LECTURE-29

Maxwell’s equations:
Before maxwell:
⃗ . 𝐸⃗ = 𝜌 →Gauss law
∇ 𝜀
0

⃗
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝜕𝐵 →Faraday’s law
∇ 𝜕𝑡

⃗∇. 𝐵
⃗ =0

⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 →Ampere’s law

Problem with Ampere’s law:

Divergence of curl is always zero.
⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕
⃗∇. (∇
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) = ⃗∇. (− ) = − (∇⃗ .𝐵
⃗)=0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

But,
⃗ . (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝐵
⃗)=∇
⃗ . (𝜇0 𝐽) = 𝜇0 (∇
⃗ . 𝐽)

⃗∇. 𝐽 = − 𝜕𝜌 i.e., ⃗∇. 𝐽 = 0 only for steady currents.

𝜕𝑡

⃗∇. 𝐽 is not always zero i.e., Amperes law is only correct for steady current.

How Maxwell fixed Ampere’s law:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ .𝐽 = −
∇ ⃗ . 𝐸⃗ ) = −∇
= − (𝜀0 ∇ ⃗ . (𝜀0 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ . (𝐽 + 𝜀0
∇ )=0
𝜕𝑡
𝜀0 𝜕𝐸⃗
So, if we combine 𝜕𝑡
with 𝐽 in amperes law, it would make the divergence zero.

So, the modified Ampere’s law becomes

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ ×𝐵
∇ ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗
The extra term 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡 is called the displacement current density.

𝜕𝐸⃗
𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡

⃗∇ × 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝐽𝑑
From Faraday’s law, we had a changing magnetic field producing electric field.
From modified Ampere’s law, we have a changing electric field producing a magnetic field.
Displacement current:

𝜕𝐸⃗ 𝜕 𝜕𝜙𝐸
𝐼𝑑 = ∫ 𝐽𝑑 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 = ∫ 𝜀0 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 = 𝜀0 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 = 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜙𝐸
𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡

Q1.
1
Electric field energy density = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2

Proof:
1 1𝜀 𝐴
𝑈 𝐶𝑣 2 ( 0 𝑣2) 𝜀0 𝑣 2 1 𝑣
𝑈𝐸 = =2 = 2 𝑑
= = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 [𝐸 = ]
𝑉 𝑉 𝐴𝑑 2𝑑 2 2 𝑑
𝜀0
Energy stored in electric field =
2
∫ 𝐸 2 𝑑𝜏

𝐵2
Magnetic field energy density = 2𝜇
0

1
Energy stored in magnetic field = 2𝜇 ∫ 𝐵2 𝑑𝜏
0

Total energy stored in electromagnetic field is

1 𝐵2
𝑈𝑒𝑚 = ∫ (𝜀0 𝐸 2 + ) 𝑑𝜏
2 𝜇0

Poynting’s theorem:
Mathematical statement:
𝑑 1 𝐵2 𝑑𝑊 1
− [ ∫ (𝜀0 𝐸 2 + ) 𝑑𝜏] = + ∮(𝐸⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜇0 𝑑𝑡 𝜇0
1
𝜇0
(𝐸⃗ ⃗ ) = 𝑆 → poynting vector (energy per unit time per unit area transported by the fields).
×𝐵

𝑑 𝑑𝑊
− 𝑈𝑒𝑚 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
+ ∮ 𝑆. 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Work done on the charges by the electromagnetic force plus the energy that flowed through the surface
is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the field.
Q2.
Q3.