THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLGY AKURE

P.M.B 704, ONDO STATE

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

HYDROGRAPHY OF THE GULF OF MEXICO

BY

ADANLAWO OLAJIDE JOSEPH

MATRIC NUMBER

MST/16/7268

SUBMITTED TO:

THE DEPARTMENT OF MARINE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THIS REPORT IS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE SEA

PRACTICAL AND REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A B. TECH IN MARINE
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
 CERTIFICATION

This is to attest that ADANLAWO OLAJIDE with matric number MST/16/7268 of the Department of
Marine of Science and Technology in the School of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Federal University of
Technology, Akure did this project, the Hydrography of the Gulf of Mexico.

….………….. …………..

Head of Department Student

Date and signature Date and Signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to God almighty, the creator of the universe, giver of life and master of all oceans for the
successful project. He alone deserves my utmost gratitude.
I would like to use this opportunity to thank my supervisor, Dr M. Ogundare, for encouraging
and guiding me in my report and for providing valuable suggestions.
I would also like to thank my parents Mr. and Mrs. Jayieola Adanlawo for their undivided
support throughout the sea practical field work.
This report would have not come so far without the support from the people I mentioned before.
I’m indebited to you all.
I also appreciate my departmental collegues, especially my group members. I believe that this
project will make significant impact by inspiring someone else to continue my research.
Thank you!
 DEDICATION
I humbly dedicate this research work to the Almighty God, the incredible father, who has been
the source of my strength even till now and has always been my help from ages past, my hope
for years to come. Indeed, He has made this research work a success.
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
M. Pidwirny (2006), The ocean has a high proportion of saltwater, covers more than 70% of the
Earth's surface, and is a multifaceted and changing ecosystem. It is widely recognized for its own
essential function in controlling the planet's climate and supporting diversity, and it is divided
into five primary basins: the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Pacific oceans, some of
which are linked by only a complex network of ocean currents. Each basin has distinct physical
attributes, such as temperature, salinity, and currents, and the average depth of such an ocean is
approximately 12,080 feet.

The ocean is a vast and continuous expanse of saltwater separated into numerous interrelated
regions, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, n.d.). The
ocean is an essential component of the Earth's ecosystem, regulating weather patterns, ocean
circulation, and the global carbon cycle. Bob and Drogin (2009), The ocean is home to a diverse
spectrum of marine life, including fish, mammals, reptiles, birds, and invertebrates that have
adapted to survive in ways ranging from the deep ocean to shallow coral reefs. Furthermore, the
ocean sustains a variety of significant fisheries and provides a living for millions of individuals
worldwide

Arnold and Gordon (2004), The ocean contributes significantly to climate change mitigation by
absorbing and storing huge amounts of solar energy, which is subsequently transferred via ocean
currents and atmospheric circulation. Furthermore, the ocean works as a carbon dioxide sink,
controlling the Earth's atmospheric chemistry and mitigating the effects of climate change (IUCN
2017).

Regrettably, human-caused problems, including pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, and

climate change, have had a substantial impact on the health and ecosystems of the ocean. These
effects have far-reaching implications for the ocean's services, such as food security, coastal
protection, and tourism (Halpern et al. 2019). To address these issues, governments, the
commercial sector, and civil society must work together (Olsen, Erik, Jason S., et al. 2018).
Despite its importance, much of the ocean remains unknown and undiscovered. Scientists can
now study the ocean in greater depth, from its geology and chemistry to its biological richness
and significance in the Earth system, thanks to advances in technology and research.

1.1.1 TYPES OF OCEAN

There are five main oceans on Earth, and here are some details on each:

1. Pacific Ocean: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean on Earth, covering
approximately 63 million square miles and holding more than half of Earth's free water. It
extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is
bordered by Asia, Australia, North America, and South America. The Pacific Ocean is
known for its active tectonic plates, which have resulted in the formation of many
volcanoes and earthquakes in the region. The Pacific Ocean is also home to the Great
Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef system, and a wide variety of marine life,
including whales, dolphins, sharks, and sea turtles.
2. Indian Ocean: The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean on Earth, covering
approximately 28 million square miles and extending from Africa to Australia and from
the Middle East to Southeast Asia. It is known for its warm waters and strong currents,
which have contributed to the formation of coral reefs and other marine ecosystems. The
Indian Ocean is also an important trade route and has played a significant role in the
cultural and economic development of the regions surrounding it. The ocean is home to a
diverse array of marine life, including whales, dolphins, and sea turtles.
3. Southern Ocean: Also known as the Antarctic Ocean, the Southern Ocean is the smallest
and coldest ocean on Earth, surrounding Antarctica and extending north to the 60th
parallel. It is characterized by strong currents and a unique ecosystem that includes
penguins, seals, and other cold-adapted species. The Southern Ocean is also an important
carbon sink, absorbing a significant portion of the carbon dioxide emissions from human
activity.
4. Arctic Ocean: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean on Earth, covering
approximately 5 million square miles and surrounding the North Pole. It is characterized
by cold temperatures and sea ice, which make it difficult to navigate and study. The
Arctic Ocean is home to a variety of marine life, including whales, seals, and polar bears,
 and is an important region for subsistence hunting and fishing by indigenous
communities.
The ocean is also experiencing significant changes due to climate change, with melting
sea ice and warming waters having profound impacts on the region's ecosystems and
human communities.
5. The Atlantic Ocean: According to NOAA, the Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean
in the world, covering an area of approximately 106.4 million square kilometers. It is
bordered by North and South America to the west, and Europe and Africa to the east. The
ocean got its name from the Greek mythological figure, Atlas, who was believed to hold
up the sky.
The Atlantic Ocean is divided into two main parts: The North Atlantic and the South
Atlantic. The North Atlantic is home to several major currents, including the Gulf
Stream, which flows from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern Atlantic, warming the
eastern coast of North America and Europe. The South Atlantic is known for its strong
winds and currents, which have made it an important trade route for centuries (Dickson
and Henry Newton 1911).
The Atlantic Ocean is home to a diverse array of marine life, including whales, dolphins,
sharks, and various species of fish. It also contains several important shipping lanes,
making it a vital economic resource for many countries. In addition, the Atlantic Ocean
plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate by absorbing and redistributing heat
around the globe.

1.1.2 ATLANTIC OCEAN WATER MASSES

The water mass of the Atlantic Ocean is divided into several layers or masses, based on factors
such as temperature, salinity, and density. These layers are important for the ocean's circulation
and play a crucial role in regulating global climate. Here are some of the main water masses in
the Atlantic Ocean:

1. Surface layer: This is the topmost layer of the ocean, which is in contact with the
atmosphere. It is relatively warm and contains high levels of dissolved oxygen.
 2. Subtropical gyre: This is a layer of warm water that is found in the subtropical regions of
the North and South Atlantic. It is characterized by low nutrient levels and low oxygen
levels.
3. North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW): This is a layer of cold, dense water that forms in
the northern Atlantic and sinks to the ocean floor. It is an important part of the ocean's
global circulation system, which helps to distribute heat and nutrients around the world.
4. Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW): This is a layer of very cold, dense water that forms
near Antarctica and sinks to the ocean floor. It is the coldest and densest water mass in
the ocean and plays a key role in the ocean's thermohaline circulation.
5. Mediterranean Water: This is a layer of warm, saline water that flows from the
Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic. It is an important source of heat and salt for the
Atlantic Ocean and helps to drive its circulation.

These different water masses have distinct physical and chemical properties, which affect the
ocean's circulation, marine life, and global climate. Understanding these water masses is
important for predicting and mitigating the impacts of climate change on the ocean and its
ecosystems.

1.1.3 TROPICAL ATLANTIC OCEAN

The tropical Atlantic Ocean is a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies within the tropical
latitudes, roughly between the equator and 30 degrees north and south. It is characterized by
warm waters, high levels of sunlight, and low nutrient levels, which support a diverse array of
marine life, including corals, tropical fish, and marine mammals.

The tropical Atlantic Ocean is influenced by several important ocean currents, including the
North Equatorial Current, the South Equatorial Current, and the North Brazil Current. These
currents help to distribute heat and nutrients throughout the region, and play a key role in the
ocean's circulation.

The tropical Atlantic Ocean is also an important economic resource for many countries,
particularly those in the Caribbean and West Africa. The region is home to several important
fisheries, which provide food and livelihoods for millions of people. It is also an important
shipping route, connecting the Americas with Europe and Africa.
However, the tropical Atlantic Ocean is facing several environmental challenges, including
overfishing, pollution, and climate change. Rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification are
threatening the health of coral reefs and other marine ecosystems, while plastic waste and other
pollutants are harming marine life and disrupting ocean food webs.

Efforts are being made to protect the tropical Atlantic Ocean and its ecosystems. For example,
marine protected areas have been established in several countries to conserve coral reefs and
other vulnerable habitats, and measures are being taken to reduce plastic pollution and other
sources of ocean debris.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
One of the key purposes of studying the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is to achieve various
aims and objectives, such as:

1. The hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea aims to understand the physical and chemical
characteristics of the ocean in the region, including temperature, salinity, currents, and
water mass distribution.
2. The objective is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the oceanographic
processes in the Gulf of Guinea and to support sustainable management of the region's
marine resources.
1.3 MOTIVATION

Studying the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is driven by multiple motivations. A significant
one is to enhance our comprehension of the oceanographic features of the region, such as its
complex currents, tides, temperature, salinity, and nutrient distribution. Such understanding is
vital for a broad range of applications, including weather forecasting, ocean pollution modeling,
and fisheries management.

Another motivation is to monitor the region's vulnerability to climate change, as the Gulf of
Guinea is highly susceptible to the impact of rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and changing
precipitation patterns. A comprehensive assessment of the effects of climate change in the Gulf
of Guinea is crucial for developing strategies to protect the region's ecosystems and human
activities from these impacts.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

Studying the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea has several justifications, including
understanding oceanographic characteristics, monitoring climate change, assessing the health of
marine ecosystems, supporting safe and efficient shipping, and promoting oil and gas exploration
and production.
1.5 STUDY AREA

The Gulf of Guinea is a large geographical region located on the west coast of Africa that
includes the coastal countries of Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, and
Angola.

1.5.1 RELIEF

The Gulf of Guinea's geography is diverse, with characteristics such as continental shelves, deep
ocean basins, and various islands and coastal landforms. The African continent dominates the
eastern and western parts of the Gulf, while Bioko Island, historically known as Fernando Po,
and several smaller islands distinguish the central region. Furthermore, the Gulf of Guinea is fed
by numerous major rivers, including the Niger, Volta, and Congo, which discharge huge
volumes of freshwater and debris into the ocean.

The Gulf of Guinea's coastline portions are mainly low-lying and swampy, with numerous
estuaries and mangrove forests. The region is also distinguished by a number of mountain
ranges, including the Cameroon Highlands, which reach heights of up to 4,095 meters. The Gulf
of Guinea contains considerable offshore oil and gas reserves, both in deep water and on
continental shelves. Overall, the Gulf of Guinea's topography is dynamic and diversified,
affected by both geological and oceanic influences.
 Figure 1.0 Showing relief map of the Gulf of Guinea showing the study area.

1.5.2 OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTLING

The Gulf of Guinea exhibits intricate oceanographic features that significantly affect the climate,
marine ecosystems, and human activities in the area. The region experiences the influence of
multiple ocean currents, such as the Guinea Current, the Equatorial Counter Current, and the
Benguela Current, that affect the water's temperature, salinity, and nutrient distribution.

The Guinea Current, a warm current flowing southward along West Africa's coast, brings
nutrient-rich waters from the Atlantic Ocean into the Gulf of Guinea, supporting the growth of
phytoplankton and productive fisheries. Conversely, the Equatorial Counter Current, flowing
eastwards along the equator, triggers upwelling, leading to the growth of marine life.

Moreover, the Gulf of Guinea is affected by the African monsoon, bringing heavy rainfall and
affecting the freshwater balance of the ocean. During the monsoon season, the region's major
rivers discharge substantial freshwater volumes into the Gulf of Guinea, altering water's salinity
and nutrient concentrations and affecting marine life's distribution.

The oceanographic settlement of the Gulf of Guinea is thus intricate and dynamic, influenced by
various factors such as ocean currents, upwelling, and the African monsoon. Comprehending
these oceanographic processes is vital for forecasting weather patterns, modeling ocean
pollution, managing fisheries, and conserving the region's marine ecosystems.

1.5.3 CLIMATE

The Gulf of Guinea's tropical location and oceanographic features have a significant impact on
its climate. The region experiences high temperatures, high humidity, and heavy rainfall due to
its tropical climate, which is strongly influenced by the African monsoon. The monsoon brings
heavy rains from May to October and dry weather from November to April.

The oceanographic features of the Gulf of Guinea also contribute to the region's climate. For
instance, the Guinea Current brings warm water from the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Guinea,
contributing to the high temperatures in the area. Additionally, the Equatorial Counter Current
promotes upwelling, bringing nutrient-rich waters to the surface and supporting marine life.

Understanding the interplay between the Gulf of Guinea's climate and oceanography is critical
for predicting weather patterns, modeling ocean pollution, managing fisheries, and safeguarding
the region's marine ecosystems. Furthermore, the Gulf of Guinea is susceptible to the effects of
climate change, such as rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and changing precipitation patterns,
which could have significant consequences for the region's climate and oceanographic
characteristics.

1.5.4 VEGETATION

The Gulf of Guinea exhibits a diverse range of vegetation that is influenced by a variety of
factors such as climate, soil, and topography. Coastal areas are dominated by mangrove forests,
which serve as a vital barrier against erosion and storm surges and provide habitats for a wide
array of marine and terrestrial species. Inland regions are marked by tropical rainforests, which
are one of the most biodiverse ecosystems globally, harboring a plethora of plant, animal, and
insect species, many of which are unique to the area.

The vegetation in the Gulf of Guinea is also impacted by human activities such as logging,
agriculture, and urbanization, leading to deforestation and the replacement of natural habitats
with human-dominated landscapes. Though efforts are being made to restore degraded
ecosystems and promote sustainable land use practices in some areas, these endeavors are
hindered by the region's fast-paced population growth and limited resources. Overall, the
vegetation in the Gulf of Guinea is an essential element of the region's natural heritage and
provides a range of crucial ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, soil preservation,
and biodiversity conservation.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

The Gulf of Guinea is located in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, extending from Cape
Lopez in Gabon to the Niger Delta in Nigeria. It is bordered by 11 coastal countries in West and
Central Africa, including Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The hydrography
of the Gulf of Guinea has been studied extensively over the years, with a focus on its physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics.

Dada et al. (2020), found that the region's temperature and salinity are subject to high spatial and
temporal variability, influenced by various factors such as monsoon winds, upwelling events,
and water mass mixing. Additionally, it was observed that the vertical structure of the water
column also exhibits significant variability, with the depth of the thermocline and halocline
changing seasonally. In their research, Dada et al. (2020) discovered that the region's temperature
and salinity levels fluctuate significantly in both space and time. This is attributed to multiple
factors, including the monsoon winds, upwelling events, and the mixing of different water
masses. The authors also noted that the vertical structure of the water column varies
substantially, with the depth of the thermocline and halocline fluctuating seasonally.

Dada et al. (2020) underscore the significance of comprehending the driving mechanisms
responsible for the variability in the region's oceanography. The monsoon winds are a crucial
factor that influences the distribution of temperature and salinity by driving the ocean circulation.
Periodic upwelling events provide nutrient-rich water, promoting the growth of marine
organisms. Furthermore, the mixing of different water masses can alter the physical and
chemical properties of the water column. Moreover, the study emphasizes the importance of
monitoring the vertical structure of the water column to comprehend the region's oceanography.
The thermocline and halocline act as a boundary between warm and salty surface water and the
colder, less salty deep water, regulating the exchange of heat and nutrients between the surface
and the deep ocean. Changes in their depth can impact physical and biological processes in the
water column, affecting marine ecosystem productivity and diversity.

The region's oceanography exhibits significant v variability, which has far-reaching implications
for the marine organisms that inhabit the area. Variations in temperature and salinity levels can
impact the growth, reproduction, and survival of various species. Conversely, upwelling events
can stimulate the growth of phytoplankton and other organisms at the base of the food chain.
Additionally, mixing of different water masses can alter nutrient availability, thereby influencing
the productivity and diversity of marine ecosystems.

Comprehending the region's oceanography is essential for managing its fisheries and other
marine resources, as well as predicting and mitigating the effects of climate change. The ocean is
critical to regulating the earth's climate, by absorbing and storing large amounts of heat and
carbon dioxide. The region's oceanography, which is influenced by factors such as monsoon
winds and upwelling events, can have a significant impact on the exchange of heat and carbon
dioxide between the ocean and the atmosphere.

In summary, the study highlights the complexity and dynamic nature of the region's
oceanography, which is shaped by multiple interacting factors. Understanding the underlying
mechanisms driving this variability is crucial for managing the region's marine resources and
predicting and mitigating the impacts of climate change (Dada et al. 2020).

The Gulf of Guinea has been the subject of several studies investigating its circulation patterns
and oceanographic characteristics. Awo and Omotosho (2018), it was revealed that the area has a
complex oceanographic regime as a result of multiple physical processes interacting, such as the
seasonal monsoon winds, the Guinea Current, and the Congo River plume. It was observed that
the equatorial currents in the region experience a semi-annual reversal, resulting in both
upwelling and downwelling events, which have a significant influence on the biological
productivity of the region.

Extensive research has been conducted on the Gulf of Guinea's biological productivity, primarily
focusing on its fisheries resources and primary production. The Gulf of Guinea stands out as one
of the most productive marine ecosystems globally, with a rich variety of phytoplankton and
zooplankton species. The primary production in the region is subject to numerous factors,
including the upwelling events and nutrient inputs from the Congo River (Ikpewe et al. (2020),

Furthermore, Fadare et al. (2019) reports that the Gulf of Guinea is currently facing substantial
anthropogenic stressors, such as oil exploration and exploitation, coastal development, and
overfishing.

It was observed that these human activities are causing several environmental and ecological
consequences, including the degradation of habitats, oil spills, and reductions in fish populations.

Njoku et al. (2019) looked into how the Congo River plume affects the physical and
biogeochemical characteristics of the Gulf of Guinea. It was determined that the plume, which
stretches offshore for hundreds of kilometers, has a significant influence on the distribution of
nutrients and other dissolved substances in the region.

Several investigations have also explored the circulation patterns and variations of the Guinea
Current, a prominent oceanic feature of the Gulf of Guinea region. Okeke-Ogbuafor et al. (2020)
found that the current displays considerable year-to-year interannual variability in its strength
and position. The authors observed that several factors contribute to this variability, including the
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation's intensity and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

Several initiatives have been implemented to increase our understanding of the Gulf of Guinea's
hydrography and promote sustainable management practices. The Abidjan Convention, which
dates back to 1981, is a regional pact aimed at safeguarding the marine and coastal environment
of the Gulf of Guinea and promoting sustainable development in the area. The convention has
played a key role in encouraging scientific research and collaboration within the region, as well
as raising awareness about the importance of the Gulf of Guinea's marine ecosystem.

2.1.1 PARAMETERS

The hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is influenced by a variety of factors, including ocean
currents, winds, tides, temperature, and salinity. Some of the key parameters that affect the
hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea include:

2.1.1.1 SURFACE CURRENTS

The Gulf of Guinea is influenced by the South Equatorial Current, which flows westward across
the equator and is diverted southward by the African continent. This current influence the surface
temperature and salinity of the Gulf of Guinea (A.K. Voegeli, et al. 2019).

A.K. Voegeli, et al. (2019), the North Equatorial Current, for example, flows east to west across
the equator and can bring warm, low-salinity water into the Gulf of Guinea. Another important
current is the Benguela Current, which originates in the South Atlantic and flows northwards
along the southwest coast of Africa, affecting the oceanographic conditions in the region.
The surface currents in the Gulf of Guinea also influence the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters
from the ocean depths, which supports a diverse range of marine life in the area. In addition,
changes in the strength and direction of these currents can have significant impacts on weather
patterns, ocean circulation, and coastal ecosystems.

2.1.1.2 Importance of surface currents in the hydrography of Gulf of Guinea

Here are some of the ways in which surface currents are important for the hydrography of the
Gulf of Guinea:

1. Temperature and salinity: Surface currents can transport warm or cold water from one
region to another, affecting the temperature of the water. In addition, these currents can
also transport water with varying levels of salinity, which can have important
implications for marine ecosystems and human activities such as fishing and shipping.
2. Upwelling: Surface currents can also drive the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters from the
ocean depths. This process can lead to the growth of phytoplankton and other marine
organisms, which in turn support a diverse range of marine life.

3. Weather patterns: Changes in the strength and direction of surface currents can affect
weather patterns in the region. For example, strong ocean currents can transfer heat from
the ocean to the atmosphere, influencing the formation of clouds and precipitation.
4. Ocean circulation: Surface currents are an important component of the larger ocean
circulation system, which plays a crucial role in regulating global climate patterns. The
Gulf of Guinea is a key area where the Atlantic Ocean's circulation interacts with the
equatorial region, and changes in the surface currents can have significant impacts on this
circulation.

2.1.1.3 TEMPERATURE

According to A.K. Voegeli, et al. (2019), the temperature of the water in the Gulf of Guinea is
influenced by a number of factors, including the surrounding air temperature, ocean currents, and
the amount of sunlight the water receives. The region also experiences seasonal changes in wind
patterns and precipitation, which can impact the temperature and salinity of the water.
Liu, Y., Chassignet, E. P., & Foltz, G. R. (2013), the temperature of the Gulf of Guinea varies
depending on the season and location. Generally, the surface temperature is warmest in the
southern part of the gulf, where it can reach up to 30°C in the summer, and cooler in the northern
part of the gulf, where it can drop to around 20°C in the winter.

The surface temperatures in the Gulf of Guinea range between 25°C to 30°C (77°F to 86°F)
throughout the year, with the warmest temperatures occurring in the summer months between
December and March. Below the surface, the temperature typically decreases with increasing
depth, with temperatures ranging between 15°C to 25°C (59°F to 77°F) at depths greater than
200 meters (656 feet) (Oke, P. R., Allen, J. S., & Miller, R. N. 2003).

Temperature plays a significant role in the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea. Changes in
temperature can affect the density of seawater, which can influence ocean currents, mixing, and
circulation patterns. Temperature can also affect the growth and distribution of marine
organisms, as well as their metabolic rates and behavior. In the Gulf of Guinea, warmer surface
temperatures can promote the growth of phytoplankton and other primary producers, which form
the base of the marine food chain (A.K. Voegeli, et al. 2019).

2.1.1.4 Importance of Temperature in the hydrography of Gulf of Guinea

1. The hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is significantly influenced by temperature, which

affects the density of seawater, resulting in changes in ocean currents, mixing, and
circulation patterns. Temperature also plays a critical role in the growth and distribution
of marine organisms, their metabolic rates, and behavior.
2. The Gulf of Guinea experiences warmer surface temperatures, which promote the growth
of phytoplankton and other primary producers, forming the base of the marine food
chain. This sustains the growth and survival of higher trophic levels, including
commercially important fish species. Additionally, temperature influences the upwelling
of nutrient-rich waters from the ocean depths, supporting a diverse range of marine life in
the area.

2.1.1.5 SALINITY
Salinity also plays a significant role in the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea. The salinity of
seawater affects its density, which can influence ocean currents and mixing patterns. In the Gulf
of Guinea, salinity levels can be affected by a variety of factors, including precipitation,
evaporation, river discharge, and ocean currents (Bower, A. S., & Furey, H. H. 2019).

Mannini, A., & Giovanardi, O. (2004), the salinity of the Gulf of Guinea is influenced by the
inflow of freshwater from the rivers that flow into the gulf, such as the Niger, Volta, and Congo
rivers. The salinity is generally lower in the northern part of the gulf, where there is more
freshwater input, and higher in the southern part.

The Guinea Current, for example, brings high-salinity water from the Atlantic Ocean into the
Gulf of Guinea, while the South Equatorial Current can bring lower-salinity water into the
region. Changes in the strength and direction of these currents can therefore affect the salinity of
the water in the Gulf of Guinea.

2.1.1.6 Importance of Salinity in the hydrography of Gulf of Guinea

The Gulf of Guinea is a large body of water located on the western coast of Africa, and salinity
plays an important role in its hydrography. Here are some of the reasons why salinity is
significant:

1. Water density: Salinity affects the density of seawater, which in turn affects ocean
currents and the mixing of different water masses. In the Gulf of Guinea, the saltier
waters near the equator tend to sink and flow southward along the coast, while fresher
waters from the Congo River tend to flow westward and mix with the saltier waters.
2. Nutrient cycling: Salinity also influences the cycling of nutrients in the ocean. In the Gulf
of Guinea, the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters from the ocean depths is an important
source of nutrients for the region's rich fish populations. Salinity affects the mixing of
these deep waters with surface waters, which in turn affects nutrient availability.
 3. Climate: The Gulf of Guinea region is known for its wet and dry seasons, which are
influenced by large-scale atmospheric patterns. Salinity can affect the temperature and
humidity of the air above the ocean surface, which can in turn influence these
atmospheric patterns and the timing and intensity of the seasons.
4. Ocean chemistry: Salinity also affects the chemical composition of seawater, including its
pH and the concentrations of various ions. This can have implications for marine
organisms and ecosystems in the Gulf of Guinea.

2.1.1.7 PRESSURE

Pressure plays an important role in the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea. The pressure in this
region is influenced by various factors, such as atmospheric circulation patterns, ocean currents,
and local topography (Siedler, G., Griffies, S. M., Gould, J., & Church, J. A. (Eds.) 2013).

One of the main effects of pressure on the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is the formation of
upwelling zones along the coast. Upwelling is the process by which cold, nutrient-rich water
from deeper layers of the ocean is brought to the surface, replacing the warmer surface waters.
The pressure gradients created by the interaction between the ocean currents and the local
topography can drive the upwelling of water in this region. This process enhances the biological
productivity of the Gulf of Guinea, making it a rich fishing ground (Tchoua, F. M. P., & Njock,
M. G. 2018).

Another effect of pressure on the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is the formation of oceanic
eddies. Eddies are circular currents that can transport water and nutrients over long distances.
The pressure gradients in the Gulf of Guinea can create large-scale eddies, which can affect the
distribution of temperature, salinity, and nutrients in the region. These eddies can also transport
water and nutrients across the ocean, affecting the productivity of other regions (Mariani, P., &
Minnett, P. J. (Eds.). 2018).

In addition, pressure gradients can also influence the circulation patterns in the Gulf of Guinea.
The currents in this region are driven by both wind and pressure gradients, and their interactions
can result in complex circulation patterns. For example, the pressure gradients between the
equator and the Gulf of Guinea can create the South Equatorial Current, which flows westward
across the region. The interaction between this current and the local topography can also result in
the formation of boundary currents along the coast (Siedler, G., Griffies, S. M., Gould, J., &
Church, J. A. (Eds.). 2013).

2.1.1.8 Importance of pressure in the hydrography of Gulf of Guinea

Pressure influences several physical processes in the Gulf of Guinea's hydrography, including
upwelling, the creation of oceanic eddies, and circulation patterns.

According to Schmidt, M., Mohrholz, V., and Atsé, B. (2015), one of the most important effects
of pressure on the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea is the establishment of upwelling zones
along the shore. The pressure gradients caused by the combination of ocean currents and local
topography might cause water to upwell in this location. This process increases the Gulf of
Guinea's biological production, making it a productive fishing area.

The creation of oceanic eddies is another key source of pressure on the hydrography of the Gulf
of Guinea. These circular currents have the ability to convey Long-distance water and nutrient
transfer influence the distribution of temperature, salinity, and nutrients in the region. They can
also transport water and nutrients throughout the ocean, influencing the productivity of other
regions (Brandt, P., & Schott, F. 2005).

Additionally, pressure gradients can affect circulation patterns in the Gulf of Guinea, causing
currents and boundary currents to form along the shore. These currents are critical for the flow of
heat, salt, and nutrients, all of which are important to the region's ecosystem and climate (Muller-
Karger, F. E., Varela, R., Thunell, R., Luerssen, R., Hu, C., & Walsh, J. J. 2009).
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 MATERIALS USED

a. GLODAP Data: The Global Ocean Data Analysis Project (GLODAP) is a collaborative effort
to compile and synthesize oceanographic data from various sources, including research cruises,
profiling floats, and autonomous oceanographic instruments. The goal of GLODAP is to provide
a comprehensive and consistent global database of oceanographic data that can be used for
climate research, ocean biogeochemistry, and other scientific applications.
GLODAP data includes measurements of various parameters such as temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and carbon dioxide concentrations in the ocean. I would use the
GLODAP data to obtain the necessary information on the hydrography of the tropical Atlantic
Ocean (Gulf of Guinea).

b. The Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS-10) is a set of equations that

describes the thermodynamic properties of seawater. TEOS-10 provides an accurate and
consistent framework for calculating the thermodynamic properties of seawater, such as density,
specific heat, and sound speed, over a wide range of temperatures, pressures, and salinities. The
equations are based on the most recent measurements and models of the thermodynamic
properties of seawater.

The TEOS-10 equations are implemented in various software packages, such as the EXCEL,
MATLAB toolbox "TEOS-10" and the Python library "gsw" (Gibbs SeaWater). These packages
provide functions for calculating various thermodynamic properties of seawater, as well as for
converting between different oceanographic parameters, such as temperature, salinity, and
pressure. I would use the TEOS-10 to obtain the necessary information on the hydrography of
the tropical Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Guinea).

c. Excel Software is used for various purposes such as data analysis, calculation, visualization,
and automation of tasks using various tools and features such as charts, graphs, tables, and
macros.

3.2 METHODS

GLODAP data provides high-quality oceanographic data, including measurements of physical,

chemical, and biological properties such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH,
nutrients, and trace elements. These data can be used to analyze the hydrography of the Gulf of
Guinea, including its physical and biogeochemical characteristics.

To get parameters for the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea using GLODAP data, I typically
start by selecting relevant data from the GLODAP dataset. This involve filtering the data by
region, depth, temperature values, salinity values, and pressure values.
After the data have been selected, I use various tools and techniques to analyze the data and
extract relevant parameters. For example, I used (TEOS-10) to identify trends and patterns in the
data, to identify relationships between different variables.

Figure 1.1 Shows the interface of GLODAP site for downloading the data set

The Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS-10) is a standardized equation of state

for seawater that provides a unified framework for calculating various properties of seawater
such as temperature, salinity, pressure, density, and sound speed using the longitude and latitude
for each station. TEOS-10 can be used to calculate a wide range of parameters that are relevant
to the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea, including water mass properties, ocean currents, and
biogeochemical cycles.

I used TEOS-10 to get parameters for the hydrography of the Gulf of Guinea, I start by selecting
relevant data from existing datasets such as GLODAP which include the longitude, latitude,
temperature values, salinity values, pressure and density values. I then used TEOS-10 functions
or macros to calculate the desired parameters. For instance, I used TEOS-10 functions to
calculate absolute salinity based on temperature, salinity, and pressure data.

TEOS-10 can also be used to calculate other parameters relevant to the hydrography of the Gulf
of Guinea, such as the concentration of dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and trace elements.

Figure 1.2 Shows the interface of the TEOS-10

CHAPTER 4

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

In order to define the water masses in the Gulf of Guinea, we utilize SA, temperature, and
pressure measurements within the TEOS-10 framework. This approach encompasses the entire
range of water properties found in the Gulf of Guinea, including the Gulf Water and the LCE
Water. Table presents a comparison of our TEOS-10 results with previous reports that used the
EOS-80 framework (Elliott, 1982; Merrell & Morrison, 1981; Morrison et al., 1983; Morrison &
Nowlin, 1982; Vidal et al., 1994).
The Gulf of Guinea is an important region for ocean circulation and water masses, as it is located
at the intersection of several major ocean currents. The main water masses found in the Gulf of
Guinea include: North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW),
North Atlantic Central Water (NACW), Guinea Coastal Water (GCW), Central Surface Water
(CSW), Trans-Atlantic Central Water (TACW), and TACWna (Trans-Atlantic Central Water).
Founou, L., Konan, K. F., & Gouezo, M. (2018), found that the surface absolute salinity values
in the Gulf of Guinea range from approximately 33.5 to 36.5 grams of salt per kilogram of
seawater, with higher values in the southern and offshore regions. The study also found that the
practical salinity values in the same region range from about 33.5 to 37, with higher values in the
offshore regions and near the equator. To redefine the water masses, we converted the previously
reported EOS-80 values to TEOS-10 and adjusted them based on the new findings from our
study

SA and Θ were calculated from the in situ practical salinity and temperature measurements using
the months that falls within the raining and dry seasons. It is recommended to use TEOS-10
variables, SA and Θ, instead of practical salinity and potential temperature in scientific
publications, as they consider the spatially varying composition of seawater and represent its heat
content more accurately. These improvements offer 10 times the precision of the former equation
of state for seawater (EOS-80). The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
recommended the use of SA and Θ in 2010, and this recommendation was reiterated by the
American Meteorological Society in 2013 (Spall et al., 2013).
Depth of 200m
 Figure 1.3 shows the Temperature and Salinity of 1983 in the month of February and October,
and 1987 in the month of November and December.
Depth of 200m
 Figure 1.4 shows the Temperature and Salinity of 1988 in the month of March and November,
and 198 in the month of March and April.
Depth of 200m
 Figure 1.5 shows the Temperature and Salinity of 1994 in the month of July and August, and
1994 in the month of April and May.
Depth 200m
Figure 1.6 shows the Temperature and Salinity of 1996 in the month of April and May, and 1997
in the month of January and July.
Depth 200m

Figure 1.7 shows the Temperature and Salinity of 1998 in the month of April, and 1999 in the
month of and July and August.
Depth 200m
 Figure 1.8 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2001 in the month of March and April, and
2002 in the month of and April and October.
Depth 200m
 Figure 1.9 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2003 in the month of April and November,
and 2004 in the month of and April and May.
Depth 200m
 Figure 2.0 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2005 in the month of February, and 2006 in
the month of and June and July.
Depth 200m
 Figure 2.1 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2007 in the month of February, and 2009 in
the month of and June and July.
Depth 200m
Figure 2.2 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2010 in the month of April and June 2011 in
the month of and March and October.
Depth 200m
Figure 2.3 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2012 in the month of April and May 2013 in
the month of and May and December.
Depth 200m
Figure 2.3 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2014 in the month January 2015 in the month
of and May and December.
Depth 200m
Figure 2.4 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2016 in the month January 2017 in the month
of and July and August.
Depth 200m
Figure 2.5 Shows the Temperature and Salinity of 2018 in the month March and April and 2019
in the month of April and May
TABLE 1: Shows the former Water Masses Θ-SA Limits in EOS-80 and their New Definition in
TEOS-10 (Merrell and Morrison 1981 and Vidal et al.1994).

Figure 2.6 shows the Mixed-layer depth (MLD, m) monthly climatology within the Gulf Water
and LCE Water.
4.2 DISCUSSION
4.2.1 CARIBBEAN SURFACE WATERS (CSW)
The region within the color red likey coresspond to CSW(Caribbean Surface Water). This was
deduced by comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water within this region to the
classification by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in Table 1.
The CSW is commonly located within the uppermost layer of the Caribbean Sea, as noted by
Morrison and Nowlin (1982). However, it is believed to be a combination of North Atlantic
surface waters, Amazon river water, and regional freshwater runoff originating from South
America, according to Hernandez-Guerra and Joyce (2000). Its presence has been documented in
the eastern Caribbean Sea at depths of 50-75 meters, with salinity measurements below 35.5 psu
(Morrison & Nowlin, 1982; Schroeder et al., 1974), and extending as far north as the Loop
Current system (Morrison & Nowlin, 1977).
Caribbean surface water temperature is influenced by solar radiation and air-sea interactions. In
general, the temperature of caribbean surface water is warmer in tropical regions and colder in
polar regions. Temperature changes are usually gradual in the surface layer of the ocean, with
larger changes occurring in deeper layers.
The Gulf of Guinea has a warm and tropical climate, with average water temperatures ranging
from 25°C to 28°C. The temperature is relatively uniform throughout the year due to the warm
ocean currents that flow through the region.
The salinity of the central surface waters in the Gulf of Guinea is generally low, due to the
influence of freshwater inputs from several large rivers, including the Niger, Congo, and Volta
rivers.

4.2.2 NORTH ATLANTIC SUBTROPICAL UNDERWATERS (NASUW)

The region within the color yellow likey coresspond to North Atlantic subtropical underwaters
(NASUW). This was deduced by comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water
within this region to the classification by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in
Table 1.
NASUW, a significant water mass in the North Atlantic Ocean, is generated through a variety of
mechanisms such as surface warming, evaporation, and mixing with other water masses. Its
crucial role in the global thermohaline circulation cannot be understated. Specifically, NASUW
serves as a critical contributor to the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), a dense and deep
water mass that originates in the Labrador Sea and flows southward into the Atlantic Ocean
(Talley, L. D. 1999).
The North Atlantic Subtropical Underwaters (NASUW) refer to bodies of water characterized by
a subsurface salinity maximum, which arises due to the sinking of mixed-layer waters into the
permanent thermocline of the subtropical gyres. These water masses are typically associated with
a mean salinity of 36.73 psu, a mean potential temperature of 20.4 °C, and are located on the
26.0 isopycnal within the North Atlantic region, as documented by O’Connor et al. (2005).
The North Atlantic Subtropical Underwater (NASUW) is characterized by a depleted maximum
in salinity that usually exceeds 36.8 g kg -1 (36.6 psu). However, in the yellow-shaded region,
the maximum salinity values have been found to be 37.1 g kg-1, which is higher than the typical
values reported in previous studies that used the former EOS-80 rather than the newer TEOS-10
(Elliott, 1982; Vidal et al., 1992, 1994). According to Table 1, the associated temperature range
falls between 20 to 25 °C, and the core of the NASUW is situated on the 25.5 kg m – 3
isopycnal, which is located at approximately 200 m depth.
Figure 2.6 illustrates the average depth of the mixed layer in the LCE Water and Gulf Water
regions, which lies just beneath the winter mixed layer in LCEs. The GCW exists on the same
density surface as this water mass and is situated at shallower depths within the Gulf Water .

4.2.3 GULF CENTRAL WATER (GCW)

The region within the color green likey coresspond to the Gulf Central Waters. This was deduced
by comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water within this region to the
classification by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in table 1.
According to Al-Rabeh (2014), the salinity levels in the central waters of the Gulf are relatively
high, which is attributed to the high rate of evaporation and low inflow of freshwater from rivers.
While the salinity levels may differ based on factors such as location, the typical range of salinity
levels in the central waters of the Gulf is between 35 to 40 parts per thousand (ppt).
Although it is slightly colder (with a temperature range of 20-22.5 °C) and less saline (SA < 36.8
g kg-1) than the North Atlantic Subtropical Underwater (NASUW), the Gulf Central Water
(GCW) is the subsurface salinity maximum of the underlying Gulf Water, beyond the loop
current eddies (LCEs). During the winter mixing, the GCW shows how the NASUW
characteristics become more evened out due to the LCEs' existence.

This water mass is typically found between 100 and 150 m on the 25–26 kg m -3 isopycnals, but
it shoals until 50 m during summer when the seasonal thermocline isolates the upper layer from
the subsurface. Although the GCW is found at similar depth as the CSW, they lay on different
isopycnals from table 1, and as they belong to Gulf and LCE Waters respectively, they barely
coexist.

4.2.4 TROPICAL ATLANTIC CENTRAL WATERS (TACW)

The region within the color blue likey coresspond to the TACW. This was deduced by
comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water within this region to the classification
by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in table 1.
The origin of the Central Waters can be traced back to the permanent domes of isopycnals that
are located on the eastern side of thermal ridges (Karstensen et al. 2008). It is probable that the
Angola Dome, located in the South Atlantic Ocean, is the source of the Tropical Atlantic Central
Water (TACW) due to the prevailing patterns of ocean currents.
The salinity in the Tropical Atlantic Central Water (TACW) is known to be relatively high,
typically ranging from 36.0 to 36.5 psu (practical salinity units) (Foltz et al., 2019). According to
the same study, TACW is formed by the mixing of North Atlantic Central Water and South
Atlantic Central Water in the western tropical Atlantic, and it plays a crucial role in the
meridional overturning circulation of the Atlantic Ocean.
According to a study by Brandt et al. (2019), the temperature of the central waters in the tropical
Atlantic Ocean has been increasing over the past few decades. The study found that the
temperature of the upper 700 meters of the central tropical Atlantic increased by approximately
0.1-0.2 degrees Celsius per decade. This warming trend is believed to be due to a combination of
factors, including global climate change and changes in ocean circulation patterns. (Brandt et al.,
2019)
The study found that the temperature of the central tropical Atlantic is between 8-20 with depth
300-700m. The Θ-SA limits of the influence zone of this water mass is shown in the blue-dashed
box. These new limits that delimit a distinct and coherent TACWn, correspond with Θ, SA, and
depth ranges much wider than the previously defined for this water mass (Morrison et al.,1983;
Vidal et al., 1994).

4.2.5 ANTARCTIC INTERMEDIATE WATER

The region within the color sky-blue likey coresspond to the AAIW. This was deduced by
comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water within this region to the classification
by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in table 1.
The distinctive characteristics of the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) are clearly defined
by the deep salinity minimum (SA ~ 35.05–35.11 g kg-1) on the 27.4–27.5 kg m-3 isopycnal.
This water mass is formed at the Subantarctic Polar Front and typically has temperatures ranging
from 4 to 7 °C and low salinity, sometimes as low as 34.2 psu. Talley (1996) identified the
northern boundary of AAIW in the Atlantic Ocean as the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico,
where aging and mixing with overlying saline waters contribute to increased salinity and oxygen
levels. (Talley, 1996).
In the Gulf of Guinea, the temperature of the AAIW varies between 5.5 and 6.5 °C within its
depth range of 740–900 m from Table 1

4.2.6 NORTH ATLANTIC DEEP WATER

The region within the color yellow likey coresspond to the NADW. This was deduced by
comparing the temperature and salinity values of of water within this region to the classification
by Merrell and Morrison (1981) and Vidal et al. (1994) in table 1.
The North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a significant water mass that forms in the northern
North Atlantic Ocean and flows southward into the tropical Atlantic Ocean, reaching depths of
around 4000 meters (Talley, 2011).
The study findings indicate the existence of an intermediate layer with a distinct temperature
range between the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) and the North Atlantic Deep Water
(NADW) at depths ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 m. Specifically, the temperature (Θ) shows a
significant decrease from approximately 5°C to about 4.2°C within this transition layer.
Conversely, the water characteristics that correspond to the NADW remain relatively constant
below the isopycnal of 27.75 kg m-3 and at depths exceeding 2,000 m, with Θ values ranging
between 4°C and 4.1°C, and SA values of approximately 35.15 g kg-1.
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