Cationa ND Anion

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Chemistry AQA 
4.2 Organic & Inorganic Chemistry Practicals
CONTENTS
4.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
4.2.2 Identifying Anions & Cations
4.2.3 Distillation of a Product from a Reaction
4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups
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4.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements YOUR NOTES


Reactions of Group 2 Elements
Although there is no required practical specifically based around the reactions of Group 2
elements, these reactions are important and students tend to not do very well on these
questions in the exam
Practical style questions can be asked on this topic - you should learn this in detail
Reactions of Group 2 Elements
The reaction of all Group 2 metals with oxygen follows the following general equation:
2M (s) + O2 (g) → 2MO (s)
Where M is any metal in Group 2
Sr and Ba also form MO2
The reaction of all metals with water follows the following general equation:
Page 2 of 16
M (s) + 2H2O (l) → M(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g) YOUR NOTES

Except for, Be which does not react with water 
The reaction of all metals with dilute HCl follows the following general equation:
M (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The reaction of all metals with dilute H2SO4 follows the following general equation:
M (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
SrSO4 and BaSO4 are insoluble
Group 2 Reactions with Oxygen & Water Chemical Equations
Group 2 Reactions with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid & Dilute Sulfuric Acid Chemical Equations
Page 3 of 16
4.2.2 Identifying Anions & Cations YOUR NOTES


Identifying Anions & Cations
REQUIRED PRACTICAL 4
Test Tube Reactions
Simple test tube reactions can be done to identify the following ions:
Group 2 ions (M2+)
Ammonium ions (NH4+)
Halide ions (X-)
Hydroxide ions (OH-)
Carbonate ions (CO32-)
Sulfate ions (SO42-)
If the sample to be tested is a solid, then it must be dissolved in deionised water and made
into an aqueous solution
Testing for Group 2 Metals
Four test tubes should be placed in a test tube rack
Around 10 drops of 0.1 mol dm-3 barium chloride solution should be added to the first test
tube
Around 10 drops of dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) should be added to the same
test tube
Swirl the test tube carefully to mix well
Continue to add sodium hydroxide dropwise to the test tube, until it is in excess
This should then be repeated in the other test tubes, for calcium bromide solution,
magnesium chloride solution and strontium chloride solution
Any observations should be noted down in a suitable results table
The same test as above can also be done using ammonia solution and sulfuric acid solution
The positive results testing for the presence of Group 2 ions
Page 4 of 16
Testing for Ammonium Ions YOUR NOTES

About 10 drops of a solution containing ammonium ions, such as ammonium chloride, 
should be added to a clean test tube
About 10 drops of sodium hydroxide should be added using a pipette
The test tube should be swirled carefully to ensure that it is mixed well
The test tube of the solution should then be placed in a beaker of water, and the beaker of
water should be placed above a Bunsen burner, so that it can become a water bath
As the solution is heated gently, fumes will be produced
A pair of tongs should be used to hold a damp piece of red litmus paper near the mouth of
the test tube, to test the fumes
The red litmus paper will change colour and become blue in the presence of ammonia gas
Damp red litmus paper turning blue in the presence of ammonia gas
Testing for Halide Ions
The sample being tested should be added using a pipette to a test tube
The test tube should be placed into a test tube rack
A small amount of nitric acid should be added to the sample using a pipette, followed by a
small amount of silver nitrate solution
A precipitate will form, either white, cream or yellow, if a halide ion is present in the sample
Page 5 of 16
YOUR NOTES

The white, cream and yellow precipitates formed when halide ions react with silver nitrate
solution
The white precipitate will form if chloride ions are present in the sample
The white precipitate is AgCl
The cream precipitate will form if bromide ions are present in the sample
The cream precipitate is AgBr
The yellow precipitate will form if iodide ions are present in the sample
The yellow precipitate is AgI
Further Test using Ammonia
Page 6 of 16
YOUR NOTES

Results of the test with ammonia to further distinguish between silver halide precipitates
Testing for Hydroxide Ions
A small amount (around 1 cm3) of the solution should be added to a test tube using a
pipette
Test the pH of the solution using red litmus paper or universal indicator paper
The presence of hydroxide ions will turn the red litmus paper blue and the pH will be
clearly alkaline on the universal indicator paper if hydroxide ions are present
Testing for Carbonate Ions
A small amount (around 1 cm3) of dilute hydrochloric acid should be added to a test tube
using a pipette
An equal amount of sodium carbonate solution should then be added to the test tube using
a clean pipette
Page 7 of 16
As soon as the sodium carbonate solution is added, a bung with a delivery tube should be YOUR NOTES
attached to the test tube 
The delivery tube should transfer the gas which is formed into a different test tube
which contains a small amount of limewater (calcium hydroxide solution)
Carbonate ions will react with hydrogen ions from the acid to produce carbon dioxide gas
Carbon dioxide gas will turn the limewater milky
When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into limewater it will turn cloudy as calcium carbonate
is produced
Testing for Sulfate Ions
Acidify the sample with dilute hydrochloric acid and then add a few drops of aqueous
barium chloride
If a sulfate is present then a white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed:
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
Page 8 of 16
YOUR NOTES

A white precipitate of barium sulfate is a positive result for the presence of sulfate ions
 Exam Tip
HCl is added first to remove any carbonates which may be present and would also
produce a precipitate and interfere with the results.
Page 9 of 16
4.2.3 Distillation of a Product from a Reaction YOUR NOTES


Distillation of an Organic Product
Distillation of an organic product:
Distillation is a common practical completed in organic chemistry
For this course, the most common practical in which you will come across distillation and
reflux apparatus is the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohol
This required practical gives you the opportunity to show that:
You can use an electric heating mantle rather than a Bunsen burner for heating
Use laboratory apparatus for a variety of experimental techniques and can set up
glassware successfully
Safely and carefully handle different liquids, including those which are corrosive,
irritant, flammable and toxic
The Distillation Process:
To produce an aldehyde from a primary alcohol the reaction mixture must be heated
The aldehyde product has a lower boiling point than the alcohol ( since it has lost the H-
bonding) so it can be distilled off as soon as it forms
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YOUR NOTES

Heating under Distillation Apparatus

The reaction mixture needs to be heated until it boils using a heating mantle
Electric heating mantles are used for this because the temperature can be controlled,
and because you are using chemicals which are flammable
Quickfit apparatus is then set up, including a pear shaped flask, a still head and a
condenser
A Quickfit thermometer can be used, with the thermometer bulb sitting exactly where the
vapours will pass into the condenser
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A steady and constant stream of water passes through the condenser in a 'water jacket' - it YOUR NOTES
enters at the bottom of the condenser and the drainage pipe removes the water from the 
top of the condenser
The distillate which forms in the condenser drips directly into a receiving vessel
The distillate which should be collected, is that which is given off at +/- 2 oC of the
boiling point of the desired product
Some distillate may be given off below this temperature - this needs to be discarded
and a clean vessel used to collect the desired product
Stop collecting the distillate if the temperature rises above +/- 2oC of the boiling point
of the desired product
Page 12 of 16
4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups YOUR NOTES


Testing for Organic Functional Groups
For this practical, you need to be able to give the tests and positive results for the following
functional groups:
Alkenes
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Carboxylic Acids
Testing for an Alkene
Halogens can be used to test if a molecule is unsaturated (i.e. contains a double bond)
Br2(aq) is an orange-yellow solution, called bromine water
The unknown compound is shaken with the bromine water
If the compound is unsaturated, an addition reaction will take place and the coloured
solution will decolourise
The bromine water test is the standard test for unsaturation in alkenes
Testing an Alcohol
Alcohols can be classified as either primary, secondary or tertiary, depending on the
placement of the -OH group
Primary and secondary alcohols can both be oxidised, but tertiary alcohols cannot
To test for the alcohol functional group, add a small amount (1 cm3) of the substance to a
test tube using a pipette
Then, add a small amount (1 cm3) of a suitable oxidising agent to the sample using a
different pipette
Page 13 of 16
The most commonly used oxidising agent for this test is acidified potassium YOUR NOTES
dichromate solution (K2Cr2O7, acidified with H2SO4) 
Add a stopper to the test tube and shake well
Place in a hot water bath (heated to around 60 oC) for a few minutes
If a primary or secondary alcohol are present, then the colour will change from orange to
green
If a tertiary alcohol is present, then nothing will happen - the solution will remain orange
Positive test results of the oxidation of a primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol
Testing for an Aldehyde
Fehling’s solution
Fehling’s solution is an alkaline solution containing copper(II) ions which act as the
oxidising agent
When warmed with an aldehyde, the aldehyde is oxidised to a carboxylic acid and
the Cu2+ ions are reduced to Cu+ ions
In the alkaline conditions, the carboxylic acid formed will be neutralised to a
carboxylate ion (the -COOH will lose a proton to become -COO– )
The carboxylate ion (-COO–) will form a salt with a positively charged metal ion such as
sodium (-COO–Na+)
The clear blue solution turns opaque due to the formation of a red precipitate, copper(I)
oxide
Ketones cannot be oxidised and therefore give a negative test when warmed with
Fehling’s solution
Page 14 of 16
YOUR NOTES

The copper(II) ions in Fehling’s solution are oxidising agents, oxidising the aldehyde to a
carboxylic acid and getting reduced themselves to copper(I) ions in the Cu2O precipitate
Tollens’ reagent
Tollens' reagent is an aqueous alkaline solution of silver nitrate in excess ammonia solution
Tollens' reagent is also called ammoniacal silver nitrate solution
When warmed with an aldehyde, the aldehyde is oxidised to a carboxylic acid and the
Ag+ ions are reduced to Ag atoms
In the alkaline conditions, the carboxylic acid will become a carboxylate ion and form a
salt
The Ag atoms form a silver ‘mirror’ on the inside of the tube
Ketones cannot be oxidised and therefore give a negative test when warmed with Tollens’
reagent
Page 15 of 16
The Ag+ ions in Tollens’ reagent are oxidising agents, oxidising the aldehyde to a carboxylic YOUR NOTES
acid and getting reduced themselves to silver atoms 
Testing for a Carboxylic Acid
Carboxylic acids in solution have a pH of around 3, so measuring the pH is a way of testing
for the presence of the carboxylic acid functional group in an organic sample
The end of a glass rod could be dipped into the solution and then carefully dripped onto
indicator paper
Or, a pH probe could be used, which would give you an exact pH
Since carboxylic acids are acids, they will react with a carbonate solution to produce
carbon dioxide gas
1-2 cm3 of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (NaHCO3)
could be added using a pipette
If bubbles of gas are seen, this is a good indicator that the solution is a carboxylic acid
If an exam question asks you to simply distinguish between different types of organic
compound, and the carboxylic acid is the only organic compound present which
would react in this way with a carbonate solution, then this is enough
The gas produced could then be bubbled into limewater
If the limewater turns milky or cloudy, then this proves that the gas produced was carbon
dioxide
Page 16 of 16

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4.2 Organic & Inorganic Chemistry Practicals

4.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements YOUR NOTES

M (s) + 2H2O (l) → M(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g) YOUR NOTES

4.2.2 Identifying Anions & Cations YOUR NOTES

Testing for Ammonium Ions YOUR NOTES

4.2.3 Distillation of a Product from a Reaction YOUR NOTES

Heating under Distillation Apparatus

4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups YOUR NOTES

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