SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title PAPER No.9: Drugs of Abuse

Module No. and Title MODULE No.4: Psychoactive Drugs

Module Tag FSC_P9_M4

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse

MODULE No. 4 : Psychoactive Drugs
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Psychoactive Drugs: Introduction
3. History
4. Classification of Psychoactive Drugs
4.1 Narcotics
4.2 Stimulants
4.3 Depressants
4.4 Hallucinogens
5. Mode of Action
6. Summary

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse

MODULE No. 4 : Psychoactive Drugs
 1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to know about:

 The meaning and significance of Psychoactive Drugs

 The historical perspectives linked with these Drugs
 Classification of Psychoactive Drugs
 Mode of Action of Psychoactive Drugs

2. Psychoactive Drugs: Introduction

A Psychoactive Drug or Psycho-Pharmaceutical or Psychotropic Drug is a chemical

substance that works initially on the Central Nervous System where it affects brain
function, causing changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition and behavior.
These can be used recreationally, to intentionally change one's consciousness, or for
ritual, spiritual or shamanic purposes. Several Brain regulating drugs also have medicinal
use, e.g., as anaesthetic, analgesics or for the treatment of psychiatric disorders.
Psychoactive substances often cause independent alterations in perception and temper
that the consumer may feel pleasing (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased
attentiveness) and are therefore, supporting. Thus, several psychoactive constituents are
abused, i.e., use extremely, in spite of fitness risks or negative consequences. With
constant use of certain elements, psychological and physical dependence ("addiction")
may progress.
As it has potential for misuse and addiction, many administrations worldwide posed
limitations on drug manufacturing and trades in an effort to decrease drug abuse.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse

MODULE No. 4 : Psychoactive Drugs
 3. History
The usage of psychoactive drugs can be found in primitive times. There is historical
evidence of the usage of psychoactive constituents- predominantly plants, dating back
around 10,000 years, and ancient sign of traditional use over the past 5,000 years. The
mastication of coca leaves, for instance, dates back over 8000 years ago in Peruvian
society.

Therapeutic use is significant aspect of psychoactive drug use. In contrary to this, a

number of suggestions which desire to modify one's perception are as important as the
determination to satisfy thirst and hunger.

One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context,
was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870). In his book, The Hasheesh Eater,
he described the drugs and post-drug use experience as follows:

"Drugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus
carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a
higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by
the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving, That of what we say is
somewhat greatly advanced, specifically the knowledge of the probability of the soul to
go into into a lighter being, and a foretaste of deeper visions and more wonderful
hallucinations of the attractiveness, truth, and the heavenly than we are usually capable to
scout by the crashes in our prison cell. But there are not much drugs which has the
influence of calming such desire. The whole set, at least to the degree that investigation
has therefore far printed it, may comprise only opium, hashish, and in rare circumstances
alcohol, which has illuminating effects only on very specific characters."

This association is not restricted to humans. Numerous animals eat diverse psychoactive
plants, berries and even agitated fruits. Throughout the 20th century, several governments
crossways the world primarily replied to the use of recreational drugs by prohibiting them
and creating their usage and trade a criminal offense. However, several governments,
government officers and people in law enforcement have decided that illegal drug usage
cannot be adequately halted by criminalization.

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 4. Classification of Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive substances are taken by individuals for various reasons to attain a precise
end. Several substances may have regulated or unlawful uses while others may have
shamanic reasons, and still others are used therapeutically. Other instances will be social
consumption or sleep assistances. Caffeine is one of the world‟s greatest consumed
psychoactive substances, but not like numerous others, it is legal and uncontrolled in
approximately all jurisdictions. They are distributed into groups according to their
pharmacological effects. Generally used psychoactive drugs and groups are:

4.1 NARCOTICS

The term is taken from Greek word narkotikos that means „a state of lethargy‟. This
category comprises of substances that act on the CNS and brings relief from pain and
produces sleep. The source of most analgesic narcotics is opium, a sticky milky juice
obtained from the unripe pod of poppy (Papaver somniferium). Example: Opium,
morphine, heroin, codeine, synthetic opiates, etc.

Morphine is obtained from raw opium. It is usually administered by injection by

hypodermic needle. It results in a euphoric state, with sleepy and relaxed appearance of
the user. It is usually 3 to 5 times stronger than opium.

Heroin (diacetylmorphine) is a white crystalline powder which is derivative by adding

two acetyl groups to the morphine, found in the opium. Heroin in impure form is known
as Brown Sugar. It is 10 - 15 times stronger than morphine. It may be either injected or
sniffed to cause similar effects as that of opium and heroin but with higher magnitude.

Codeine is also a derived from morphine but is less effective as analgesic. It acts as a
base in many pain relievers and cough remedies.

4.2 STIMULANTS

The drugs of this category are generally called “uppers” and comprises substances that
wake one up, stimulate the mind, and may even cause euphoria, but do not affect
perception. These are also referred in the terminology of “speed”. E.g., Amphetamines,
methamphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, etc

Amphetamine or its derivative methamphetamine may be injected directly inside the

blood current through intravenous injection. The desire for a more strong experience is
the chief motive behind this route of administration.

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 The preliminary feeling of a “flash” or “rush” is followed by intense feeling of pleasure,
euphoria that produces hyperactivity, with a feeling of clarity of vision as well as
hallucinations. After the effect wears off, the individual passes through duration of
exhaustion and may sleep continuously for one to two days.

Methamphetamine is another form of amphetamine called “speed” because of its rapid

stimulation of central nervous system.

Cocaine is also a powerful stimulant that produces similar effects as that of

amphetamines- namely, increased alertness, accompanied by suppression of hunger and
fatigue.

It is generally sniffed and is absorbed into the body by the mucous tissue of the nose. One
other form of cocaine which is quite popular is “crack”. It is manufactured by heating the
mixture of cocaine, baking soda and water. It is also snorted and produces similar effects
like cocaine.

4.3 DEPRESSANTS

The drugs of this category are called “downers” and include sedatives, hypnotics and
narcotics. This group comprises all of the tranquilizing, sleep-inducing, Stress-reducing,
sedating substances, which occasionally bring perceptual alterations, like dream pictures,
and also frequently induce sensation of euphoria. E.g., Alcoholic beverages (ethanol),
barbiturates, benzodiazepines, etc

Like alcohol, barbiturates act on Central Nervous System to suppress its vital functions so
relax, generate a sense of well being and produces sleep. Barbiturates are generally taken
by mouth. The average sedative dose is about 10-70 milligrams.

Some barbiturates are mixed more gently than others and are generally termed as “Long
acting barbiturates” like Phenobarbital. On the other side, certain barbiturates are
absorbed rather quickly and are termed as “Short acting barbiturates” like Pentobarbital,
Secobarbital, etc. Apparently, abusers prefer the faster acting ones.

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 4.4 HALLUCINOGENS

The drugs of this category include psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants. This group
includes all those constituents that create dissimilar changes in normal thought processes,
perceptions and mood. There are various substances with varying chemical compositions
that have hallucinogenic properties.

Examples: LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide), PCP (phencyclidine), DMT

(dimethyltryptamine), mescaline, psilocybin, etc.

LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, a substance derivative of ergot, which is a type
of fungus that attacks certain type of grains. This is a very potent drug, only 25
micrograms is sufficient to start vivid visual hallucinations that may last for about 12
hours. This drug produces marked changes in mood, leading to laughing and crying at the
least aggravation. Feeling of anxiety and tension always accompanied LSD use.

On the other side, PCP is synthesized by quite a simple chemical process, thus ismuch
more easily available. It is frequently assorted with other drugs like LSD or
amphetamine, and is retailed as a powder “Angel Dust”, capsules or tablets, or as a
liquid. The drug is smoked, ingested or sniffed.

Marijuana is an example of a psychoactive drug that combines properties of each of these

groups.

5. Mode of Action
Psychoactive drugs controls by provisionally disturbing an individual's neurochemistry,
resulting in alterations in a individual's mood, thought, insight and behavior. There are
several methods in which psychoactive drugs can distress the brain. Each drug has a
specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuro-receptor in the brain.

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 Agonists are the medications that upsurge action in specific neurotransmitter systems.
They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its
reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the
postsynaptic receptor. On the other hand, antagonists are the drugs that reduce
neurotransmitter activity, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking
postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning
of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the
presence of the drug. Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter increases
the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter, and the receptors themselves become
more sensitive. This is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a
particular neurotransmitter causes a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these
receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization
are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur even after a
single exposure. These processes are thought to underlie dependence and addiction.

6. Summary

 A psychoactive drug, psycho-pharmaceutical or psychotropic drug is a chemical

substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it affects brain
function, resulting in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition and
behaviour.
 There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances-
predominantly plants, dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of
cultural use over the past 5,000 years.
 Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their
pharmacological effects namely narcotics, stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens.
 Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry,
resulting in changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception and behavior.
 Agonists are the drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems.
They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing
its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the
postsynaptic receptor.
 Antagonists are the drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity, and operate by
interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that
neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse

MODULE No. 4 : Psychoactive Drugs