MODULE 8

Rome and Byzantium

Submitted by: Martinete, Jessa

Sumagaysay, Rica Joy
Froctoso, Collen
Capundan, Khelvince
(Group 3 ) BSED 2-SS

Submitted to: Ma’am Jhenina P. Oducado

(Course Facilitator)
INDICATIVE CONTENT

 Early Italy
 The First Republic in History
 From Republic to Empire
 The Fall of Rome
 Roman Contributions to Civilization
 The Byzantine Empire, The First Christian State

1 - EARLY ITALY

Rome was only a small dot on the west coast of Italy when Athens was flourishing. There was
little about Rome to predict its future greatness; in fact, its location was inland, not along the sea.
And the Tiber River beside it was not remarkable. But Rome’s greatness came from its people,
who were strong, brave, and domineering. By the time Alexander had conquered his world,
Rome had become a small city-state. Then, Rome won control of the Mediterranean world, and
united many peoples and regions under its rule. It conquered one of the largest empires in the
world. Because it did better than Greece, the saying goes: “If there was a glory that was Greece,
there was a grandeur that was Rome.” It is said that Rome took four hundred years to rise, and
four hundred years to fall. Whatever the reasons were for its disappearance, the main beneficiary
of Rome’s fall was a new faith Christianity.
Geographical Setting. Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula in southern Europe. Its name Italia in
fact means, “a boot”. Italy was the site of the Latium, the Latin-speaking people. Like Greece,
Italy is a beautiful country that encourages a passion for the ‘good life (la dolce vita). With good
land and climate, the Italians led an agricultural life, especially on the west coast. Later, they
used the Mediterranean as a sea highway. The city of Rome developed as the capital of Italy
because it enjoyed many natural advantages. It is located on a fertile plain and atop seven hills
from which Romans could watch for enemy attacks. The Tiber River provided food and
transportation for the city. Since it was inland, it was not exposed to raids from the sea.
The Latin Tribes. Latin tribes from Europe founded the Roman city-state in 753 BC. But they
were weak and could not keep ' away outsider foreign powers. The Etruscans, a fierce tribe,
conquered Rome in about 600 BC. Little is known about the Etruscans except that they were
descendants of the Minoan civilization in Greece. The Etruscans gave the Latins more advanced
knowledge but oppressed them. From the Etruscans, the Latins learned writing and how to make
an arch in buildings. Because of their oppression under the Etruscan kings, the Latin tribes
determined to have a different system of government. As you will read, the Roman Republic was
a turning point in world history.
2 – THE FIRST REPUBLIC IN HISTORY

The Roman Republic (509-27 BC). In 509 BC, the Latins ousted the last Etruscan king.
Because they hated what the monarchy did to them, they invented a new system of government -
a republic which had no king, and which made the people more important. They called their new
government a republic (res publicus), meaning “rule of the people.” In the Roman Republic, all
leaders were elected for a limited time by the citizens. The elected leaders represented the people
and ruled for the people, not for themselves. Hence, a “republic” was like a democracy. Which
means a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.
The Roman Republic was the first’ republic or representative government in history. The
Roman republic lasted for more than 400 years. Rome grew from a small city-state into the first
Western superpower. At first, the Roman Republic was controlled by the rich people. Only the
“patricians” (aristocrats) voted and elected 300 members to a body called the “Senate,” which
made the laws. But later, the rich were forced to share power with the masses. The “plebeians” or
the masses outnumbered the patricians. The plebeians were important as workers and fighters. In
times of trouble, the Senate recruited the plebeians to fight in the Roman army. In 494 BC, an
overwhelming number of plebeians rose in revolt because they wanted to have a say on how the
rules were made. The rich patricians were forced to give in to their demands. New laws were
made to give the plebeians the right to vote and to run for the Senate.
At last, the masses could choose what to risk their lives for. In 451 BC, the laws of Rome
were carved on 12 stone tablets called “The Twelve Tables of Law.” They were displayed in the
forum (public square}, where everybody could see them. The lawmakers and judges could no
longer fool the people because they could check for themselves what the laws were. The
“Twelve Tables of Laws” were Rome’s first written code and the first written constitution (basic
law of the state). The Twelve Tables protected all ‘citizens from unfair treatment.
Rome as Master of Italy. Because people had a say in their new republic, they had a good life
under the Roman Republic. In return, the Roman people served their government well, because it
did not oppress them. For more than 400 years, the Roman Republic was a good government. It
started gaining power. Rome made and broke strategic treaties with neighboring groups in order
to help it conquer other city-states. In the end, after revising its battle tactics, weapons, and army
legions, Rome emerged as the undisputed leader of Italy.
When the republic was ‘threatened, the people fought well to gain control of central Italy.
After becoming the master of central Italy, the Romans wanted an outlet to the sea, and turned
south and fought the Greeks. The Greek leader was Pyrrhus, a cousin of Alexander the Great. He
won an early battle, but lost the war. Hence, a “pyrrhic victory” is a false win. At last, Rome
ruled over all of Italy and Greece. The Roman Republic undertook projects that everyone
supported, because all, and not just a few, benefited from the projects, Romans built military
roads to connect Rome to other Roman cities. The roads allowed troops to move rapidly, and
also encouraged trade and unified the people. “All roads lead to Rome,’ became a famous saying.
The ancient Roman roads became useful for the spread of Christianity, as you will read later.
When new lands opened up, the Roman soldiers and citizens migrated and colonized new
territories, especially in Asia Minor. They spread Roman customs and the use of Latin, the
Roman language. Roman colonies led to the increase of the population.
Rivalry with Carthage: The Punic Wars (264-146 BC). Rome’s expansion brought it into
deadly conflict with Carthage (Tunisia) in North Africa. Carthage was an independent and
commercial empire with a vast naval fleet. Its powerful navy dominated the Mediterranean Sea
and trade. Rome and Carthage fought three wars called the Punic Wars (264-241 BC, 218-201
BC and 201-146 BC). “Punic” comes from the Latin word Puni (Phoenicians). At first, the tide
of war turned against Rome because it had no navy and no experience in naval battles. In the
land battles, Rome lost to a great Carthaginian general named Hannibal who was a military
genius. Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps, and into Italy with elephants and 49, 000 soldiers. The
Romans had never seen elephants, and were terrified. For 15 years,
Hannibal terrorized Italy. He won all the battles but failed to capture Rome because he
could not breach the city walls on the hills. Moreover, Rome was too far for his lines of supply.
Then, Rome went on the attack and invaded Carthage. Hannibal had to return to save his home
country. His mercenaries (rented soldiers) deserted him, and he finally lost the war. Carthage
gave Spain to Rome and paid a heavy fine. Then the great orator-Senator Cato of Rome insisted,
“Carthage must be destroyed!” Thus, the Roman army returned and destroyed Carthage in 146
BC. They salted the land to make it barren. Rome became the undisputed champion of the
Mediterranean. At its full extent, the Roman Republic controlled territory in three continents,
from Europe to North Africa and parts of Asia. The Mediterranean Sea became a Roman lake
surrounded by its territories.
From Republic to Dictatorship. During the Punic Wars, Roman armies won other territories.
They conquered Spain, Gaul (France), Macedonia, and Greece. As Rome expanded into the
eastern Mediterranean, it acquired a vast territory of many peoples. However, the expansion
proved to be a mixed blessing. Bitter economic rivalries and civil wars erupted for about a
hundred years. Some plebeian high officials in the government became corrupt. The newly rich
plebeians ended up with advantages at the cost of their own fellow poor It was no longer “one for
all, and all for one;” it was “one for you, and two for me.” The first republic in history had been
betrayed by its own ambitious and greedy politicians and masses. As Rizal, our national hero,
wrote: “Like government, like people.” The Roman democracy became a_ bad government of
bad voters. A stormy age discredited the republic, and paved the way _ for the rise of strong
dictators who fought over the spoils of the empire and took away the people’s rights.
Prepared by: Jessa H. Martinete

3 – FROM EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC

The Man on. Horseback Julius Caesar. To save the republic, in 60 BC, the Senate turned to a
military solution. They voted for three generals named Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, to
bring order to the republic. The three generals formed a coalition known as the First Triumvirate.
Julius Caesar became the most successful member of the triumvirate. He became an idol of the
Roman people because he conquered Gaul and brought new land and slaves.
Julius Caesar, first dictator of Rome. The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and
return to Rome, but he refused. At the Rubicon River, on his way to Italy, Caesar pondered his
dilemma. If he crossed it, he might lose his life.
As he plunged into the river with his army, he said, “The die is cast!” Today, “crossing the
Rubicon” means making an irrevocable decision; “the die is cast,” means one’s fate is sealed. To
stop him, the Senate sent Pompey, but Caesar defeated his rival, and escaped to Egypt. There he
romanced the beautiful Cleopatra, and sent this famous message to the Roman Senate: “ Veni,
vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered), or in other words, “you lose”.
Caesar returned to Rome in triumph. ‘The people gave him a second conqueror’s welcome,
better than the previous one. In 49 BC, the Senate had no choice but to name him dictator for
life. The senators realized what a mistake they had made. They called for the “man on
horseback” (a charismatic general) to save the republic, but he turned out to be tyrant, the worst
enemy of the republic. On the ides of March (March 15, 44 BC), some of them, including his
friend Brutus, stabbed Caesar inside the Senate. After Julius Caesar, a decade of chaos led to the
Second Triumvirate of generals (Mark Anthony, Lepidus, and Octavian). At a decisive naval
battle off Egypt in 31 BC, Octavian fought the combined forces of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra,
and they lost. Octavian was now supreme He abolished the republic and became the first
emperor of a new Rome. The Roman Empire would last four hundred more years, and expand
into more territories and greater grandeur. The next few centuries would be the era of “Pax
Romana”, when Rome would rule the Western world. But the Romans would never be free
again. They had traded their freedom for bread.
The Roman Empire and the Birth of Christ. Octavian changed his name to Augustus Caesar
(“the exalted one’), to identify himself as a successor of Julius Caesar. The title of Caesar
became famous in world history (Kaiser, czar, fuehrer). In 27 BC, he assumed power as the first
emperor of the Roman Empire and ruled as a powerful tyrant for 41 years. After three hundred
years as a successful republic, and a century of civil wars, Rome had become a tyranny.
Augustus ordered a complete census (population survey), so that more taxes could be collected.
He appointed a Civil service by merit of honest and efficient officials, especially in the
provinces. To give jobs to the poor, he Started many public’ projects. He drained the swamps,
built roads and aqueducts, and promoted agriculture and commerce. He adorned Rome with
magnificent marble edifices, such as temples, palaces, baths, and theaters. Thus, he said proudly,
“I found Rome a city of brick; I left it a city of marble.” At around 6 BC (or 1 AD), a newly
married Jewish couple from Nazareth journeyed to Bethlehem to register in the new emperor's
census. The woman went into labor and gave birth to her first-born child, named Jesus. Jesus (1
to 33 AD) was about to turn the new empire, and the world, around. He would grow up to be a
popular Hebrew prophet. His believers regarded him as the Christ (Savior, Messiah). Jesus and
his believers would collide with the empire, and bring it down ' through martyrdom.
Pax Romana, the Golden Age of Rome (27 BC-180 AD). The reign of the Emperor Augustus
Caesar began the Pax Romana, or the Golden Age of Rome. Rome attained its full grandeur
during Augustus and the period of the four Good Emperors from 27 BC to 180 AD. The Romans
proudly believed that their empire was the entire world. They did not know much about the
barbarians or the Persian Empire or the more distant civilizations in India and China. They just
believed that their empire would last forever. Over a million people lived in the city of Rome,
which they called the “eternal city.” They thought Rome was the symbol of their immortality.
But the seeds of their destruction had been sown.
The Decline of the Roman Empire. The peace and prosperity of the empire hid signs of trouble.
A strong government took from the people and then made them weak and dependent. The
emperors became powerful and corrupt. Marcus Aurelius was the last good emperor of Rome.
After him followed a period when there was a breakdown of peace and order, loss of wealth, and
decline of Roman power. There were many reasons, both from within and outside, that explained
the fall of Rome. But, historians generally agree that the Roman Empire had no one to blame but
itself for its collapse. Briefly, we may summarize the following factors that contributed to the
decline and fall of the Roman Empire:
1) First, political. The government had become big and powerful. It had given the people what
they wanted, but they lost their rights and, eventually all their benefits. The former republic of
law and justice was gone. The empire became dependent on one man (the emperor) alone.
Absolute power corrupted the, imperial government absolutely. There were no checks and
balances.
2) Second, economic. It was expensive to govern and protect a huge empire. The emperor
overtaxed the people and borrowed too much money to pay for himself, his army and his
administration. The main economic problems led to high prices (inflation) and devaluation of the
value of Roman coins.
3) Third, environmental. Rome had one of the most extensive water and sanitation systems in the
ancient world. But the Romans used lead in their pipes. When pipes corroded, the lead gradually
poisoned the people.
4) Fourth, a new religion. The new faith of Christianity gained more and more believers, among
the discontented ranks. The simplicity and integrity of the Christians stood in marked contrast to
the decadence of Roman character in all classes (materialism, immorality, gluttony, drunkenness
and other vices). The Christians taught their children discipline, hard work, and high moral and
ethical standards, which were the qualities in the old republic that had made Rome great. The
Christians preferred to be self-reliant, and not to depend on the government, which hated them,
anyway. Eventually, the Christians withheld their offerings from corrupt public officials, Roman
gods, and festivals. The withdrawal of services and resources by Christians, and their refusal to
follow corrupt Roman traditions led to an epic struggle in the society. Ironically, as the
Christians found ways to avoid the corruption of Roman Empire, they were blamed for bringing
it down, which of course was not true. The Roman Empire was its own worst enemy.
4 – THE FALL OF ROME
The Empire Declines. By the 3™ centuries, the empire hit rock bottom. For the empire’s last
century, army soldiers began to choose whoever of them would be emperor. They were known as
the “barracks emperors.” At one time, they raffled the position of emperor, and then murdered
him for being unworthy. The worst emperor awards would surely go to two megalomaniacs
(power mad) Caligula and Nero for their orgies, cruelty and extravagance. Caligula even named
his horse as head of the Senate, which had become a useless body. In 64 AD, Nero set Rome on
fire and blamed the catastrophe on the new Christians, thus starting their persecution. As Rome
began to decline, so the number of Christians increased. Many desperate people came to admire
the Christians, because in the midst of the troubled era, they at least exhibited the most noble and
heroic acts. The believers in Jesus Christ suffered incredible martyrdom. They were crucified,
burned and fed to lions in the Coliseum (Rome’s largest theatre), incredibly, rather than die
down, the new faith flourished. Many who saw the Christians die with courage, came to believe
in their faith. This new belief, they said, was at least worth dying for. As one observer said, “The
blood of the martyrs watered the growth of the early Christians.”
The Empire Breaks Up. Emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD) tried to save the empire by splitting
it into two parts one in the west arid another in the east. He himself took the post of co-emperor
in the. East, making ‘his capital near Byzantium (now Istanbul). However, the empire split some
more, and, like Humpty Dumpty, could not be put back together again. By 311 AD, there were
four rulers, each claiming the title of emperor. Meanwhile, barbarian incursions increased against
a defenseless Rome. In the 5" century AD, Rome was sacked (looted) by the Goths, the Vandals,
and the Germans. In 476 AD, Odoacer, a Germanic tribal chief, captured Rome and forced the
emperor (a boy of six) to give up the throne. Odoacer then proclaimed himself king of Italy.
Many historians refer to this event as the “fall of Rome.” Roman civilization did not disappear
after 476 AD; it merely lost its unity. The Roman civilization changed into two different halves,
with an entirely different form and authority. Its western half led a threatened existence in the
barbarian-harassed city of Rome. The eastern half lived on in the rising new Byzantine Empire in
Constantinople.
The Aftermath of Rome’s Downfall
The downfall of the Roman Empire in the West was one of the epochal events in world history.
What happened after Rome?
 First, the Byzantine Empire, the other half of the empire in the East, arose as the new center
of power.
 Second, the Roman half of the empire lost its military supremacy and suffered invasion from
barbarian tribes
 Third, the Byzantine Empire became a rival of Rome both in prestige and in religion.
 Fourth, the tribes and nations around Rome became Christian, and the bishop of Rome
gained supremacy as Pope, He formed a grand alliance with the new Christian kingdoms to
rival Byzantium and begin the Roman Catholic supremacy.
Prepared by: Rica Joy Sumagaysay

ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO CIVILIZATION

Both the Greek and Roman civilizations influenced the modern world tremendously. Their
historical times are studied as “the classical period” (different from the “ancient period” before
them). It is true that the Romans adopted Greek culture to enrich their own Roman culture.
Through conquest, the Romans spread Greco-Roman classical civilization to every corner of the
world. You will now read about the most important aspects of Roman civilization.
Roman Law. The greatest and most enduring achievements of the Romans were their law and
republican government. Roman law {s the basis of the legal systems of many modern nations
today, including that of the Philippines. Roman law started with customary law; then with a
written constitution, such as the Twelve Tables of the Roman Republic (509-31 BC); then with
executive decrees, Senate laws and judges’ decisions, such as the imperial decrees of emperors
and judicial decisions under the Roman Empire (31 BC-476 AD). In 529 AD, Roman law was
codified into the Justinian Code under the Byzantine Empire. From there, it passed to the French
Empire of Napoleon in 1804. From the French Empire, Roman law passed into the stream of
world history to such countries as Britain, Spain, the United States, etc. From Roman law we
inherited such examples as written constitutions, republic acts, squatters’ right, written contracts,
last will and testaments, and permanent courts. In legal courts, judges and lawyers usually wear
Roman togas as official robes.
Roman Republic and Centralized Government. The Roman political system was an
impressive legacy. The ancient Greeks only had small city-states and practiced the art of
government only on a small scale. Alexander had an empire but did not know how to create a
central political organization to rule the various peoples he conquered.
The Romans introduced two systems of government, which the West later passed on to the
world. These Roman innovations were: (1) A republic, and (2) A centralized government. The
Romans invented a new political system called republic, the rule by elected public officials who
make the laws for the people. There is no king in a republic. In addition, it is a democracy. The
republican system was important for the founding fathers of the United States and the founding
fathers of the Philippines. From the Philipp; first republic in Asia, other Asian founding fathers
were inspired to establish republics when their countries became independent, e.g. China,
Indonesia, Burma, etc. The next Roman innovation was a centralized form of government, with
local officials controlled from a central power. The Romans had one of the bestrun imperial
systems, due to Western organizational skills. “All roads lead to Rome,” it was said. They
planned their empire in such a way that people, soldiers and commerce could easily travel to
other parts of the empire. Later Western colonial powers adopted centralized rule, like Spain in
the Philippines in the 16" century.

Architecture. From the Etruscans and the Greeks, the Romans learned to make arches and
columns. They improved on the arch by inventing the dome, a roof with round arches, such as
the magnificent churches in Rome and Byzantium. The Romans also introduced new building
materials such as concrete. Concrete enabled massive structures, like the three-story Roman
Coliseum (Coliseum), the Pantheon (temple for gods), stadiums, triumphal arches, and basilicas
(law courts).
The Romans built many strong structures, the remains of which can still be seen today in
the cities of Asia, Africa and Western Europe. These are aqueducts, Roman baths, roads, bridges,
sewer systems and reservoirs. The most famous of the Roman roads is the Appian Way in Rome.
The aqueducts were marvelous achievements of Roman engineers. Among these are the
aqueducts in Segovia, Spain and Nimes in France. Roman town planning was the marvel of the
ancient world. Towns were built around a forum, which is the origin of the modern plaza or
Public Square.

History. Rome produced many historians and biographers. The four outstanding historians were
Julius Caesar, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Livy glorified Rom e in his history, thus: “does
honestly believe that no nation has ever been greater or purer or richer in good citizens and noble
deeds, than ours.” There were also other historians. In the first century AD, Josephus, a Jewish
historian in the Roman province of Palestine, confirmed the life of what others had come to
behave in - a “man called Jesus, what did many miracles.”

Philosophy. Stoicism from Greece profoundly influenced Roman thought. The greatest Raman
philosopher, Seneca, was a Stoic. The scholarly Emperor Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic and more
famous as a philosopher than as an emperor. Perhaps, the Romans had to be stoic (tolerant of
pain and misfortune). They had so many bad rulers that one Roman wrote, “I accept the present,
and while I pray for good emperors, can endure whomever we may have.

Literature. Roman writers adapted Greek literary forms, such as lyric poetry and drama to the
Latin language. Romans also developed new styles of writing, such as the legal or political report
to convince a public. Virgil, the greatest Roman poet, wrote the epic legend of Aeneid during the
Golden Age of Rome. Although he copied the heroic epics of Homer, Virgil emphasized concern
for the rule of justice and peace, thus: “You, o Roman, remember to rule the nations with might.
This will be your genius to impose the way of peace, to spare the conquered and crush the
proud.” Horace wrote the Odes, a series of poems glorifying Rome and the Pax Romana. Ovid,
Rome’s greatest poet of love, wrote Metamorphoses, which influenced later artists and writers.

Science. In science and medicine, the Romans collected information in works similar to
encyclopedias. The most celebrated Roman scientist was Pliny the Elder, who wrote the
37volume Natural History. Another Roman thinker, Ptolemy, taught that. The sun and stars
revolve around the earth, Alas, nobody corrected him until the 16th century. The greatest
scientific achievement of the Romans was in public health and sanitation. They established
clinics and hospitals as well, as baths and sewers to safeguard health. The most famous physician
in Rome was Galen (129-199 BC). He wrote books on medicine that were used for centuries.

Recreation and Games. The: Romans loved holidays. During the republic, 66 days of the year
were public holidays. That number increased to 135 days during the empire. The emperors liked
to declare holidays when times were bad, because the people could be amused with free bread
and circuses. Roman games were literary contests in poetry or oratory; or chariot races and
gladiatorial combats. The best chariot races were held in a stadium that could seat 140, 000
people. The Romans called these chariot races “circuses” because they were held on a circular
racetrack. Another popular sport was the gladiator contest, where the crowd could judge if the
loser could live or die.

The Roman Family. Romans lived in large families. The government rewarded parents of many
children because large families “(especially boys) provided the soldiers for the army and the
farmers for the new colonies. Rome was a patriarchal (male dominant) society. Under Roman
law, the father was the absolute head of the family. He had the right to abandon an unwanted
child or to sell a son or daughter. Children learned about good citizenship early. Parents
emphasized discipline, hard work, courage and loyalty to the state. Women had few legal rights
during the early republic. They could not vote or hold public office. They managed the home for
the men in the family. Fathers could arrange their marriage at the age of 14 years old. Later,
women gained more rights to own property. Some women had political influence in Rome, if
their husbands or fathers held public office. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could go to
the theatre and attend public festivals.

Education. Education in Rome was for the upper classes. The schools were conducted by
educated Greek slaves what had been held as captives in war. A Roman boy’s education began
when he was six or seven years old. The subjects he studied in school included Latin grammar,
reading, writing, history, arithmetic (using Roman numerals), and the Twelve Tables. A boy’s
education ceased when he reached 17, the time when he became a citizen and proudly wore for
the first time the toga of manhood. The girls obtained their education from their mothers at
home. They were taught reading, writing, cooking, music, sewing and weaving.

Religion. Like the Greeks, the Romans were not really deeply spiritual. They also looked on
religion as a way of manipulating favor with a higher power. Both the Romans and Greeks liked
mystery and occult rites, e.g, casting lots (the die); animal sacrifice, and temple oracles. Roman
religion was practical and mixed. They adopted Greek paganism, blending it with their ancestral
religion. They borrowed the Greek gods and gave them Latin names. Zeus, the chief Greek god,
became Jupiter. Ares, the Greek war god became Mars. Aphrodite became Venus. The Romans
made offerings to many gods at home or in public places. There were gods of the house (lares),
and gods outside (penares). Each household had a shrine to the gods, and there were shrines in
streets and temples. With the establishment of the empire, the cult of emperor worship
developed. Some emperors, including Augustus, were worshipped after their death. Others like
Nero claimed to be a god in their lifetime. One emperor, on his deathbed, was asked how he felt,
and he replied, “I feel like I am becoming a god.”

Persecution of the Christians. It was the refusal of Christians to worship the emperor that made
them the most persecuted group in the Roman Empire. As we already saw, the Roman made a
sport of the torture and killing of Christians in the coliseums. To avoid arrest; some Christians
hid in the catacombs, underground cities hidden in the large Roman cities. Many never came out
again. They married, had children, died and were buried in the catacombs.

Roman Contributions to Civilization. The grandeur that was Rome, as symbolized by

achievements in government and jurisprudence, arts and sciences, literature and philosophy,
remains part of humanity’s legacy. Rome’s contributions to civilization are summarized as
follows:
1. Roman law, which is the basis of the legal systems of modern nations.
2. The republican form of government, in which the citizens vote for their representatives to
governing bodies.
3. A centralized government to rule over the local units.
4. The Latin language, the language of the civilized world during the Middle Ages, which
influenced French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, English, and other ' modern languages.
5. Latin literature, which includes the writings of Julius Caesar, Cicero, Tacitus, Livy,
Virgil, and other writers who have enriched world literature.
6. The Coliseum, Pantheon, aqueducts, baths, roads, bridges, and other Roman buildings.

Prepared by: Collen H. Froctoso

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, THE FIRST CHRISTIAN STATE

The Byzantine Empire (330-1453 AD) lasted longer than the Roman Empire (eleven
centuries), but it was not as powerful. It formed a bridge between the Greek and Roman cultures,
between the classical and the modern world. It was the last direct heir of the Roman Empire and
the first official Christian state. It preserved, developed and transmitted the Greek and Roman
cultures, Roman law and organization, and: most importantly of all, it left the legacy of the
Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity. Byzantium was a major source of the cultural history of
modern Greece, Russia, and East Europe, from where its influence passed into the stream of
world history.

Rise of Constantine the Great (280337 AD). Constantine, the successor of the Roman
emperors, was born around 280 AD to Helena, a devout Christian who reportedly found the true
cross of Christ at Palestine. The Filipino Santa Cruzan festival in May celebrates her story.
Helena was certainly an important influence on her son and to the establishment of the first
Christian state. In 312 AD, Constantine won the battle against his rival for supremacy and
established a united second Roman Empire. He attributed his miraculous victory to the cross (see
story of Constantine). Constantine made two important decisions. First, he declared freedom of
religion in the empire for the first time. This stopped the persecution of the Christians. But
Constantine did not declare himself as god or create an official religion. The rise of Christianity
in both Byzantium and Rome came when Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (312 AD), which
allowed Christians to practice their religion freely and to make new converts.

Then, Constantine moved the empire to a new capital at Byzantium (now Turkey), a sea
trading town in the eastern part of the empire. He built a new city called Constantinople to avoid
the chaos in Rome. Constantinople stood on a strategic site between the continents of Europe and
Asia and controlled the Bosphorus. Strait, an important sea passage for goods from east to west.
The new capital became a magnificent city, with decorated palaces, monasteries and churches,
beautiful homes, free hospitals and a good water system. The city prospered and the population
grew to 600, 000. The Eastern Roman Empire was called Byzantium Other Byzantine Emperors.
There were altogether 88 emperors during the 11th centuries of Byzantine history. Among the
most famous of Constantine’s successors were as follows:

1. Theodosius (379-395 AD), who made Christianity the only official religion of the state in 381
AD. With this union of church and state, the first Christian state in history was established.
2. Justinian (527-565 AD), who ruled with his wife, Queen Theodorica, among their
achievements were the magnificent Cathedral of St. Sophia and the compilation of the Justinian
Code.
3. Basil II (976-1025 AD), who took the empire to its largest extent, by conquering the Balkan
Peninsula, Syria, and Iraq.
Byzantine Life and Culture. Byzantium was a world of beauty, drama and deep Spirituality.
The Byzantine people had a passion for three things as follows:
(1) spectacular popular circuses,
(2) intrigues, and
(3) religiosity.

Circuses. Like the Romans, the Byzantines loved to watch games and spectacles. At the Circus
Maximus, a large open stadium, they regularly watched chariot races, duels, Celebrations, and
even, public executions, the word “circus,” featuring acrobatics and animals, comes from the
Ancient Roman circus.

Court Intrigues. Byzantine was full of the intrigues of emperors, priests, advisers, women and
even eunuchs (castrated men}. There were many poisonings, conspiracies, and violent deaths of
emperors, and leaders, the main reason for this was the lack of a law of succession. The emperor
could lose his throne at any time, even before death. This atmosphere of plots and counterplots
cast a long shadow on Byzantine history. Indeed, “byzantine politics’ means devious and full of
intrigues. Of the 88 Byzantine emperors, 29 died violent deaths; another 13 fled to monasteries
for safety. One emperor was publicly tortured and executed at the stadium in 1185.

Intense Religiosity. The Byzantines were deeply religious. They took pride in the fact that they
were the first Christian Empire. The emperor was the chief representative of God on earth and he
ruled absolutely. Byzantium was a union of church and state (theocracy). Now that Christianity
was the official religion, the Christians turned on their non-Christian brethren and persecuted
them! Freedom of religion no longer existed for the non-Christians. The church and state
combined to: force the Christian religion on everybody. They punished and killed anyone who
did not convert to Christianity.
 The Eastern Orthodox Church treasured mysticism and religious icons. Monks, hermits and
religious acts were highly respected, and encouraged. Mystics claimed special religious
experiences, like trances, visions, bleeding, etc. Their religious literature consisted of famous
works by early Christian mystics, like St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, and St. Gregory of Nyssa.
The use of religious art, music and architecture to glorify Christianity reached new heights in
Constantinople. Throughout the city were religious shrines, churches, relics and icons (religious
pictures). The central focus of their religious culture was their worship services at the Hagia
Sophia or Cathedral of the Holy Spirit (Holy Wisdom), which was finished in 537 AD. It was the
largest church of its time and the jewel of the Byzantine Empire. The Ayasofya (as it is known in
Turkish) became a mosque after the Ottoman conquest, and later a museum after the secular
takeover of modern Turkey.

Byzantine Contributions to Civilization. The Byzantine Empire contributions to civilization

were as follows:
1. The Eastern Orthodox Church, the second largest branch of Christianity, survived. The
Orthodox Church is the oldest branch of Christianity, older than the Roman Catholic Church.
The Orthodox Church brought Christianity to Russia, Greece, Eastern Europe, the Balkans,
North Africa, Asia Minor, and other countries.
2. The first Christian state was established in Byzantium. The church had both spiritual and legal
power to enforce the religion on anybody. Of course, this was contrary to the teachings of Jesus
who never used force to convince others. “My kingdom,” he said, “is not of this world”
3. It preserved the Greek language and alphabet.
4. It preserved and codified Roman law in the Justinian Code, which influenced political and
legal thought. Truly, the Justinian Code is not a Roman but a Byzantine achievement.
5. For the first time, art, architecture, music and literature were devoted to Christianity.
Byzantine icons (religious pictures), mosaics, and book illuminations are among the most
beautiful religious art in the world. Their liturgical hymns were deeply moving. They developed
the cross-square-dome type of church architecture. This is a church built with a dome and shaped
in the form of a huge square cross, like the Hagia Sophia. Byzantine abstract, interpretative art
has slanted or exaggerated figures.
6. The Byzantines invented the first flamethrower weapon. The “Greek fire,” a flamethrower gun
made Byzantine forces terrifying to their enemies.

Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire. At the height of its power, the Byzantine Empire
was so powerful that barbarian tribes dared not to attack it, as they attacked Rome. Odoacer, the
barbarian chief who sacked Rome, offered to become a mere lieutenant to the Byzantine
emperor. Nevertheless, being the first Christian kingdom did not guarantee immortality.
Byzantine was only a mere mortal’s idea of a heaven on earth. Its decline and fall were due to the
following reasons:
1. Political intrigues;
2. The Great Schism with the Catholic Church;
3. Economic loss; and
4. The Moorish invasions.

Political Intrigues. The Byzantine Empire had no law on succession of power for the emperor.
Despite having the famous Justinian law for ordinary mortals, the Byzantines forgot to provide
an orderly transition of power from one emperor to another. Hence, there were frequent political
intrigues to seize the throne. These struggles for power within the empire seriously weakened it.
The Great Schism between the Roman and Orthodox Churches. The Great Schism (total
split) began with clashes between the two branches of Christianity in Byzantium and in Rome.
The “Great Schism” between the Roman and Orthodox Churches still exists today. The dispute
involved theological, political and territorial disputes. The theological disputes included church
dogma and the interpretation of the Bible. One of the most debilitating conflicts involved the use
of religious images (paintings or statues) to represent Jesus, Mary and the ~ saints. One opinion
held that images were educational tools, an aid in worship for those who could not read scripture.
The Orthodox allowed small pictures (icons) but not big statues. Their opinion was that big
statues were idols and disobeyed the second commandment (Exodus 20: 46).

In 726 AD, the Byzantine Emperor issued an edict approving iconoclasm (destruction of
idols). It became a full-blown controversy, with riots in the streets of Rome, and Constantinople,
and unrest throughout the empire. The Seventh Council in 787 AD reversed this edict and
allowed religious statues. Other disputes were political in nature. The bishops in the West
recognized the Pope, the bishop of Rome, as the head of all Christendom, the bishops in the East,
however, recognized the supremacy of the patriarch of Constantinople; the two churches
completed and hindered the spread of missionaries. Finally, in 1054 AD, the two churches
excommunicated each other (condemned to hell). The Great Schism was one of the most tragic
divisions in the history of Christianity. So great was their mutual hatred, that in 1104 AD,
Catholic crusaders from Rome attacked the Christians in Byzantium, instead of the Moors in
Palestine. Later, when Constantinople was threatened by the Ottoman Turks, the Eastern
Christians refused to ask Rome for help “Better the sultan’s turban,” they said, “than the pope’s
tiara.” Their wish was granted.

Economic Loss. From the 11" century, the Eastern Byzantine. Empire began to decline. Venice
and other Italian city states picked up the East-West trade and because a big drop in Byzantine
business. Rather than go to Constantinople to buy goods, European merchants took the shorter
route to Venice. Constantinople’s business and power declined. By the 14“centur, the population
in Byzantium had dropped by one-sixth to only 100, 000.

The Moorish Turk Invasions. At first, the Seljuk Turks harassed the Byzantine Empire. Then
the Ottoman Turks came and took more lands. Finally, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman sultan
on May 29, 1453 AD, after a two-month siege. In the final battle, the Byzantine emperor got off
his horse and died in hand-to-hand fighting. The fall of Constantinople closed down the east to
Christianity and threatened the west even more with Moorish invasion.

Heirs of the Byzantine Empire. With the fall of Constantinople, the religion and culture of
Byzantium went to Russia and Greece. These countries became Orthodox Christians. After
Constantinople fell, Ivan III of Russia -married the last Byzantine princess: The Russians had
been converted to Orthodox Christianity, due to their admiration for the Byzantine Empire. The
Czar claimed that, whereas Constantinople was the second Rome, Moscow was going to be the
third Rome. He adopted the Byzantine ceremony and the double-headed eagle, insignia of the
Byzantine emperor. His successors took the title of Czar (Caesar). Russia became the principal
heir of Byzantium, keeping alive the Eastern Orthodox Church, to which Prince Vladimir was
converted in 1000 AD when he was dazzled by the splendor of the Byzantine churches and
liturgy. The bishop of Moscow became the patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. The
Greeks also converted to Orthodox Christianity, although they have a different _ patriarch
(head). Interestingly, the patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Archbishop Makarios, acted
as head of state in the island of Cyprus for over two decades (1955-77).
 In recent times, the relations between Orthodox and Roman churches have improved. In
1965, their mutual excommunication was lifted. In 1995, Pope John Paul Il, the first Eastern
European pontiff, initiated moves at reconciliation.
Prepared by: Khelvince Capundan