-up sequence. Never-
theless, there are usually differences in load ranges between
the target and actual values, which can be explained by the
swing out of the unbalanced masses. Since only a few hun-
dred load cycles were involved in each case, these were just
added to the respective final block of the partial sequence
when determining the total number of load cycles. In both
test rigs, hydraulic jaws were used to clamp the specimens.
3.2 VAL using random‑type load sequences
Since it had to be possible to specify any time sequence for
the random tests, neither the universal spindle machine nor
the resonance testing machine could be used. This is due on
the one hand to the required control technology and on the
other hand to the operating principle of the different test sys-
tems. Servo-hydraulic single cylinders were used for random
tests, see Fig. 5 (left). The test frequency is highly dependent
on the stiffness of the test specimens and the performance
of the cylinders. Test frequencies between 2 and 8 Hz could
be achieved. Due to the very different static strength of the
specimens, two different individual cylinders were required.
The SHS-50 specimens were tested with a single cylinder
with a maximum load of 40 kN. The CHS series and the
tests of the series with SHS-100 were carried out with a
single cylinder with a maximum load of 250 kN. Due to the
random load sequence, a change of displacement ∆w = 1, 0
mm related to the deformation under maximum amplitude
Welding in the World
was used as a shutdown criterion. The criterion occurred
after a full wall-through crack in all cases. The connections
between the single cylinder, the test frame, and the speci-
men were established by means of a fitting bolt connection.
In order to be able to exclude a possible influence of the
different test machines and test frequencies, individual block
program tests were carried out with the individual cylinders
at the beginning of the tests. No significant difference in
the number of load cycles has been seen. Consequently, an
influence of the test machine itself on the test results can be
neglected.
Despite the different termination criteria used for the
different test rigs, the specimens exhibited approximately
the same crack lengths, so that comparable test criteria can
be assumed. Typical crack lengths at test break-off can be
taken from Fig. 6. The crack lengths of the CHS specimens
were between 80 and 120 mm regardless of the diameter of
the strut, whereas the typical crack lengths of the SHS-50
specimens were 80–100 mm and of the SHS-100 specimens
140–160 mm.
3.3 Strain gage measurements
Accompanying the different test rigs, random static stress
measurements were carried out in order to exclude pos-
sible influencing factors due to the different test rigs and
to be able to record the occurring bending stresses due
to skewing of the vertical braces. Strain gages have been
Welding in the World
Fig. 7  Strain gage measure-
ments for monotonic loading:
clamping (left), subsequent
monotonic loading up to
nominal axial stress of 100 MPa
(right)
Fig. 8  Position of strain gages exemplary for CHS specimen
applied to each type of specimen to capture secondary
bending effects due to clamping.
Before clamping, the measurement was set to zero. Dur-
ing the clamping process, certain bending moments were
generated, see Fig. 7 (left). After the elimination of the
bending stresses for subsequent monotonic uniaxial fatigue
loading, a homogenous axial stress of approximately 100
MPa is achieved Fig. 7 (right). Despite the elimination
of bending stresses, there are still deviations from 100
MPa. The amount of these deviations depends on the
amount of angular or axial misalignment and the position
of the strain gages. Stress measurements in the other test-
ing machines have shown similar results. The additional
bending stresses act at the most highly stressed point at the
saddle point. This occurs if the braces are slightly crooked
due to angular tolerances. However, the additional bending
stresses from the clamping process do not lead to larger
stress ranges but rather shift the mean stress.
Due to clamping, the stress ratio at the critical location
of the welded joint changes. The tests are carried out using
a stress ratio of R = 0.1, per definition without mean stress
due to clamping. Incorporating the mean stress would yield
a higher stress ratio of approximately R = 0.5 in front of the
critical location for the specific joint in Fig. 8.
3.4 Accompanying investigations
To check the weld quality and evaluate the test results, mac-
rosections were made on individual test specimens during
the tests, and the fracture surfaces were examined more
closely.
As shown in Fig. 9, the fracture surfaces of the CHS
specimens are characterized by their fine-grained structure
 Welding in the World

Fig. 9  Typical crack faces of the

CHS specimens: CHS-51.0-D-
B-01 (left), CHS-82.5-D-R-04
(right)

Fig. 10  Typical crack faces of

the SHS specimens: SHS-50-
D-B-04 (left), (c) SHS-100-D-
B-03

Fig. 11  Typical crack faces

of the CHS specimens with
overloads

which has the same optical appearance irrespective of the
test procedure, the profile dimensions, and the shape of the
spectrum and does not show any zones of fast fracture in
the saddle area. Fast fracture surfaces are only visible in
the edge areas located at the transition to the base material.
Crack initiation occurred on all CHS specimens in the saddle
area at the weld seam transition to the chord tube.
Similar observations can be made for the fracture surfaces
of the SHS specimens. Here, the crack initiation did not
occur in the center, but at the section corners. However, the
residual fracture surfaces extend to a significantly larger area
at the edge in the SHS test specimens, see Fig. 10.
Tests with overloads show significant marking lines
due to overloads. These are clearly visible at regular inter-
vals in the incipient crack area, especially with the more
frequently interspersed overloads (every 10,000 LW),
cf. Fig. 11(a). Due to the significantly less frequently
interspersed overloads (every 100,000 LW) in the block
Welding in the World
Fig. 12  Macrosection, CHS
specimens (left), SHS speci-
mens (right)
Fig. 13  Comparison of the test
results with the results of [2]:
CHS-51 (left), SHS-50 (right)
tests, these marking lines are not so clearly visible in
Fig. 11(b). It is noticeable that these marking lines can
only be seen in the first third of the wall thickness. With
respect to the test procedure, the fracture surfaces differed
significantly in the random tests. Thus, although marking
lines can also be glimpsed, these are only visible from the
half of the wall thickness, cf. Fig. 11(c).
Figure 12 shows an example of the macrosections pro-
duced, which allow conclusions to be drawn about the
weld seam quality during the destructive tests. In the case
of the CHS test specimens, crack initiation occurred in all
test specimens in the saddle area at the weld transition to
the chord tube, similar to that shown in Fig. 12 (left). Sev-
eral sections showed weld seam irregularities in the form
of pores and non-melted weld seam roots, so-called root
defects. According to DIN EN 5817 [33], insufficient pen-
etration welding as seen in the sections is not permissible.
The welds would therefore be classified in group D accord-
ing to DIN EN 5817 [33]. However, this does not seem to
have any influence on the fatigue strength since the test
results of the different test series show relatively low scat-
ter and no cracks starting from the root could be detected.
4 SN curves
Using specimens from the same production lot as the later
variable amplitude tests, at first, SN curves for the struc-
ture were obtained. The resulting raw data can be found in
Table 21 of the Appendix.
Crack initiation and through-thickness cracking were
checked visually by inspection and recording of cycles at
frequency drops of Df = ± 0.2, ± 0.4, ± 0.6, ± 0.8, ± 1.0,
and ± 1.2 Hz. Some tests have stopped before reaching the
higher drop values because of significant crack lengths.
All SHS sections showed visible cracks at ± 0.2 Hz and
through-cracks at ± 0.4 Hz. Most CHS-51.0 showed
through-cracks at ± 0.6Hz frequency drops, except at ±
0.4 Hz. CHS-82.5 also showed through-cracks at a drop of
± 0.6 Hz and one at ± 0.2 Hz. The SN curves are evaluated
using the through-cracked state.
As a basis for the evaluation of the test results, the tests
with CAL were first evaluated and compared with the test
results from [18] to check the comparability of existing
test results for the further intended joint evaluation. As can
be seen in Fig. 13 (right), there is a very good agreement
 Welding in the World

Table 2  Data for evaluation of nominal stresses n − 1.74

slg,N,corr = slg,N (2)
Section type A ­(mm )2
cN (MPa/kN) n−2

CHS-51 591 1.6921 The scatter factor TN is the ratio of the 90% quantile and
CHS-82.5 987 1.0142 the 10% quantile based on a standardized normal distribution
SHS-50 719 1.3908 and calculated by
SHS-100 2.880 0.3472
TN = 102.564⋅slg,N,corr (3)

Table 3  Parameters of SN Section type n m DS2E6,50% m DS2E6,50% TN slgN,corr

curves
SHS-50 20 5 12.6 MPa 4.2 11.5 MPa 3.4 0.21
SHS-100 4 5 10.8 MPa 3.1 7.5 MPa 42.1 0.34
CHS-51 10 5 45.7 MPa 3.8 42.0 MPa 7.6 0.34
CHS-82.5 3 5 49.5 MPa 4.0 42.9 MPa 37.9 0.62

for the SHS-50 tests. For this reason, the basic SN curve
was also determined using both results from new tests as
well as results from [18]. For the CHS specimens, how-
ever, there is a clear difference of the new results to CAL
as can be seen in Fig. 13 (left). One explanation for these
deviations could be the technological advances in welding
technology, which have led to better control of the welding
process and thus to welds with a lower number of weld
seam defects and better weld seam quality, which also has
a positive effect on the service life of the test specimens.
However, due to the weld quality from [18], which is no
longer traceable, this remains only an assumption. Due
to these differences, the number of tests by CAL was sig-
nificantly increased to validate the baseline. Additional
tests were also carried out for the specimen dimensions
with larger wall thicknesses, since no comparative results
were available for the SHS-100, and strong deviations in
the results were found for the CHS-82.5, similar to the
smaller dimensions.
Nominal stress was calculated by a linear transfer coef-
ficient for the applied load DF of cN. Nominal stresses in the
cross-section of the brace can be derived by
𝛥S =
𝛥F
= 𝛥F ⋅ cN (1)
A order to quantify any influences from the shape of the spec-
Due to the definition of the nominal stress, range axial
or angular misalignment is not covered in the linear transfer
coefficients. The individual linear transfer coefficients cN are
given in Table 2.
Regression of the SN curves was done using the equa-
tions from DIN 50100 [34] since the project is focused on
steel construction and crane design which usually use this
procedure. According to this rule, especially for small sam-
ple numbers (n < 10), the logarithmic standard deviation
slg,N tends to be underestimated and must therefore be cor-
rected according to
TN covers 80% of the sample data. Since it strongly
depends on the sample size n, the values of TN are signifi-
cantly higher if the sample size is small compared to a higher
sample size, see Table 3. This table also shows the results
from regression using a fixed slope exponent of m = 5 and
a free slope exponent, while the slope exponent of m = 5 is
based on the notch stress concept for thin-walled structures
with sheet thicknesses t < 7 mm. Also, the EC3 [35] sug-
gests to use m = 5 for welded hollow section joints.
5 Load spectra for variable amplitude
testing
Various test sequences were used to determine the influence
of the sequence. On the one hand, tests were carried out
as two-block tests with a high-low or low-high sequence.
On the other hand, test series were tested as block tests.
Finally, test series were also tested with a random load time
sequence.
The load spectra used refer to crane structures in accord-
ance with the area of application. For comparative purposes,
tests were also carried out with less damaging spectra in
trum applied. For this purpose, the North Sea spectrum was
used, which is also called linear spectrum due to its linear
distribution. Its specification was developed in the context of
off-shore research by measurements on ships and off-shore
platforms in order to be able to design the structures for
stresses due to sea states [36]. The distribution function and
the corresponding stair-stepping of the North Sea collec-
tive were carried out analogously to [18, 36] and [36], see
Fig. 14.
For the operational loadings within the scope of the pro-
ject, the tower crane spectrum based on measurements was
Welding in the World

Fig. 14  Load spectra

Table 4  Naming convention for load type and no tests performed Table 5  Naming convention for load type and no tests performed
using CHS specimen using SHS specimen
Letter Spectrum No. of specimens Letter Spectrum No of specimens
Block loading Random Block loading Random
loading loading

A Constant amplitude loading 14 – A Constant amplitude loading 11 –

B Two-level spectrum
C p(1/3) Spectrum
D q-Spectrum
E North Sea spectrum
F Overload spectrum
7 – C p(1/3) Spectrum 9 6
6 9 D q-Spectrum 7 4
9 8
4 3
4 7

Using the SN curves, the following spectra have been

used as the load sequence. Due to its shape, the spectrum
will be referred to as q-spectrum in the following.
One hundred eight welded X-joint specimens were tested.
The tests using block-type spectra serve as a control or refer-
ence for the random loading. By varying the wall thickness
and the dimensional ratios, the effects of size influence on
the fatigue strength were investigated. In another series of
tests, the influence of tensile and compressive overloads on
the service life estimation was investigated.
For the variable amplitude testing, different spectra have
been defined. The naming of the test type and number of
tests for variable amplitude loading can be seen in Tables 4
and 5.
The naming of the specimens depends on the respective
type of section, the diameters of the brace tubes, the shape
of the spectrum, and the type of sequential application. An
overview is given in Table 6. The results of the individ-
ual series is given in the compilation of the test results in
Table 21.
defined using analytical linear damage accumulation for
an allowable damage of D = 1.0 for the respective speci-
men and loading.
6 High‑low vs. low‑high‑spectra
Two-level–two-block load spectra have an analytical dam-
age of the initial block to be D = 0.5. After application of
the first block in the test, the second one was applied until
failure occurred.
In the low-high tests, this procedure led to failure in all
test specimens. For about 50% of the high-low tests, no
cracking or fracture could be detected in the low block,
even at load cycles of up to ­1 0 8. For this reason, these
specimens were subsequently loaded again with the high
block until failure occurred. The load levels used have a
ratio of 2.0 from the low to the high load cycle.
 Welding in the World

Table 6  Naming convention for Type of section Dimension of Type of spec- Load sequence Counter
each test series brace (mm) trum

CHS 51.0 A W = CAL 01

SHS 82.5 B B = VAL, block-type loading 02
50 C R = VAL random loading
100 D
E
F

Table 7  Comparison of knee- EC3 prEC CIDECT IIW

points and cut-off limits from 3
different codes m1 5 5 5 5
m2 5 9 5 9
ND 5× 107 5 × 106 107
106
NL 107 108 108 109
DSD, CHS [MPa] 36.42 33.12 36.42 33.12
DSD, SHS [MPa] 10.04 9.13 10.04 9.13
DSL, CHS [MPa] 33.12 20.90 20.90 19.86
DSL, SHS [MPa] 9.13 5.76 5.76 5.47

6.1 Multilevel block‑type application of VAL spectra
Multilevel block tests were carried out as a Gassner-type
up-down-up sequence with Markov transitions. This means
that in the test sequence, only the next higher or lower load
cycle was applied directly after one another. The tests were
started in the medium-sized load cycle of the spectrum. The
individual blocks were specified in such a way that, on the
basis of the determined characteristic fatigue strength of
the SN curves, the partial sequences can be repeated 6 to
8 times up to a calculated theoretical damage sum of D =
1.0. This should ensure a good mixing of the block-type test
sequences. Due to the different load levels, this resulted in
different partial block lengths for the respective spectrum
and tubular joint. Table 22 in the Appendix contains the
spectra definition normalized by the maximum range as
used.
6.2 Random‑type application of VAL spectra
The corresponding partial block sequences of the block-
type tests were used to define the randomized load
sequences. A detailed description of the procedure for
generating randomized load time sequences can be found
in [37] and [29]. To facilitate the evaluation, the time
sequences were constructed in such a way that each maxi-
mum of a load cycle was followed by the corresponding
minimum. The advantage of this approach lies in the eval-
uation, since the maximum values had to be counted only
to determine the corresponding load range of the cycle.
Due to the control software, the tests were performed at
a constant frequency, resulting in different speeds for the
different amplitudes. Depending on the load level of the
peak values and thus the corresponding amplitudes, the
maximum values could not be approached exactly in some
cases. This circumstance was taken into account in the
evaluation by minimally shifting (2 kN which is equivalent
to a maximum difference of the stress cycles of 3.4 MPa)
the limit values of the respective cycle in order to avoid
incorrect assignments of the load ranges. An exception is
the test sequence with q-spectrum and the SHS-50 speci-
mens because these have smaller distances in the low load
steps and were therefore shifted by only 1 kN. Due to the
continuous data recording, all cycles could be recorded
and subsequently evaluated via a maximum value count.
Table 22 in the Appendix contains the spectra definition
normalized by the maximum range as used in the project.
The p(1/3) spectrum has a very high value in the lowest
block level due to the stress amplitude of 1/3 of the maxi-
mum amplitude. The minimum stress range for all types of
specimen is therefore above the fatigue limit.
The situation is different for the other spectra. Here, lower
ranges are partly below the fatigue limit and therefore have
to be considered according to the applied standard. However,
a comparison of the calculated damage sums for selected
test specimens showed that the deviations of the total dam-
age sums are very small due to the low damage in the lower
blocks and can only lead to somewhat larger deviations for
test specimens with extremely long lifetimes. For compari-
son, Table 7 shows the corresponding values for damage
sums based on Miner original and Miner elementary and
different codes. In order to consider the maximum damage
sum in the evaluation, all tests were therefore evaluated on
the basis of the Miner elementary rule Table 8.
Welding in the World

Table 8  Comparison of damage DMinerOrig DMiner Elem DEC3 DprEC3 DCIDECT DIIW
sum calculations according to
different methods CHS-51-D-R-01 0.879 0.926 0.906 0.914 0.918 0.915
SHS-50-D-B-03 2.043 2.056 2.045 2.050 2.056 2.050
CHS-51-E-B-02 3.228 4.368 3.881 4.099 3.881 4.333

Fig. 15  Schedule of the tests

with overloads: compression
overloads (left), tension over-
loads (right)

For the evaluation of the test results, the conversion to
damage-equivalent stress ranges was also performed. This
conversion is suitable for comparing the block and random
tests with the tests from CAL and is available in various
standards, like [21]. The background of this conversion is
to obtain a damage-equivalent CAL spectrum and thus to
verify the fatigue strength. When applying the damage-
equivalent stress range, a conversion of cycles below the
fatigue limit is also performed with the corresponding
slope m2 according to the standard used. Analogous to the
determination of the damage sums, the determination of the
damage-equivalent stress ranges was carried out on the basis
of Miner elementary.
6.3 Spectra with overloads
transition ramps for the tests with compression overloads
(left) and for the tensile overloads can be taken from
Fig. 15 (right).
7 Test results from variable amplitude
testing
The following section evaluates and summarizes the test
results for different influencing factors. These are presented
separately from each other. For a better comparison of the
results, the ∆S2E6,50% values of the respective test series are
tabulated below the diagrams. The separate evaluation of the
individual test series and the compilation of the test results
can be taken from Tables 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 of
the Appendix.

In those tests, overloads were interspersed at regular inter- 7.1 Shape of spectrum

vals (10,000 or 100,000 cycles) as block or random tests
on the basis of the p(1/3) spectra. The block tests were
performed exclusively with tensile overloads, whereas
the random tests were performed with both tensile and
compressive overloads. In each case, the tensile overloads
corresponded to 1.2 times the maximum load of the corre-
sponding spectrum. To reduce the risk of buckling, for the
compression overloads, only − 1.0 times and once − 1.2
times of the maximum load of the spectrum was used. Due
to the test setup and the connection of the specimens to the
testing machine, transition ramps had to be provided for the
compression overloads, since the bolt connection would
otherwise have led to abrupt loading and unloading during
the test and control by the software would not have been
possible. A typical test sequence with the corresponding
Figure 16 summarizes the influence of the different spectra
applied. Here, the results of the random tests on the CHS-51
(left) and SHS-50 (right) tubes are shown as an example in a
Gassner-type diagram, i.e., fatigue life plotted for the maxi-
mum range of load cycles. Characteristic values of Gassner-
type SN curves are given in Table 9. The same observations
can also be noted when comparing the block-type applica-
tion of these spectra. The corresponding schematic repre-
sentation of the different spectra with an indication of the
damage potential n is placed between the two diagrams. The
CAL tests with a damage potential of n = 1.0 represent the
test series with the lowest fatigue life. As can be seen from
the arrangement of the graphs, a decreasing damage poten-
tial leads to an extension of the fatigue life. The influence
 Welding in the World

Fig. 16  Influence of the shape

of the load spectrum

Table 9  Characteristic values of Gassner-type SN curves fatigue life somewhat. The random tests, on the other hand,
DS2E6,50%
seem to be better able to represent real operating conditions.
This influence can be seen for both application sequences
CHS-51—CAL 45.7 MPa and all dimensional ratios in Figs. 17 and 18. It is noticeable
CHS-51—q spectrum—random 81.9 MPa that the influence of the shape of the spectrum can also be
CHS-51—p(1/3) spectrum—random 94.3 MPa seen. With increasing damage potential of a spectrum, the
CHS-51—North Sea spectrum 142.8 MPa distance between the two test runs becomes significantly
SHS-50—CAL 12.4 MPa smaller as can be seen in Fig. 17. In the SHS tests, on the
SHS-50—q spectrum—random 22.8 MPa other hand, this influence does not appear to be so pro-
SHS-50—p(1/3) spectrum—random 25.4 MPa nounced, see Fig. 18.
From regression analysis of the different test series, the
characteristic strength values for 50% probability of failure
of the shape of the spectrum could be observed in the tests and 2 ×·106 cycles ­DS2E6,50% are given in Table 10.
carried out and is independent of the shape of the tubular
cross-sections, since this could be determined both in the
7.3 Spectra with overloads
tests with CHS and with SHS. Thus, the damage potential
can also be used as a factor for an adapted fatigue strength
As described in chapter 4.4, both tensile and compressive
analysis.
overloads were interspersed in intervals in block type as well
as in pure random tests. Overloads in tension have been 1.2
7.2 Multilevel application sequences of VAL spectra
times the maximum load range of the applied spectrum for
all geometries, see Fig. 19. The plots are marked at the maxi-
When considering the different test executions and thus the
mum stress range of the spectrum, not the overload level.
load sequence, it was observed that the block-type testing
For the applied compressive overloads, the magnitude of
led to significantly longer running times and thus to longer
the applied compressive overloads varies; that is why they
fatigue lives compared to the random-type application
are included in Fig. 20 for the p(1/3) spectrum. The results
sequence. The block tests thus seem to overestimate the

Fig. 17  Typical crane spec-

trum of CHS: CHS-51—p(1/3)
spectrum (left), CHS-51—q
spectrum (right)
Welding in the World

Fig. 18  Typical crane spec-

trum of SHS: SHS-50—p(1/3)
spectrum (left), SHS-50—q
spectrum (right)

Table 10  Characteristic values DS2E6,50% DS2E6,50%

of Gassner-type SN curves:
CHS (left) and SHS (right) CHS-51—CAL 45.7 MPa SHS-50—CAL 12.6 MPa
CHS-51—p(1/3) spectrum—random 94.3 MPa SHS-50—p(1/3) spectrum—random 25.4 MPa
CHS-51—p(1/3) spectrum—block 128.8 MPa SHS-50—p(1/3) spectrum—block 35.7 MPa
CHS-51—CAL 45.7 MPa SHS-50—CAL 12.6 MPa
CHS-51—q spectrum—random 81.9 MPa SHS-50—q spectrum—random 22.8 MPa
CHS-51—q spectrum—block 85.7 MPa SHS-50—q spectrum—block 28.3 MPa

Fig. 19  Tests conducted with

overloads in tension: CHS-51
(left), CHS-82.5 (right)

were compared with the corresponding SN curves and the
corresponding results of the block or random tests with the
p(1/3) spectrum.
As can be seen from Fig. 19 (left), the interspersed tensile
overloads lead to a smaller reduction in service life when
performed as block tests compared to the test results of the
p(1/3) spectrum. However, since the block tests tend to be
subject to larger scatter, the results of the tests with tensile
overloads are in the range of the typical scatter of the block
tests. The few test results suggest that tensile overloads do
not lead to a significant shortening of the service life.
For the results of the tests with tensile overloads and ran-
dom sequence, see Fig. 19 (right), the test results are slightly
above those of the tests carried out for the p(1/3) spectrum
applied in random sequence. Similar to the overload tests
performed as block tests, these results lie within the typical
scatter of the test results without overloads. Thus, for the
tests with tensile overloads, no influence on the service life
can be determined. This could also be due to the too-small
difference of the overloads to the maximum range value of
the spectrum. Such overload could not be selected higher
due to the already very high maximum loads of about the
static load capacity of the X-nodes.
In the evaluation of the tests with compressive overloads,
Fig. 20, a shortening of fatigue life compared to the random
tests without overloads can be stated. Due to the different
magnitudes of interspersed compressive overloads, a joint
evaluation is not possible. Further tests are necessary to be
able to make a qualified statement about the influence of
pressure overloads on the service life.
 Welding in the World

7.4 Evaluation by damage‑equivalent stress ranges

As an alternative to Gasser-type diagrams, the results can

be reformulated in damage-equivalent stress cycles. The
following figures, Figs. 21 and 22, contain those values as
plotted in a SN diagram together with the SN curves in the
typical scatter band of failure probability obtained from
fatigue testing by CAL for each specimen dimension. The
design fatigue curve for the respective geometry from DIN
EN 13001-3-1 [11] is also added in these figures.
Most of the test results are within the scatter band of the
experimentally obtained SN curves. Similar to the results
in the Gassner diagrams before, the block tests are at the
upper edge or outside the upper scatter band, which indicates
that the block tests could overestimate the service life of the
structures. The block tests carried out by Bucak [18] lie at
the upper edge or even above the scatter range of the SN
Fig. 20  Tests conducted with compressive overloads

Fig. 21  Evaluation of the CHS test series by conversion to equivalent stress ranges: CHS-51 (left), CHS-82.5 (right)

Fig. 22  Evaluation of the SHS test series by conversion to equivalent stress ranges: SHS-50 (left), SHS-100 (right)
Welding in the World
tests as well. The results of the random tests, on the other
hand, are in the vicinity of the lower scatter limit. Sufficient
distance to the reference lines according to DIN EN 13001-
3-1, however, is present for all tube dimensions, which sug-
gests a safe design. For the larger dimensions (CHS-82.5
and SHS-100), the scatter of the test results is larger. This
shortens the distance of the lower scatter band compared to
the reference line from the standard.
7.5 Evaluation of relative damage sums
The relative Mine sums in Table 11 as given by DV = Dcalc /
Dtest reflect the prognosis quality of the linear damage accu-
mulation as calculated using the corresponding SN curves.
Dtest is the damage by testing the specimen using the spectrum
loading until failure and sets the reference level of 100% dam-
age or Dtest = 1.0 for all cases. The respective total number
of cycles as applied until failure is then checked analytically
using Miner elementary to get a theoretical damage Dcalc of
the spectra using the SN curves from CAL for mean failure
probability. DV > 1.0 refers to an analytical damage higher
than physical and indicates a very conservative value for using
the Miner rule for such cases. Vice versa, values below 1.0
result in an underestimation of the analytical fatigue life using
the Miner rule if compared to the experiments.
Table 11 contains the results for circular hollow sections
(CHSs) as well as square hollow sections (SHSs) for each
type of loading and each test performed. Since the number
of repeated tests is low for all cases, statistical evaluation
is restricted to arithmetic mean and standard deviations. In
case multiple tests using (a) the same load spectrum, (b) the
same load sequence (block or random), and (c) the same
tube dimensions have been performed, DV,mean,1, s1, n1, and
DV,10%,1 in Table 11 represent the mean, standard deviation,
number of such specimens, and the value of the 10% quantile
involved. Due to the low number of samples, those statistical
data are not sound ones but give an indication of tendency.
DV,mean,2, s2, and n2 in Table 11 provide the mean, stand-
ard deviation, and number of specimens involved for using
(a) all specimens for a specific load spectrum, (b) the same
type of application (block or random), and (c) all available
dimensions for such loadings.
The results from Table 11 for the three spectra p(1/3), q, and
North Sea are also shown in the box plots in Fig. 23 by a limited
range of DV < 10.0 (left) and full range (right). The style of the
boxes is kept the same for all plots, and the sequence of boxes and
the graphical style is identical for all graphs shown to simplify
comparability. The four boxes in red/orange on the left relate to
CHS joints and the 4 gray on the right to the SHS joints. Filled
colored blocks represent block-load sequences and crosshatched
ones random type load sequences. Because the two-level block
loadings and the p(1/3) spectra with overloads have been done
with a very small number of specimen n, those are not contained
as box plots. Values at DV = 0 indicate that no test result is avail-
able for those specifications. The boxes contain 50% of the sam-
ples. The whiskers define the full range of data but without con-
sidering run-outs. Run-outs are defined as values above 1.5 times
the interquartile distance (box width) and can be seen as dots
outside the whiskers, e.g., see CHS-51.0-D-B and q spectrum.
When evaluating the damage sums, it can be clearly seen
that block-type load sequences and p(1/3) spectrum as well
as the North Sea spectrum lead to large DV > 1.0 which
represents a high overestimation of Miner elementary for
such loading.
Underestimation by applying Miner elementary can be
seen for q spectra in a few cases down to worst case DV =
0.3 and for random type sequences of North Sea spectra DV
= 0.5 as minimum.
Furthermore, it can be observed that the block tests show
a significantly larger scatter in the test results compared to
the random tests.
Specimen dimensions do not show a unique tendency.
For p(1/3) spectra, there is a slight tendency toward more
conservative results for CHS and SHS specimens as well
as block and random loading sequences. For q spectra, the
minimum DV values are almost the same for both specimen
sizes, but the scatter is much lower for larger dimensions.
8 Residual stress measurements
To get a first impression about residual stresses and relaxa-
tion due to service loads, measurements of longitudinal
stresses have been taken on one specimen.
For CHS tubes, the measurements were taken initially on
the chord as well as the brace tubes, see Fig. 24 (left). Due
to accessibility and spatter from welding, the distances in
the diagrams might vary a little for the different quadrants.
Because due to service loading, the residual stresses will
change only in the vicinity of the weld toes, and subsequent
measurements have been taken only at two points at the
respective weld toes, see Fig. 24 (middle).
Measurements for SHS were taken at the critical locations
at the corners of the weld seams using parallel paths along
the chord, like the CHS tubes again in all quadrants.
For measurement, X-ray diffraction was used. For the initial
measurements, an X-ray diffractometer X3000 from StressTech
was used and switched to a μX360s from Pulstec for subse-
quent testing. For the latter, see the parameters in Table 12.
This device captures the full diffraction cone in the form of the
Debey-Scherer ring, which allows an additional evaluation of
the microstructure. Thus, a closed ring reflects a fine-grained
material, cf. Fig. 25f. Furthermore, by exchanging the measur-
ing instruments, the irradiated area could be reduced, so that
the results could be evaluated even more selectively. This work
was performed by University of Kassel, Germany.
 Welding in the World

Table 11  Relative damage sums DV for each specimen including mean values and standard deviations

Two-level block loadings DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2

CHS-51.0-B-B H-L-H 7.30 7.36 0.08 2
H-L-H 7.41
L-H 0.99 1.32 0.31 3
L-H 1.60
L-H 1.36
H-L 1.41 1.03 0.54 2
H-L 0.64
p(1/3) Spectra DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2
CHS-51.0-C-B Block 7.71 8.35 6.26 7 3.31
21.01
8.65
10.41
2.70
4.23
3.71
CHS-51.0-C-R Random 0.92 0.93 0.65 5 0.3 1.35 0.87 9
0.14
1.86
0.53
1.19
CHS-82.5-C-R Random 3.16 1.87 0.89 4 1.25
1.21
1.35
1.78
p(1/3) Spectra DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2
SHS-50-C-B Block 11.07 6.68 3.68 6 3.14 5.54 3.40 9
8.77
9.94
3.94
4.03
2.35
SHS-100-C-B Block 2.71 3.26 0.88 3 2.73
4.28
2.80
SHS-50-C-R Random 0.70 0.85 0.19 4 0.72 0.97 0.33 6
1.13
0.78
0.80
SHS-100-C-R Random 0.82 1.20 0.54 2 0.90
1.58
q Spectra DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2
CHS-51.0-D-B Block 0.71 0.75 0.29 6 0.50 1.15 0.79 9
0.36
1.25
0.72
0.82
0.64
CSH-82.5-D-B Block 1.28 1.95 0.91 3 1.34
1.59
2.98
Welding in the World

Table 11  (continued)

CHS-51.0-D-R Random 0.30 1.62 1.34 3 0.55 1.23 0.94 7

1.59
2.98
CHS-82.5-D-R Random 0.69 0.93 0.52 4 0.49
0.40
1.62
1.02
q Spectra DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2
SHS-50-D-B Block 2.23 2.07 0.20 4 1.89 1.61 0.66 8
1.87
2.26
1.94
SHS-100-D-B Block 0.95 1.14 0.62 4 0.78
2.05
0.78
0.78
SHS-50-D-R Random 0.72 0.62 0.11 4 0.52
0.64
0.66
0.46
North Sea spectra DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1 DV,mean,2 s2 n2
CHS-51.0-E-B Block 5.98 6.47 3.00 3 4.19 10.67 8.75 4
3.74
9.69
CHS-82.5-E-B Block 23.28 23.28 - 1 0.53
CHS-51.0-E-R Random 0.62 0.81 0.43 3
1.30
0.51
p(1/3) Spectra with overloads DV DV,mean,1 s1 n1 DV,10%,1
CHS-51.0-F-B Block 1.67 1.67 – 1 1.2 × ΔSmax every 10 k cycles
CHS-51.0-F-B Block 3.35 3.66 0.45 2 3.41 1.2 × ΔSmax every 100 k cycles
3.98 1.2 × ΔSmax every 100 k cycles
CHS-82.5-F-R Random 1.40 2.41 1.43 2 1.60 1.2 × ΔSmax every 10 k cycles
3.42 1.2 × ΔSmax every 10 k cycles
2.23 1.93 0.42 2 1.69 1.2 × ΔSmax every 100 k cycles
1.63 1.2 × ΔSmax every 100 k cycles
CHS-82.5-F-R Random 0.42 0.42 – 1 −1.2 × ΔSmax every 10 k cycles
0.35 0.35 – 1 −1.0 × ΔSmax every 10 k cycles
0.66 0.66 – 1 −1.0 × ΔSmax every 100 k cycles

The specimens were tested before loading and after
application of a load as can be seen in Table 13. Measure-
ments have been taken after 0 and 1 or 100 repetitions of
monotonic load level ­So and after block testing of spectra for
specimen Nos. 5 and 6 with a maximum stress range ­DSmax.
Residual stresses for the SHS specimen in all four quad-
rants can be seen in Fig. 26. The results of the measurements
in the unloaded condition between the different quadrants
already show clear differences in the course and level of the
residual stresses. For example, the opposite sectors 1 and 4 in
the immediate vicinity of the weld transition show very high
tensile residual stresses in the yield strength range, which, on
the other hand, decrease with increasing distance from the
weld. The residual stresses in areas 2 and 3, however, exhibit
significantly lower tensile residual stresses, which in part also
decrease to compressive residual stresses with greater dis-
tance. Due to the applied tensile load of S­ o = 60 MPa, the high
tensile residual stresses in the area of the weld in quadrants

Fig. 23  Box plots of DV values as listed in Table 11: DV < 10 (left) and full range (right)
1 and 4 reduce very strongly and become compressive. With
increasing distance to the weld, the residual stresses are sig-
nificantly below the residual stresses in the unloaded state.
In some cases, the residual stresses even reach the compres-
sive range. The results of the residual stress measurements in
sector 3 show a similar pattern except for the measurements
after loading in sector 2. There, the residual stresses in the
weld area hardly change due to the single load. With increas-
ing distance to the weld seam transition, however, the tensile
residual stresses increase more and more. In conclusion, it
can be said that residual stresses are reduced in the area of the
weld seam. With increasing distance to the weld transition,
significant scatter occurs in the results, so that only a tendency
statement can be made about the influence of a single load on
the residual stress reduction at a greater distance to the weld.
Welding in the World
For the residual stress measurements on CHS specimens, the
residual stresses were measured both on the chord tube and on
the brace tube because in some cases cracks could be detected at
the weld toe to the brace in the initial tests by CAL. Those initial
measurements revealed similar distributions of residual stresses,
cf. Fig. 27. Very high compressive residual stresses occurred in
the area of the weld seam, which, however, change to tensile
residual stresses with increasing distance from the weld seam
transition. The greater the weld seam distance, the more the resid-
ual stresses approached a constant level, which was around 50
MPa for the measurements on the brace tube and around approx.
100 MPa for the measurements on the chord tube. In contrast to
the measurements on the SHS tube, the results in all sectors show
almost identical curves. Change of the residual stresses is due to
single loads. Figure 28 shows an extract of the changes in residual
Welding in the World

Fig. 24  Path, location, and quadrant definitions for residual stress measurements: initial (left) and subsequent (middle) measurements on CHS
and measuring positions on SHS specimens (right)

Table 12  Data and parameters for X-ray diffraction as a result of an applied load only occurs in the direct vicinity of
the weld seam or the heat-affected zone. The applied load had no
Measuring device Pulstec μX360s
effect on areas at greater distances.
Radiation type CrKb radiation Figure 29 shows the influence of CAL with different
Tube voltage 20 kV amplitudes on the residual stresses on the chord tube at
Tube current 1.5 mA the measuring points MP01 and MP02, grouped according
Collimator 1 mm to sectors 1 to 4. The loads were applied according to the
Measured lattice plane 311-plane definitions in Table 13. It is noticeable that only compres-
Angle of attack 30° sive residual stresses are present in the weld seam area
Evaluation range 2Q = 125°–150° of specimens subjected to tensile forces. In contrast, the
Lattice constant D = 3.5920 A picture is not clear for compressive loads.
Modulus of elasticity E = 193,000 MPa The results for the tension loading with 100% of S ­ o show
Poisson’s ratio n = 0.3 a uniform increase in the residual compressive stresses in the
area of the weld with an increasing number of load cycles
with the largest change after the first cycle. However, this is
stresses caused by the application of a single tensile load in sec- contradicted by the results of residual stress measurements
tors 1 and 2, which is about the same in the remaining 2 sectors. on the specimen loaded with half the maximum tensile force.
As can be seen from the diagram, a relaxation in residual stresses There, the application of a single load leads to a reduction

Fig. 25  Impressions of the residual stress measurements: a–c measurements with the StressTech device, d, e measurements with the Pulstec
device, f closed Debey-Scherer-ring
 Welding in the World

Table 13  Overview of scenarios No. Specimen type Type of loading Load level Load sequence
used for residual stress
measurement 1 CHS1 Tension So = 133. 3 MPa 0-1 cycle
2 CHS-PK17 Tension So = 133.3 MPa 0-1-100 cycle
3 CHS-PK18 Compression So = − 133. 3 MPa 0-1-100 cycle
4 CHS-PK19 Tension So = 60 MPa 0-1 cycle
5 CHS-PK16 p(1/3) Spectrum ∆Smax = 120 MPa Block type
6 CHS-PK q Spectrum ∆Smax = 120 MPa Block type
7 SHS-PK Tension So = 60 MPa 0-1 cycle

of the residual compressive stresses. An exception are the
measurements at point MP01 in sector 3 and at point MP02
in sector 4, whose residual stresses also shift further into the
compression range after loading. The amount of tensile load
thus seems to have an influence on the residual stress state.
The measurements of the specimen subjected to compres-
sive loading, on the other hand, do not show a uniform picture.
For example, a single compressive load leads in part to a reduc-
tion of the existing residual compressive stresses and in some
cases even significantly into the tensile range. However, this
does not apply to measuring point MP2 in sector 1 as an excep-
tion. However, when further compressive loads are applied,
the residual stresses shift back into the compressive range, and
tensile residual stresses are relieved. Assuming that tensile
residual stresses favor crack growth under alternating loads, the
residual stress measurements can be used to draw conclusions
about the results of the tests with compressive overloads. Due
to the applied compressive overloads, the existing compressive
residual stresses are relieved, and crack growth is promoted, so
that this could lead to a shortened service life.
Both p(1/3) spectrum and q spectrum yield compressive
residual stresses of comparable magnitude after applying
a single pass of tensile loading at position MP01, which is
located directly in the weld toe, see Fig. 30.

Fig. 26  Residual stress measurements at SHS specimens

Welding in the World
Fig. 27  Comparison of the
results of the measurements at
brace and chord CHS
Fig. 28  Change of the residual stresses due to single loads, CHS
However, the reduction of residual stresses is irregular, so
that no quantifiable conclusion can be drawn about the influ-
ence of the type of spectrum on the change of the residual
stress state. At the slightly more distant measuring point
MP02, even opposite tendencies are evident. It should be
noted, however, that the measurements are subject to scatter.
As an example of the scatter, an excerpt from the measure-
ment data can be taken from Table 14.
9 Stress concentration factors
Finite element analysis is state of the art for analytical assess-
ment of deformation, stresses, and strains as well as for
welded structures [38]. Besides the experiments, notch fac-
tors to evaluate structural and notch stresses were determined
for all specimen geometries by finite element analysis in this
project as well. Using those stress concentration factors, the
SN curves based on nominal stresses can be transferred to
structural stresses and effective notch stresses. For finite ele-
ment analysis, ANSYS Workbench 2021 R21 was used.
The nominal dimensions of the tubular joints as described
in chapter 2 have been used to model the geometry. Due
to the symmetry of geometry and loading, 1/8 of the total
structure was modeled by applying symmetry boundary
conditions in the cutting planes. This means that angular
or axial misalignment of the vertical brace is not covered
in the numerical analysis. Loading is applied by tension or
compressive forces on the top face of the vertical brace.
To reduce computational effort, submodeling was used. The
domains of the submodels for SHS and CHS can be seen in
Fig. 31. These models include the stiffening effect of the weld
seam with angular, i.e., discontinuous transitions for the analy-
sis of structural stresses and in case of notch stress analysis of
the fictitious radii at weld root and weld toe. The flank angle
is set to 45° for SHS and at the crown position of the CHS.
Only solid elements with quadratic shape functions have
been used. For mesh refinement in weld root and weld toes for
the effective notch stress concept, the DVS 0905 code of prac-
tice recommends at least 24 elements along a 360° arc in the
notch radius and also the corresponding element edge length
normal to the notch surface for quadratic approach functions
of the finite elements. A convergence study on our model con-
firms this recommendation as seen in Fig. 32 (right).
To determine the structural stresses, the methods accord-
ing to Haibach (1 mm and 2 mm stresses) [29], as well as
the linear and quadratic extrapolation methods according
to [21], were applied. For this purpose, the notch area was
modeled without filleting the weld toe. To determine the
stress curves, the required evaluation points were defined by
means of several evaluation paths and sections perpendicu-
lar to the notch on the component surface. The path with
1
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 Welding in the World

Fig. 29  Residual stress measurements CHS before/after CAL: a, b tension loading with 100% of ­So, c, d tension loading with 50% of ­So, e, f
compression load, LW means cycles

the highest resulting stress was used for further evaluation. It can be seen from this figure that the Haibach struc-
Figure 33 shows the maximum principal stress ending at tural stress is underestimated, and thus, this definition
the hot spot along the tube flange in tension. The structural should not be taken for thin-walled structures. This prag-
stress values can be seen on the right. matic method performs much better for thicker welds.
Welding in the World

Fig. 30  Residual stress meas-

urements before/after applica-
tion of a, b p(1/3) spectrum and
c, d q spectrum

Table 14  Extract from the Specimen type Quadrant Position Before loading After loading
residual stress measurement
data sES Half-width sES Half-width

CHS-PK17 2 MP02 − 80 MPa 2.08° − 155 ± 40 MPa 2.37°

− 85 ± 40 MPa 2.39°
− 175 ± 50 MPa 2.36°

Fig. 31  Displacement under

loading and submodel domain:
SHS-50.0 (left) and CHS-1.0
(right)

For SHS, notch stress analysis results in maximum
stresses in the weld toe at the section corners only. For
CHS, the critical location is at the weld to the saddle point,
see Fig. 34.
Stresses in the weld root are lower compared to the maxi-
mum stressed weld toes in all cases. Therefore, they can be
excluded as failure-critical locations.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) represent the ratio
between the determined structural or notch stresses and the
previously defined nominal stresses. Nominal, structural,
and notch stress concepts always refer to linear-elastically
determined stresses. For this reason, structural and notch
stresses can be obtained simply by linear scaling of the
applied nominal maximum principal stress as shown in

Fig. 32  Mesh detail of root and
weld toes (left), convergence
behavior of mesh refinement
(right)
Fig. 33  Structural stress evalu-
ation for path with maximum
principal structural stress
Table 15. For better comparison, the wall thicknesses of
chord t0 and brace t1 are also given in the table.
For CHS, the maximum notch stress is at the weld toe
on the brace. The weld root and the weld toe at the chord
have shown smaller values not shown here.
𝜎k or 𝜎hs
Kt = (7.1)
S
Taking the SCF from quadratic extrapolation to obtain
structural stresses as a reference, the SCF derived for the
two Haibach methods show an underestimation of the
structural stress for specimens with thinner wall thick-
nesses. For the thicker SHS-100.0, the results from the
different structural stress methods are very similar. For
stress fields showing nonlinear distributions in front of
the hot spot, the quadratic extrapolation should be used
for hot-spot stress evaluation.
According to DVS 0905 [22], checking against a SN
curve for the base material in addition to the check with
respect to the SN curve according to the FAT class is
mandatory for mild notches having low-stress concentra-
tion factors [39]. To exclude such cases, minimum values
of the seam shape factor Kw must be achieved, which is
Welding in the World
defined by the ratio of notch stress to structural stress and
is depending on the reference radius. The minimum value
of Kw for r = 0.3 mm to use the FAT class–based SN curve
for the fatigue assessment only is Kw,min = 2.13 and for r
= 1.0 mm Kw,min = 1.6 [22]. The ratios for the respective
reference radii are given in Table 15 as well. In case of
the thin-walled circular section CHS-82.5, the ratios are
slightly below those limits.
10 Discussion
10.1 Constant amplitude loading (CAL) testing
First, the SN curves are compared to FAT classes taken
from DVS 0905 for the effective notch stress concept and
from the IIW recommendations for structural stresses, both
applied to maximum principal stress. For load-carrying
welds, FAT90 is recommended for structural stresses,
FAT300 is recommended for r = 0.3 mm for the effec-
tive notch stress concept and weld toe failure, and FAT
is recommended 225 for r = 1.0 mm. The recommended
slope exponent is m = 5 for thin-walled structures (t < 7
Welding in the World

Fig. 34  Notch stress distribution, maximum principal structural stress, and at the weld toe of maximum stress r = 0.3 mm for CHS (left) and
SHS (right)

Table 15  Stress concentration Brace type t0/t1 Kt, hs, 1mm Kt, hs, 2mm Kt, hs, lin Kt, hs, quad Kt, 0.30mm Kt, 1.0mm Kw,0.3mm Kw,1.0mm
factors, SCF for structural, and
notch stress SHS-50.0 4.0/4.0 23.10 19.36 24.57 25.32 67.54 47.37 2.67 1.87
SHS-100.0 8.0/8.0 21.14 17.71 18.84 19.44 63.91 44.74 3.29 2.30
CHS-51.0 5.6/4.0 6.83 5.69 7.21 7.57 17.86 13.43 2.36 1.77
CHS-82.5 5.6/4.0 6.94 6.17 7.24 7.58 14.20 10.44 1.87 1.38

mm) and m = 3 for thicker welds t ≥ 7 mm. The latter rule
complies well with the SN curve for SHS-100. The other
section types show slope exponents between 3 and 5 as can
be seen in Table 16.
FAT classes are given for a low probability of failure as
typical in many standards of 2.3% (about equal to a probability
of survival of 95% of the mean together with either a two-sided
75% or a one-sided 95% confidence limit or alternatively mean
minus two times standard deviation [22]). Transferring the
FAT classes to a failure probability of 50%, multiplication by
1.3 as a pragmatic approach is used. FAT classes are valid for
a stress ratio R = 0.5 to minimize the effect of residual stresses
from welding. According to DVS 0905 [22], a transformation
to R = 0.1 requires an additional factor of f(R) = 1.073 in case
of conservatively assuming residual stresses. For comparison
with mean values from regression D ­ S2E6,50%, the FAT class has
to be multiplied by an assumed 1.4 to obtain comparable char-
acteristic values. We consider this as an upper bound value for
the code-based SN data for 50% probability. If mean stresses
from clamping of the specimens were additionally taken into
account, stress ratios at the critical locations would be even
higher. Then, a beneficial factor of f(R) would not be multi-
plied with the FAT class, and the following differences in the
characteristic values would be even higher.
The modified FAT classes and the stress ranges from con-
stant amplitude testing multiplied by the corresponding stress
concentration factors can be seen in Table 16 for character-
istic values of structural stress D­ shs,2E6 and Table 17 for the
effective notch stresses ­Dsns,2E6, both valid for a failure prob-
ability of 50%. A significant difference can be seen in both
tables. For structural stresses, the stress concentration factor
from quadratic extrapolation only is used for this evaluation.
 Welding in the World

Table 16  Structural stress Section Material Experiment IIW recommendations

concept: characteristic values
for 2E6 cycles DS2E6,50% mTest Kt·DS2E6,50% FAT mIIW Dshs,2E6

SHS-50 S355J2H 11.5 MPa 4.2 291 MPa 90 5 126 MPa

SHS-100 S355J2H 7.5 MPa 3.1 146 MPa 90 3 126 MPa
CHS-51 S355J2H 42.0 MPa 3.8 318 MPa 90 5 126 MPa
CHS -82.5 S355J2H 42.9 MPa 4.0 352 MPa 90 5 126 MPa

Table 17  Effective notch stress

concept, characteristic values Section Material Experiment DVS 0905
for 2E6 cycles for rref = 0.3 mm DS2E6,50% m Kt,0.3mm·DS2E6,50% FATToe,0.3mm mIIW Dsns,2E6,0.3mm
(top) and 1.0 mm (bottom) SHS-50 S355J2H 11.5 MPa 4.2 777 MPa 300 MPa 5 420 MPa
SHS-100 S355J2H 7.5 MPa 3.1 479 MPa 300 MPa 3 420 MPa
CHS-51 S355J2H 42.0 MPa 3.8 750 MPa 300 MPa 5 420 MPa
CHS-82.5 S355J2H 42.9 MPa 4.0 609 MPa 300 MPa 5 420 MPa
Section Material DS2E6,50% m Kt,1.0mm·DS2E6,50% FATToe,1.0mm mIIW Dsns,2E6,1.0mm
SHS-50 S355J2H 11.5 MPa 4.2 545 MPa 225 MPa 5 315 MPa
SHS-100 S355J2H 7.5 MPa 3.1 336 MPa 225 MPa 3 315 MPa
CHS-51 S355J2H 42.0 MPa 3.8 564 MPa 225 MPa 5 315 MPa
CHS-82.5 S355J2H 42.9 MPa 4.0 148 MPa 225 MPa 5 315 MPa

Table 18  Structural stress IIW recommendations Experiment SR1E4 SR2E6

concept: comparison of
characteristic values Dshs,1E4 Dshs,2E6 Kt·DS1E4,50% Kt·DS2E6,50%

SHS-50 317 MPa 126 MPa 871 MPa 291 MPa 2.7 2.3
SHS-100 585 MPa 126 MPa 644 MPa 146 MPa 1.1 1.2
CHS-51 317 MPa 126 MPa 1068 MPa 318 MPa 3.4 2.5
CHS-82.5 317 MPa 126 MPa 1028 MPa 325 MPa 3.2 2.6

To get a better view on the full range of the SN curves, the
ratios of characteristic values can be seen in Tables 18 and
19. The values for 1­ 04 cycles have been calculated using the
respective slope exponents for each approach from Tables 18
and 19 (note the value for the “thick-walled” SHS-100). Also,
the Kt-values are applied with the same magnitudes as for 2
×·106 cycles. The ratios between characteristic values from the
experimental SN curves and the code-based values are given for
­104 and 2·× ­106 cycles in the last two columns of these tables.
The results demonstrate an increased fatigue strength for
all specimens for the full SN curve, except the one with a
wall thickness of 8 mm (SHS-100) if comparing the data to
the transferred FAT classes and standardized slope expo-
nents from the codes. This gives an indication that—due to
wall thicknesses of t < 6 mm and tested components (not just
weld details)—the application of the cited technical recom-
mendations is too conservative for such cases.
A visual representation of the comparison of the CAL
test in terms of notch stress ranges with FAT300 for rref =
0.3 mm is given in Fig. 35. It can be clearly seen that all
test results are covered by the notch stress design curve
FAT300 for a low failure probability of PA = 2.3% and R
= 0.1. Comparing the dashed mean line showing FAT300
for PA = 50% and R = 0.1 shows good agreement between
experimental data and the mean design curve for the thick-
walled SHS-100 specimens (Fig. 35 right). However, for
the thin-walled specimens (Fig. 35 left), a clear difference
between the experimental data and the dashed line is visible.
The difference in strength between experiment and code-
based strength by using the structural stress is even higher
compared to the notch stresses. Because the experimental
obtained characteristic values are based on the same nomi-
nal stress but different stress concentration factors, this dif-
ference can only be due to wrong FAT classes. The FAT
classes from IIW recommendations for the structural stress
concept apply to any load-carrying weld geometry, and
thus, those FAT values might be more conservative than
the corresponding FAT class for the effective notch stress
concept. A single master SN curve is used by the effective
stress concept as well, but very local stress concentrations
at the critical section corners are captured by this concept
only. This might be the reason for this difference.
Welding in the World

Table 19  Effective notch

stress concept: comparison of DVS 0905 Experiment SR1E4 SR2E6
characteristic values for rref rref = 0.3 mm rref = 0.3 mm
= 0.3 mm (top) and 1.0 mm Dsk,1E4 Dsk,2E6 Kt·DS1E4,50% Kt·DS2E6,50%
(bottom) SHS-50 1055 MPa 420 MPa 2326 MPa 777 MPa 2.2 1.9
SHS-100 1950 MPa 420 MPa 2116 MPa 479 MPa 1.1 1.1
CHS-51 1055 MPa 420 MPa 2520 MPa 750 MPa 2.4 1.8
CHS -82.5 1055 MPa 420 MPa 1926 MPa 609 MPa 1.8 1.5
rref = 1.0mm rref = 1.0 mm SR1E4 SR2E6
Dsk,1E4 Dsk,2E6 Kt·DS1E4,50% Kt·DS2E6,50%
SHS-50 791 MPa 315 MPa 1632 MPa 545 MPa 2.1 1.7
SHS-100 1462 MPa 315 MPa 1484 MPa 336 MPa 1.0 1.1
CHS-51 791 MPa 315 MPa 1895 MPa 564 MPa 2.4 1.8
CHS -82.5 791 MPa 315 MPa 1417 MPa 448 MPa 1.8 1.4

Fig. 35  Notch stress ranges of CAL tests: maximum principal stress at the weld toe for rref = 0.3 mm (FAT300) for thin-walled specimens (m =
5) (left) and thick-walled specimens (m = 3) (right)

10.2 Variable amplitude loading (VAL)
Tests for CAL and VAL were all done using specimens.
Most of the load specifications have been done using only
few specimens which limits statistical evaluations. The
resulting data can only give an indication of tendencies. A
conclusion for an improvement of the linear damage accu-
mulation cannot be drawn by these tests alone.
Important findings regarding the relative damage sums
­DV are as follows.
Effects as observed by fracture mechanics on speed up or
slow down of crack propagation due to varying mean stress
and varying amplitudes in two-step loadings can be seen for
the fatigue of welded specimens investigated here as well.
Change from high to low in-phase slows down crack propa-
gation temporarily and speeds up from low- to high stress
cycles. Change from negative high stress cycles to positive
low ones (reversed mean stress) also yields a speed up. This
can be seen in the experimental results obtained. Since the
linear damage accumulation does not consider those physi-
cal-based sequence effects, this—besides other reasons—is
reflected by the relative damage sums DV > 1.0 or DV < 1.0.
Apart from reversed overloads, median values of all rela-
tive damage are in general well above 0.84, and all 10%
values are above 0.51 up to 1.0. For reversed overloads, the
damage accumulation is underestimated by DV = 0.35 in
minimum.
Block-type load sequences tend to have larger scatter
compared to random-type load application of the spectrum
data.
IIW recommendations [21] suggest a critical damage sum
of 0.2 for fluctuating mean stresses. This criterion is ful-
filled by all tests performed. Median relative damage sums
of most of the tests performed are safely above 0.5. How-
ever, it is difficult to differentiate the load sequences to be
used for this purpose. In case of in-phase tensional loadings,
i.e., mean stress remains positive for all stress ranges, the
critical damage sum could be modified to higher values. An

allowable value of 0.5 seems reasonable as recommended
by DVS 0905 [22]. If the load spectra comply with the ones
used in this program, even higher values could be taken but
require additional tests for qualification. A few more com-
ments about the specific spectra are summarized.
10.2.1 Two‑level high‑low and low‑high spectra
Only a few specimens have been tested for such loadings.
The findings cannot be evaluated statistically and thus
the results or just aiming a few trends. See [3] for a more
detailed analysis on two-level block loadings. For all two-
level sequences tested here, the relative damage is above 0.5.
10.2.2 p(1/3) Spectra
Block-type sequences show the most conservative relative
damage sums DV > 2.5 up to 10.0 but also the most scatter
of all test series.
Random load sequences reduce scatter and conservatism
of the miner accumulation. DV clusters around 1.0 for those
load sequences.
For SHS, the specimens with larger dimensions have
given reduced scatter but also reduced conservativity in the
damage accumulation. This might be explained by the lower
number of specimens (6 vs. 3) used.
10.2.3 q Spectra
All specimens tested using q spectra, no matter if using
block-type or random load sequence, give values of DV
between 0.5 and 2.5 (excluding outliers to very high rela-
tive damage values). Also, scatter is low in most of those
cases. Non-conservative estimation of the fatigue life can-
not be assigned to a specific type of loading, load appli-
cation, specimen geometry, or tube dimensions. Because
these load spectra—due to the high damage potential—are
close to CAL, the differences might be lowest for such load
specifications.
10.2.4 North Sea spectra
The North Sea spectrum has the lowest damage potential
of all spectra tested. Only a few specimens made of CHS
were tested. Block-type load application has yielded very
conservative relative damage sums ranging from about 3.5
to 10. Random loading on the other side has yielded values
above 0.5.
10.2.5 Overloads + p(1/3) spectra
For p(1/3) spectra with interspersed overloads 20% above the
maximum spectrum value and applied in-phase in tension,
Welding in the World
all specifications have led to highly conservative results DV
> 1.5. A slow down as expected from fracture mechanical
observations can be confirmed. The sample sizes have been
very small for such tests which reduce the statistical confi-
dence of this data of course.
A few tests using reversed overloads of − 1.0 or
− 1.2 times the maximum spectrum value and random
load sequence also confirm the observations from fracture
mechanics to show a speed up of the crack propagation in
such cases. For our findings, a non-conservative estimation
of fatigue damage can be seen in those results.
10.3 Plausibility checks according to ISO 14347
ISO 14347 [40] is a specific standard for the design of joints
made of welded hollow section. Although this code is lim-
ited to a minimum of 4 mm, it was used to check the plau-
sibility of the experimental results from constant amplitude
testing. Based on the stress resultants acting on each brace of
a welded joint, this method uses stress concentration factors
for many different designs to estimate fatigue life as a struc-
tural stress concept at different critical positions along the
welds. ISO 14347 provides SN curves with different “FAT
classes” and different slope exponents mISO dependent on
the wall thickness of the tubes.
Table 20 summarizes the results for comparing the exper-
imentally obtained life for the characteristic values at 2·×
­106 cycles and 50% probability, D ­ S2E6,50%. Remarkable are
slightly different slope exponents mISO and mExp. The follow-
ing check thus is only valid for the stress range used. Due to
the steeper SN curves of the ISO, the results for higher stress
ranges are different.
The fatigue strength as given in ISO 14347 is valid for
low failure probability. For comparison with the mean val-
ues from the constant amplitude testing, a factor of 1.3 was
applied also for this analysis. DV,1 relates the 2·× ­106 cycles
from the experimental tests to the cycle to failure number as
obtained using the modified characteristic value from the ISO.
A high additional safety distance of about a magnitude in life
for these materials and wall thickness can be observed for this
stress level. Since ISO is not focusing on high-strength steels
either, this might be an additional reason for this result.
No factor of mean stress correction is included in DV,1,
because ISO 14347 does not contain a procedure for it. DV,2
gives an idea about this effect by using an assumed correc-
tion factor of 1.15 to increase the fatigue strength toward R
= 0.1. Looking at the different results from DV,1 and DV,2, a
potential for improving the ISO by adding a correction func-
tion for mean stress effects can be concluded.
Finally, the ISO is also checked with the given SN curves
taken from this code without modification, i.e., low failure
probability and no mean stress correction. DV,3 represents
this number.
Welding in the World
Table 20  Fatigue life evaluation DS2E6,50% mtest
using ISO 14347
SHS-50 11.5 MPa 4.2
SHS-100 7.5 MPa 3.1
CHS-51.0 42.0 MPa 3.8
CHS-82.5 42.9 MPa 4.0
11 Conclusion
Welded X-type circular and square hollow section joints made
of a manually welded low alloy mild steel S355J2H have been
tested under uniaxial fatigue loading on the braces all with
stress ratio R = 0.1. SN curves as well as fatigue lives for dif-
ferent variable amplitude spectra were obtained by the experi-
ments. All raw data of the tests can be found in the Appendix.
Fatigue strength of the steel joints tested for CAL at 2·× 1­ 06
cycles gives a conservative underestimation of fatigue life com-
pared to analytical estimations using ISO 14347 by a factor DV
> 3.3 for all specimen dimensions tested except the large SHS
joint, where the underestimation is DV = 1.8. Except the largest
specimen dimensions (SHS-100 for which m = 3 were obtained
from regression analysis), the slope exponents of the SN curves
are around m = 4. The resulting differences in fatigue life estima-
tion are thus addressed in the component testing. The differences
might also be associated with the size effect which is not con-
tained in the ISO. Such an effect requires further investigations.
Finite element models were used to calculate correspond-
ing stress concentration factors for structural as well as the
effective notch stress concept using a fictitious radius in the
weld toe and root or a fictitious radius of r = 0.3 mm. Com-
paring the numerically calculated notch stresses to FAT val-
ues from the IIW recommendations and DVS 0905 has shown
a significant difference, while the numerical values are sig-
nificantly higher than the allowable stresses. The difference
is higher for the structural concept. Thin-walled design and
component characteristics by a strong local stress concentra-
tion in the welds at the section corners might be responsible,
for the two stress-based concepts differ.
X-ray diffraction was used to get an idea about the residual
stresses in the structure before and after applying CAL or VAL
loads. High compressive residual stresses have been observed
after welding at the critical weld toes but changing to tensional
mean stresses away from the toes. After load application, those
compressive residual stresses at the weld toes relaxed after ten-
sional loading and remained unchanged at greater distances to
the weld toes. Compressive loads have not given a clear result.
Variable amplitude testing was done for a few different two-
level block spectra and mainly for VAL spectra (p(1/3) spectra
with and without interspersed overloads in tension and com-
pression (q spectra, North Sea spectra, all with blocked type
and random type load sequences). Those spectra after speci-
men failure define a reference value of Dtest = 1.0 using the
NISO,50% mISO DV,1 NISO,50%,R0.1 DV,2 NISO,2.3% DV,3
602,327 3.4 3.3 963,957 2.1 249,147 8.0
1,090,240 3.2 1.8 1,698,431 1.2 474,361 4.2
229,916 3.4 8.7 367,954 5.4 97,539 20.5
405,147 3.4 4.9 648,393 3.1 171,878 11.6
experimental obtained SN curves. Constant and variable ampli-
tude testing was performed for specimens taken from the same
manufacturing lots. The effects obtained from the experiments
thus can be considered as of high quality. Many samples for a
single configuration tested used 4–7 specimens to get minimum
statistical confidence. The results are on a sound basis but will
require further tests on different materials and test scenarios
to get enough data to improve rules for damage accumulation.
Alternatively, such high experimental effort could be reduced
by combining experimental with high-level analytical means
based on computational fracture mechanics. From the results
obtained, the following findings can be summarized:
• DVS 0905 recommends not to exceed a partial dam-
age sum of 0.5 for variable amplitude loading. This is
fulfilled by all tests except the case with reversed mean
stresses and considering this mean stress effect.
• IIW recommendations suggest a critical damage sum
of 0.2 for fluctuating mean stresses. As can be seen in
Table 11 and Fig. 23, these recommendations are fulfilled
by all tests performed.
• Median relative damage sums of most of the tests per-
formed are above 1.0. Block-type loading sequences
yielded the most conservative relative damage sums and
the maximum increase in life compared to random-type
load application of the respective spectrum.
• q Spectra, which have the highest damage potential of
the VAL spectra tested, show the lowest level of uncer-
tainty for the damage accumulation used. A significant
increase or decrease of the uncertainty in damage accu-
mulation for such spectra cannot be found in the results
with respect to section type and dimensions but also not
with respect to the strategy of load application.
• If the load spectra comply with the ones used in this
program, even higher values could be taken but require
additional tests for qualification.
This paper covers a contribution to a database of tests
on welded hollow sections using constant amplitude testing
and variable amplitude testing using different spectra in pure
uniaxial fatigue loading of the braces.
It has been demonstrated, that applying selected codes
leads to highly safe results for the SN curves of the welded
hollow sections and materials tested. Further research and
modification of the technical rules are recommended.
 Welding in the World

Appendix

Table 21  Test results SN curves R DS (MPa) Ninit Nthcr Comment

CHS-51,0-A-W- 03 0.1 45 517,515 856,225

CHS-51,0-A-W- 04 0.1 56 277,580 410,684
CHS-51,0-A-W- 05 0.1 56 410,816 571,434
CHS-51,0-A-W- 06 0.1 45 990,363 1,440,700
CHS -51,0-A-W- 07 0.1 63 631,536 684,602
CHS -51,0-A-W- 08 0.1 56 667,894 856,987
CHS -51,0-A-W- 09 0.1 45 2,126,049 2,551,976
CHS -51,0-A-W- 10 0.1 81 160,932 196,631
CHS -51,0-A-W- 11 0.1 45 5,000,000 - Run-out
CHS -51,0-A-W- 12 0.1 90 92,749 119,097
CHS -51,0-A-W- 13 0.1 120 22,599 26,960
CHS -82,5-A-W-01 0.1 120 - 28,521
CHS -82,5-A-W-02 0.1 90 140,264 141,325
SHS-50-A-W-01 0.1 27 53,386 65,276
SHS -50-A-W-02 0.1 13.5 616,066 654,033
SHS -50-A-W-03 0.1 22.5 135,560 157,231
SHS -50-A-W-04 0.1 18 408,736 445,236
SHS -50-A-W-05 0.1 36 30,612 35,648
SHS -50-A-W-06 0.1 18 393,490 431,174
SHS -50-A-W-07 0.1 13.5 976,884 1,026,836
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 13.5 - 612.600 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 13.5 - 615.490 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 14 - 824.600 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 14 - 1.483.410 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 18 - 327.180 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 18 - 475.000 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 23 - 121.530 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 23 - 245.760 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 27 - 22.830 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 27 - 51.040 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 27 - 45.000 Data from [18]
100 × 100 × 4/50 × 50 × 4 0.1 36 - 10.210 Data from [18]
SHS -100-A-W-01 0.1 27 27,615 41,609
SHS -100-A-W-02 0.1 13.5 325,836 389,975
SHS -100-A-W-03 0.1 22.5 59,538 70,712
SHS -100-A-W-04 0.1 18 - 90,185
Welding in the World

Table 22  Definition of load spectra Table 23  Test results variable amplitude testing two-level block load-
ings
p(1/3) Spectrum
CHS-51,0-B-B-01 CHS-51,0-B-B-03
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
Level ∆Si/ ∆Smax ni 39,673 0.37 39,673 0.37
45 10,000,000 6.51 10,000,000 6.51
1 1.00 1 90 45,012 0.42 56,535 0.53
10,084,685 7.30 783,585 10,096,208 7.41 795,108
2 0.920 10 CHS-51,0-B-B-02 CHS-51,0-B-B-04 CHS-51,0-B-B-06
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
3 0.850 70 1,269,543 0.83 1,269,543 0.83 1,269,543 0.83

4 0.780 520 90
90
12,063 0.11
5,259 0.05
69,017
14,295
0.64
0.13
46,810
10,480
0.44
0.10
5 0.700 3400 1,286,865 0.99 106,050 1,352,855 1.60 172,040 1,326,833 1.36 146,018
CHS-51,0-B-B-05
6 0.600 20,000 ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ
39,673 0.37
7 0.490 56,000 45 1,011,124 0.66

8 0.380 120,000
45 354,795 0.23
45 91,993 0.06

q Spectrum 45
45
106,858 0.07
32,370 0.02
1 1.000 638 1,636,813 1.41 151,297
CHS-51,0-B-B-07
2 0.920 3732 ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ

3 0.750 5439
18,829 0.53
60 57,565 0.11
76,394 0.64 22,852
4 0.670 8888
5 0.580 11,364
6 0.500 13,224
7 0.420 16,336
8 0.330 22,933
9 0.25 37,061
10 0.17 62,120
North Sea spectrum
1 1.000 2
2 0.953 7
3 0.870 21
4 0.800 70
5 0.740 200
6 0.675 600
7 0.610 1600
8 0.548 4400
9 0.484 11,600
10 0.419 26,500
11 0.350 65,000
12 0.290 165,000
13 0.230 375,000
14 0.160 350,000
 Welding in the World

Table 24  Test results variable CHS-51,0-C-B-01 CHS-51,0-C-B-02 CHS-51,0-C-B-03 CHS-51,0-C-B-04

∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
amplitude testing p(1/3) spectra, 90 45 0.00 25,295 0.24 50 0.00 60 0.00
CHS 82.8 903 0.01 2,120 0.01 1,000 0.01 1,200 0.01
76.5 6,311 0.03 14,840 0.07 7,000 0.03 8,400 0.04
70.2 47,320 0.17 111,280 0.40 53,040 0.19 63,440 0.23
63 309,400 0.73 710,234 1.68 348,391 0.83 423,460 1.00
54 1,820,000 2.39 6,674,543 8.75 2,040,000 2.68 2,480,000 3.25
44.1 5,111,718 3.08 11,648,000 7.02 5,812,808 3.50 6,944,000 4.18
34.2 5,721,630 1.30 12,480,000 2.83 6,240,000 1.42 7,440,000 1.69
13,017,327 7.71 827,163 31,666,312 21.01 2,255,051 14,502,289 8.65 928,664 17,360,560 10.41 1,116,992

CHS-51,0-C-B-04_2 CHS-51,0-C-B-06 CHS-51,0-C-B-07

∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
120 6 0.00 9 0.00 8 0.00
110.4 120 0.00 180 0.00 160 0.00
102 840 0.01 1,260 0.02 1,120 0.02
93.6 6,240 0.07 9,360 0.10 8,320 0.09
84 37,803 0.27 58,381 0.42 51,517 0.37
72 220,000 0.87 340,000 1.35 300,000 1.19
58.8 587,407 1.07 925,080 1.68 808,116 1.47
45.6 600,000 0.41 960,000 0.66 840,000 0.58
1,452,416 2.70 96,134 2,294,270 4.23 150,341 2,009,241 3.71 131,986
CHS-51,0-C-R-01 CHS-51,0-C-R-02 CHS-51,0-C-R-05
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
90 5 0.00 1 0.00 14 0.00
82.8 58 0.00 12 0.00 166 0.00
76.5 474 0.00 88 0.00 1,137 0.01
70.2 4,586 0.02 750 0.00 9,546 0.03
63 30,829 0.07 4,902 0.01 63,887 0.15
54 182,173 0.24 28,747 0.04 373,968 0.49
44.1 522,623 0.31 81,118 0.05 1,057,183 0.64
34.2 1,215,151 0.28 187,755 0.04 2,363,675 0.54
1,955,899 0.92 98,960 303,373 0.14 15,460 3,869,576 1.86 199,276

CHS-51,0-C-R-03 CHS-51,0-C-R-04
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
120 2 0.00 3 0.00
110.4 18 0.00 27 0.00
102 122 0.00 205 0.00
93.6 926 0.01 1,946 0.02
84 6,066 0.04 13,279 0.09
72 35,827 0.14 77,927 0.31
58.8 100,362 0.18 223,268 0.41
45.6 216,296 0.15 519,483 0.36
359,619 0.53 18,784 836,138 1.19 42,326

CHS-82,5-C-R-01 CHS-82,5-C-R-02
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
90 15 0.00 1 0.00
82.8 208 0.00 29 0.00
76.5 1,817 0.01 222 0.00
70.2 16,756 0.06 5,102 0.02
63 119,173 0.27 46,263 0.11
54 695,427 0.87 269,271 0.34
44.1 1,951,642 1.09 749,392 0.42
34.2 4,203,493 0.85 1,609,164 0.33
6,988,531 3.16 332,324 2,679,444 1.21 127,130

CHS-82,5-C-R-03 CHS-82,5-C-R-04
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
120 2 0.00 11 0.00
110.4 23 0.00 64 0.00
102 162 0.00 427 0.01
93.6 1,185 0.01 3,145 0.03
84 9,245 0.07 20,716 0.15
72 59,388 0.23 121,618 0.48
58.8 212,809 0.37 343,217 0.60
45.6 1,039,609 0.66 802,060 0.51
1,322,423 1.35 45,352 1,291,258 1.78 59,798
Welding in the World

Table 25  Test results variable SHS-50-C-B-02 SHS-50-C-B-03 SHS-100-C-B-01

amplitude testing p(1/3) spectra, ∆S [MPa]

30
ntest
28
DV
0.00
Nequ ntest
22
DV
0.00
Nequ ntest
3
DV
0.0
Nequ

SHS 27.6 560 0.01 441 0.01 60 0.0

25.5 3,920 0.05 3,150 0.04 420 0.0
23.4 29,120 0.28 23,400 0.22 3,120 0.1
151,134 0.93 17,00
21 188,726 1.16 0.2
0
880,000 2.84 100,0
18 1,101,846 3.56 0.8
00
2,464,000 3.44 280,0
14.7 3,136,000 4.38 1.1
00
2,640,000 1.28 286,7
11.4 3,360,000 1.63 0.5
44
6,162,147 8.77 326,517 687,3 100,9
7,820,200 11.07 412,274 2.7
47 12

SHS-50-C-B-06 SHS-50-C-B-07 SHS-100-C-B-02 SHS-100-C-B-03

∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
36 12 0.00 5 0.00 3 0.0 0 0.0
33.12 240 0.01 100 0.00 60 0.0 0 0.0
30.6 1,680 0.05 700 0.02 420 0.0 28 0.0
28.08 12,480 0.25 5,200 0.11 3,120 0.1 376 0.0
30,891 0.40 17,00
25.2 78,988 1.03 0.4 3,119 0.1
0
180,000 1.24 100,0
21.6 460,000 3.17 1.3 22,031 0.3
00
518,838 1.54 234,8
17.64 1,325,970 3.94 1.7 94,019 0.7
69
600,000 0.62 240,0
13.68 1,440,000 1.49 0.8 536,796 1.8
00
1,335,734 3.94 68,824 595,4 74,90
3,319,370 9.94 173,849 4.3 656,369 2.8
72 0 48,971

SHS-50-C-B-04 SHS-50-C-B-05
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
45 2 0.00 2 0.00
41.4 40 0.00 40 0.00
38.25 280 0.02 280 0.02
35.1 2,080 0.11 2,080 0.11
31.5 10,263 0.34 10,284 0.34
27 72,482 1.26 42,039 0.73
22.05 224,000 1.68 112,000 0.84
17.1 240,000 0.63 120,000 0.31
549,147 4.03 27,966 286,725 2.35 16,313
SHS-50-C-R-01 SHS-100-C-R-01
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
30 3 0.00 0 0.00
27.6 31 0.00 1 0.00
25.5 213 0.00 66 0.00
23.4 1,608 0.02 618 0.01
21 10,461 0.06 4,247 0.05
18 61,403 0.20 24,611 0.19
14.7 171,947 0.24 69,422 0.28
11.4 368,581 0.18 156,020 0.29
22,3
614,247 0.70 26,094 254,985 0.82
53

SHS-50-C-R-02 SHS-50-C-R-04
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
36 2 0.00 2 0.00
33.12 23 0.00 16 0.00
30.6 163 0.00 110 0.00
28.08 1,225 0.03 849 0.02
25.2 7,901 0.10 5,412 0.07
21.6 46,292 0.32 31,888 0.22
17.64 129,753 0.39 89,192 0.27
13.68 278,779 0.29 191,918 0.20
464,138 1.13 19,704 319,387 0.78 13,555

SHS-50-C-R-03 SHS-100-C-R-02
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
45 1 0.00 1 0.00
41.4 6 0.00 6 0.00
38.25 41 0.00 42 0.00
35.1 350 0.02 365 0.02
31.5 2,222 0.07 2,354 0.10
27 13,012 0.23 13,737 0.37
22.05 36,424 0.27 38,504 0.55
17.1 78,577 0.21 82,999 0.54
12,25
130,633 0.80 5,540 138,008 1.58
6
 Welding in the World

Table 26  Test results variable CHS-51,0-D-B-01 CHS-51,0-D-B-02 CHS-51,0-D-B-03 CHS-51,0-D-B-04 CHS-82,5-D-B-01 CHS-82,5-D-B-03
∆S
amplitude testing q-spectra, [MPa ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
]
CHS 0.0 0.0
120 638 0.02 638 0.02 1,440 0.04 800 0.02 1,595 1,351
5 4
110.0 0.3 0.4
7,537 0.15 7,518 0.15 16,794 0.34 9,341 0.19 17,266 21,700
4 6 6
0.2 0.3
90 15,037 0.14 10,878 0.10 25,321 0.24 14,018 0.13 25,011 32,913
4 1
0.2 0.3
80.04 26,664 0.16 9,020 0.05 39,996 0.24 22,220 0.13 39,996 53,705
4 2
0.1 0.2
69.96 34,092 0.12 11,364 0.04 48,401 0.17 29,784 0.11 51,138 63,961
8 2
0.1 0.1
60 26,448 0.05 0 52,896 0.10 33,060 0.06 52,896 59,562
0 1
0.0 0.0
50.04 32,672 0.03 0 65,344 0.06 40,840 0.04 65,344 72,808
6 7
0.0 0.0
39.96 45,866 0.02 0 91,728 0.04 57,330 0.02 91,736 91,847
3 3
148,24 0.0 148,26 0.0
30 74,122 0.01 0 0.02 92,650 0.01 148,248
0 2 0 2
124,24 0.0 124,09 0.0
20.04 124,240 0.00 0 0.00 77,650 0.00 124,240
0 0 4 0
0.0 0.0
9.6 23,242 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0
0 0
25,10 12,97 614,40 44,59 377,69 25,69 1.2 670,20 1.5 53,38
410,558 0.71 39,418 0.36 1.25 0.72 617,470 43,063
8 2 0 6 3 9 8 1 9 5

CHS-51,0-D-B-05 CHS-51,0-D-B-06 CHS-82,5-D-B-02

∆S
[MPa ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
]
0.1
90 2,769 0.03 2,130 0.02 10,208
0
0.8
82.53 32,344 0.22 24,880 0.17 121,383
2
0.5
67.5 48,347 0.15 37,184 0.11 179,214
4
0.5
60.03 77,038 0.15 62,223 0.12 293,304
6
0.4
52.47 98,488 0.12 79,548 0.09 375,012
2
0.2
45 111,288 0.07 88,160 0.06 423,168
6
0.1
37.53 141,570 0.05 108,900 0.04 522,752
5
0.0
29.97 198,744 0.03 152,880 0.02 733,856
9
1,185,95 0.0
22.5 321,204 0.01 247,080 0.01
2 5
0.0
15.03 269,191 0.00 207,070 0.00 993,920
1
1,300,98 88,14 1,010,05 69,08 4,838,76 2.9 314,09
0.82 0.64
3 6 5 5 9 8 8
CHS-51,0-D-R-03 CHS-51,0-D-R-03 CHS-82,5-D-R-03 CHS-82,5-D-R-04
∆S
[MPa nspec ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Näq ntest DV Nequ
]
120 160 640 0.02 1,753 0.05 616 0.02 500 0.01
110.0
933 3,744 0.08 10,210 0.21 6,663 0.14 4,417 0.09
4
90 1,360 5,453 0.05 14,857 0.14 13,852 0.13 7,667 0.07
80.04 2,222 8,905 0.05 24,309 0.14 24,098 0.14 13,437 0.08
69.96 2,841 11,391 0.04 31,100 0.11 26,647 0.09 14,418 0.05
60 3,306 13,261 0.03 36,172 0.07 42,741 0.08 23,536 0.04
50.04 4,084 16,364 0.02 44,677 0.04 50,057 0.05 25,587 0.02
39.96 5,733 22,979 0.01 62,701 0.03 57,125 0.02 29,825 0.01
101,34
30 9,265 37,126 0.01 0.01 108,696 0.01 61,416 0.01
9
169,90
20.04 15,530 62,241 0.00 0.00 180,207 0.00 95,138 0.00
6
497,03
182,104 0.30 10,529 0.81 28,729 510,702 0.69 23,285 275,941 0.40 13,450
4
CHS-51,0-D-R-01 CHS-51,0-D-R-02 CHS-82,5-D-R-01 CHS-82,5-D-R-02
∆S
[MPa nspec ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
]
90 213 5,667 0.05 3,326 0.03 10,721 0.10 6,896 0.07
82.53 1,244 33,083 0.22 19,435 0.13 62,466 0.42 40,040 0.27
67.5 1,813 48,196 0.15 28,301 0.09 93,731 0.28 58,597 0.18
60.03 2,963 78,776 0.16 46,249 0.09 153,240 0.29 95,546 0.18
52.47 3,788 100,708 0.12 59,145 0.07 193,938 0.22 122,264 0.14
45 4,408 117,244 0.08 68,885 0.04 230,854 0.14 142,407 0.09
37.53 5,445 144,814 0.05 85,038 0.03 283,841 0.08 175,949 0.05
119,40
29.97 7,644 203,290 0.03 0.02 393,390 0.05 246,794 0.03
8
22.5 12,354 328,471 0.01 192,89 0.01 643,256 0.02 398,930 0.02
8
323,46 1,074,81
15.03 20,707 550,707 0.01 0.00 0.01 668,307 0.01
6 8
1,610,95 946,15 3,140,25 170,24 1,955,73
0.87 93,095 0.51 54,673 1.62 1.02 107,221
6 1 5 5 0
Welding in the World

Table 27  Test results variable SHS-50-D-B-02 SHS-100-D-B-02 SHS-100-D-B-03 SHS-50-D-R-01

∆S ∆S Neq
amplitude testing q-spectra, [MPa]
ntest DV Nequ ∆S (MPa) ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
(MPa)
ntest DV
u

SHS 45 576 0.08 36 364 0.02 742 0.05 45

0.0
5
328
0.2
41.265 6,714 0.68 33.012 4,264 0.21 8,667 0.43 41.265 1,949
0
0.1
33.75 9,314 0.41 27 6,216 0.17 12,698 0.34 33.75 3,012
3
0.1
30.015 15,113 0.41 24.012 9,895 0.18 20,734 0.38 30.015 4,712
3
0.0
26.235 19,312 0.30 20.988 11,361 0.14 26,705 0.33 26.235 6,038
9
0.0
22.5 21,152 0.17 18 11,334 0.09 26,448 0.20 22.5 7,030
6
0.0
18.765 26,144 0.10 15.012 14,004 0.06 32,676 0.14 18.765 8,692
3
12,17 0.0
14.985 36,688 0.06 11.988 19,656 0.04 45,864 0.10 14.985
1 2
19,73 0.0
11.25 59,296 0.03 9 31,764 0.03 74,124 0.07 11.25
0 1
33,36 0.0
7.515 49,696 0.00 6.012 26,622 0.01 62,118 0.02 7.515
6 0
31,69 97,02 0.7 4,9
244,005 2.23 15,468 135,480 0.95 14,641 310,776 2.05
4 8 2 66
SHS-50-D-B-01 SHS-50-D-B-04 SHS-100-D-B-01 SHS-50-D-R-02
∆S ∆S (MPa) ∆S (MPa) ∆S
ntest DV Nequ DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
[MPa] (MPa)
1,166 0.07 1,378 0.08 512 0.02 36 796 0.05
33.012 13,684 0.55 16,172 0.65 27.51 5,968 0.17 33.012 4,429 0.18
27 19,954 0.35 23,613 0.41 22.5 8,704 0.13 27 6,540 0.11
14,56
24.012 32,582 0.35 39,987 0.43 20.01 0.15 24.012 10,702 0.11
2
17,73
20.988 41,668 0.25 51,138 0.31 17.49 0.12 20.988 13,734 0.08
0
15,87
18 46,284 0.15 57,304 0.19 15 0.07 18 16,094 0.05
0
19,60
15.012 57,183 0.09 70,798 0.11 12.51 0.05 15.012 20,050 0.03
2
27,52
11.988 80,262 0.05 99,372 0.06 9.99 0.03 11.988 28,179 0.02
2
44,47
9 129,717 0.02 160,602 0.03 7.5 0.02 9 46,039 0.01
2
37,27
6.012 112,273 0.00 134,589 0.00 5.01 0.01 6.012 80,131 0.00
2
192,2 21,04 226,69
534,773 1.87 32,768 654,953 2.26 39,518 0.78 0.64 11,271
14 7 4
SHS-50-D-B-03 SHS-50-D-R-03 SHS-50-D-R-04
∆S
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Näq ntest DV Näq
(MPa)
2,552 0.07 30 1,679 0.05 1,165 0.03
27.51 29,856 0.56 27.51 9,759 0.18 6,859 0.13
14,22
22.5 43,520 0.35 22.5 0.12 9,990 0.08
7
23,35 16,38
20.01 71,104 0.36 20.01 0.12 0.08
6 1
29,72 20,79
17.49 90,912 0.26 17.49 0.09 0.06
5 2
105,79 34,68 24,21
15 0.16 15 0.05 0.04
2 5 7
130,68 42,85 30,01
12.51 0.09 12.51 0.03 0.02
8 9 0
183,47 60,19 42,11
9.99 0.05 9.99 0.02 0.01
2 8 2
296,49 97,20 67,81
7.5 0.03 7.5 0.01 0.01
6 2 9
248,48 164,5 114,2
5.01 0.00 5.01 0.00 0.00
0 85 21
1,202,8 72,06 478,2 24,48 333,5
1.94 0.66 0.46 17,157
72 1 75 5 66

Table 28  Test results variable CHS-51,0-E-R-03 CHS-51,0-E-B-02 CHS-51,0-E-B-03 CHS-82,5-E-B-01

R ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ
amplitude testing North Sea 0.1 150 3 0.00 120 32 0.00 20 0.00 138 0.00
spectra, CHS 140.25 10 0.00 112.2 224 0.00 140 0.00 966 0.02
130.5 30 0.00 104.4 672 0.01 420 0.01 2,898 0.05
120 98 0.00 96 2,240 0.03 1,400 0.02 9,660 0.12
111 279 0.01 88.8 6,400 0.06 4,000 0.04 27,600 0.25
101.25 839 0.01 81 19,200 0.12 12,000 0.07 84,357 0.53
91.5 2,201 0.02 73.2 104,928 0.44 33,657 0.14 220,800 0.92
82.2 6,048 0.04 65.76 136,400 0.38 88,000 0.25 594,000 1.62
72.6 15,897 0.06 58.08 359,600 0.62 232,000 0.40 1,566,000 2.61
62.85 36,359 0.09 50.28 821,500 0.82 530,000 0.53 3,577,500 3.36
52.5 89,220 0.11 42 2,015,000 1.01 1,300,000 0.65 8,780,361 4.04
43.5 226,074 0.13 34.8 5,104,116 1.24 3,300,000 0.80 22,770,000 4.96
34.5 513,144 0.12 27.6 11,250,000 1.12 7,500,000 0.75 51,750,000 4.49
24 479,524 0.03 19.2 5,250,000 0.13 3,500,000 0.09 24,150,000 0.50
1,369,726 0.62 9,325 25,070,312 5.98 212,825 16,501,637 3.74 133,063 113,534,280 23.28 781,473

CHS-51,0-E-R-01 CHS-51,0-E-R-02 CHS-51,0-E-B-01

R ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ
0.1 140 8 0.00 3 0.00 90 160 0.00
130.9 27 0.00 12 0.00 84.15 1,120 0.01
121.8 81 0.00 32 0.00 78.3 3,360 0.02
112 270 0.01 108 0.00 72 11,200 0.04
103.6 757 0.01 296 0.00 66.6 32,000 0.09
94.5 2,298 0.03 910 0.01 60.75 100,131 0.21
85.4 6,059 0.05 2,371 0.02 54.9 262,400 0.37
76.72 16,564 0.08 6,500 0.03 49.32 704,000 0.65
67.76 43,832 0.14 17,107 0.05 43.56 1,856,000 1.07
58.66 100,183 0.18 39,308 0.07 37.71 4,240,000 1.40
49 245,461 0.22 96,102 0.09 31.5 10,400,000 1.72
40.6 622,596 0.27 243,808 0.11 26.1 26,400,000 2.12
32.2 1,413,848 0.25 553,406 0.10 20.7 60,000,000 1.98
22.4 1,320,426 0.06 517,054 0.02 14.4 23,744 0.00
3,772,410 1.30 25,665 1,477,017 0.51 10,053 104,034,115 9.69 1,039,756
 Welding in the World

Table 29  Test results variable amplitude testing p(1/3)-spectra with overloads

1.2 x ∆Smax every 10k cycles 1,2 x ∆Smax every 100k cycles 1.2 x ∆Smax every 10k cycles 1,2 x ∆S max every 10k cycles -1.2 x ∆Smax every 10k cycles
CHS-51,0-F-B-02 CHS-51,0-F-B-04 CHS-82,5-F-R-01 CHS-82,5-F-R-03 CHS-82,5-F-R-05
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ
144 98 0.01 144 18 0.00 144 96 0.01 130 0.01 -144 30 0.00
120 5 0.00 120 8 0.00 120 6 0.00 120 0.00 120 1 0.00
110.4 80 0.00 110.4 160 0.00 110.4 48 0.00 116 0.00 110.4 15 0.00
102 560 0.01 102 1,120 0.02 102 342 0.01 841 0.01 102 97 0.00
93.6 4,159 0.05 93.6 8,320 0.09 93.6 2,535 0.03 6,234 0.07 93.6 780 0.01
84 20,401 0.15 84 47,600 0.34 84 16,591 0.12 40,747 0.29 84 5,005 0.04
72 120,098 0.48 72 280,017 1.11 72 97,746 0.38 239,747 0.94 72 29,472 0.12
58.8 364,804 0.66 58.8 710,638 1.29 58.8 273,522 0.48 671,317 1.18 58.8 82,318 0.14
45.6 480,003 0.33 45.6 720,013 0.49 45.6 585,992 0.37 1,438,528 0.92 45.6 176,838 0.11
990,208 1.67 59,544 1,767,894 3.35 118,985 976,878 1.40 46,849 2,397,780 3.42 114,868 294,556 0.42 14,125

1.2 x ∆Smax every 10k cycles 1,2 x ∆Smax every 100k cycles 1.2 x ∆Smax every 100k cycles 1,2 x ∆S max every 100k cycles -1.0 x ∆Smax every 10k cycles
CHS-51,0-F-B-01 CHS-51,0-F-B-03 CHS-82,5-F-R-02 CHS-82,5-F-R-04 CHS-82,5-F-R-06
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ ntest DV Nequ ∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ
108 448 0.01 120 47 0.00 144 15 0.00 7 0.00 -120 24 0.00
90 18 0.00 100 16 0.00 120 8 0.00 10 0.00 120 1 0.00
82.8 361 0.00 92 320 0.00 110.4 78 0.00 56 0.00 110.4 11 0.00
76.5 2,727 0.01 85 2,240 0.02 102 545 0.01 393 0.01 102 79 0.00
70.2 18,513 0.07 78 16,640 0.09 93.6 4,082 0.05 2,985 0.03 93.6 643 0.01
63 115,600 0.27 70 102,011 0.36 84 26,631 0.19 19,499 0.14 84 4,152 0.03
54 641,247 0.84 60 640,047 1.26 72 156,882 0.61 114,632 0.45 72 24,382 0.10
44.1 1,792,030 1.08 49 1,783,996 1.61 58.8 439,133 0.77 320,919 0.56 58.8 67,959 0.12
34.2 1,920,093 0.44 38 1,884,699 0.64 45.6 941,092 0.60 688,180 0.44 45.6 146,108 0.09
4,491,037 2.72 292,109 4,430,016 3.98 285,281 1,568,466 2.23 74,928 1,146,681 1.63 54,767 243,359 0.35 11,646

-1.0 x ∆Smax every 100k cycles

CHS-82,5-F-R-07
∆S [MPa] ntest DV Nequ
-120 4 0.00
120 2 0.00
110.4 22 0.00
102 158 0.00
93.6 1,212 0.01
84 7,885 0.06
72 46,153 0.18
58.8 129,261 0.23
45.6 277,371 0.18
462,068 0.66 22,067

Acknowledgements The IGF project 19410 N of FOSTA—Forschun-
gsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e. V.. Düsseldorf. is funded by the Fed-
eral Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) via
the AiF within the framework of the program for the promotion of the
Industrielle Gemeinschaftsforschung (IGF) based on a resolution of
the German Bundestag. The financial support is greatly acknowledged.
We also thank the University of Kassel, Institute of Material Science,
Germany, for performing X-ray diffraction measurements of residual
stresses.
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt
DEAL.
Data Availability Data available on request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
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were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
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the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
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copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
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