Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for

Children and Youth

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Novice teachers’ training and support needs in

evidence-based classroom management

Melissa K. Shank

To cite this article: Melissa K. Shank (2023) Novice teachers’ training and support needs in
evidence-based classroom management, Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for
Children and Youth, 67:4, 197-208, DOI: 10.1080/1045988X.2023.2195361
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Preventing School Failure: alternative education For children and Youth
2023, vol. 67, no. 4, 197–208
https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2023.2195361

Novice teachers’ training and support needs in evidence-based classroom

management
Melissa K. Shank
university of Phoenix, Phoenix, aZ, uSa

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Novice teachers report feeling unprepared for classroom management following teacher preparation Behavior management; classroom
and requested additional support. Evidence-based, preventative, and nonverbal classroom management; evidence-based
management strategies help teachers develop positive environments and support active learning. practices; novice teachers;
This is a study of how novice teachers’ feelings of unpreparedness for effective classroom professional development
management were shaped. It described ideas of how to best support teachers using interviews
and documents from California novice teachers. Findings identified that novice teachers felt
unprepared for student behavior issues in the classroom. Inadequate training led to teachers’
classroom management deficits including a lack of understanding of preventative, nonverbal, and
evidence-based classroom management.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Classroom management preparation is important for teach-
ers, administrators, and other educational professionals, as
misunderstood, misused, and poorly taught classroom man-
agement strategies limit student learning outcomes (Hepburn
& Beamish, 2020; Korpershoek et al., 2016). Novice teachers
are expected to manage classroom behavioral problems with
minimal support upon completion of teacher training
(Chang & Jeon, 2020; Zuckerman, 2007). However, many
of the classroom management strategies taught during
teacher preparation were ineffective in practice (Flower
et al., 2017). Despite growing resource availability, such as
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports resources
(Center on PBIS, 2022), university teacher preparation pro-
grams do not focus on evidence-based strategies for class-
room management. Past research indicated that teachers felt
dissatisfied with their teacher preparation in classroom man-
agement (Eisenman et al., 2015), and nearly half of the
novice teachers felt somewhat or not at all prepared for
classroom management in their first year of teaching (U.S.
Department of Education, 2019). Teachers showed low rates
of behavior management strategies (Zoromski et al., 2021)
and most teachers used classroom management strategies
and systems that had been negatively critiqued by their
teacher preparation program with little focus on building
relationships to strengthen classroom behavior management
(Kwok, 2017; Moore et al., 2017).
Novice teachers need to practice evidence-based class-
room management strategies to decrease problematic behav-
iors and increase time spent on learning. Minor behavioral
problems often escalate to more severe issues when under-
prepared teachers cannot handle classroom management
(Butler & Monda-Amaya, 2016; Zuckerman, 2007). Helping
novice teachers feel prepared to manage student behavior
issues with minimal outside support is essential in teacher
training and professional development (Kwok, 2019; Moore
et al., 2017) as an overemphasis on reactive discipline strat-
egies such as consequences and punishments results in neg-
ative interactions with students (Honkasilta et al., 2016).
Practicing evidence-based classroom management strategies
improves rapport between teachers and students resulting
in a classroom environment based on trust. A literature gap
is evident between classroom management preparation for

CONTACT Melissa K. Shank drmshank@gmail.com university of Phoenix, Phoenix, aZ, uSa.

© 2023 taylor & Francis group, llc
198 M. K. SHANK
novice teachers and effective practices stemming from
research (Collier-Meek et al., 2019; Cooper et al., 2018;
Freeman et al., 2014).
Historical concerns
Teacher training programs need to include scaffolded learn-
ing approaches such as modeling and observed practice of
evidence-based, preventative, and nonverbal strategies to
give novice teachers an active role in creating a positive
learning environment (Collier-Meek et al., 2019; Freiberg,
2002). Novice teachers need to gain student cooperation,
build positive classroom relationships, and use evidence-based
and preventative classroom management strategies rather
than relying on reactive discipline (Kwok, 2017). Reliance
on reactive classroom management strategies raises issues
of student disengagement and exacerbates negative impacts
on disadvantaged populations (Hepburn & Beamish, 2019).
Disruptions, off-task or disengaged student behavior, and
student noncompliance negatively affect teachers and stu-
dents (Alter & Haydon, 2017). In contrast, preventative and
positive classroom management strategies improve student
learning outcomes and decrease teacher stress (Hepburn &
Beamish, 2020). A study on classroom management found
that none of the teacher participants were able to identify
a single evidence-based strategy, showing a misunderstand-
ing of classroom management (Hepburn et al., 2021).
Classroom management has been studied and refined
since Veenman’s (1984) benchmark study ranked classroom
discipline as the number one problem for novice teachers.
Teacher training and professional development programs
need to offer classroom management strategies to fill the
gap left by theory-heavy teacher preparation courses
(Freeman et al., 2014; Freiberg, 2002). Stronger preparation
in classroom management helps teachers feel better prepared
to handle classroom management. An emphasis on reactive
strategies to handle problems rather than the prevention of
classroom issues shows the incongruity of classroom man-
agement preparation (Oliver & Reschly, 2010).
An additional focus on classroom management skills sup-
ports novice teachers’ adoption of evidence-based and non-
verbal classroom management strategies (Cooper et al., 2018)
by providing novice teachers with a clearer understanding
of strategies grounded in current research and supported
by evidence-based practices (Korpershoek et al., 2016).
Nonverbal classroom management strategies, also known as
nonverbal cues or signals, include facial expressions, ges-
tures, eye contact, and body language that assist classroom
communication. Teacher training and professional develop-
ment need to focus on evidence-based classroom manage-
ment strategies including nonverbal strategies to provide
additional motivation and positive student attention
(Scott-Parker, 2017; Zeki, 2009). Planned methods are less
likely to disrupt learning or provoke confrontation
(Zuckerman, 2007), and nonverbal strategies support effec-
tive classroom communication and show a positive impact
on learning when paired with feedback (Barmaki & Hughes,
2018; Muchemwa, 2013).
Classroom management is often overlooked during
teacher preparation, negatively impacting novice teachers’
classroom management practices (Cooper et al., 2018;
Freeman et al., 2014). Classroom management preparation
issues can be addressed by developing clear expectations
and supporting novice teachers through professional devel-
opment and mentorship (Confait, 2015) like the induction
program for California novice teachers during the first years
of teaching. Despite additional training opportunities,
research has shown that California teachers continue to
report uncertainty in their classroom management skills,
struggle to address clear class expectations, and request
additional support such as administrative feedback (Cooper
et al., 2018; Mireles-Rios et al., 2019).
Evidence-based strategies
Evidence-based and preventative strategies help teachers lay
the groundwork for clear rules, procedures, and expectations
as well as relationship-building with students (Romano,
2012a, 2012b). Planning for active engagement and
evidence-based nonverbal classroom management strategies
such as teacher proximity and seating assignments minimizes
distractions and reduces common issues (Romano, 2012a).
Reflection, observation, and feedback support classroom
management practice and skill-building for novice teachers
(Romano, 2012a, 2012b). Evidence-based strategies such as
nonverbal classroom management methods can be taught
through modeling, feedback, and practice. Other
evidence-based and nonverbal classroom management strat-
egies such as eye contact, gestures, and classroom movement
maintain or increase student motivation and attention in
class (Romano, 2012a; Zeki, 2009). Regular use of positive
nonverbal strategies increases positive interactions (Dobrescu
& Lupu, 2015), and research has shown that these nonverbal
strategies are an untapped resource to impact positive class-
room relationships and student engagement (Muchemwa, 2013).
Teachers need to feel prepared to implement
evidence-based classroom management strategies to support
student learning and create a positive, engaging learning
environment (Cooper et al., 2018; Korpershoek et al., 2016;
Mireles-Rios et al., 2019) but teachers report feeling unpre-
pared to manage a classroom environment and handle dis-
ruptive student behaviors (Alter & Haydon, 2017; Butler &
Monda-Amaya, 2016; Eisenman et al., 2015; Kwok, 2017;
Oliver & Reschly, 2010; U.S. Department of Education,
2019). Despite the benefits of evidence-based prevention
strategies, a gap was evident between teacher concerns and
classroom management strategies taught during teacher
training (Alter & Haydon, 2017; Butler & Monda-Amaya,
2016; Freeman et al., 2014), as many preparation programs
favor teaching reactive strategies like discipline (Cooper
et al., 2018). Feedback, peer and mentor discussions, and
practice support novice teachers in connecting educational
theory to individual practice in preventative classroom man-
agement (Baran et al., 2017) and follow-up coaching
improves evidence-based practice as part of professional
development (Hepburn & Beamish, 2019).
 PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
Active learning process
This research study was based on constructivist, social con-
structivist, and instructional scaffolding theories to reinforce
personally constructed learning through problem-solving
(Piaget, 1932), knowledge built on previous information and
social experiences, and the need for scaffolded support
during practice to internalize complicated concepts (Vygotsky,
1978). Observing veteran teachers using specific criteria helps
novice teachers construct realistic ideas for classroom man-
agement strategy use (Freiberg, 2002; Wallace et al., 2021).
Scaffolded instructional support, an evidence-based learn-
ing strategy (Moore et al., 2017), supports novice teachers
as professors and mentor teachers gradually decrease levels
of assistance while increasing autonomy (Yoders, 2014).
Scaffolded instructional support occurs when the learning
material is explained and modeled for the novice teacher.
In scaffolded instructional support, the professor reduces
the degrees of freedom until the novice teacher takes over
the work, practicing repeatedly. Teacher development needs
to focus on active learning practices, modeling of classroom
management strategies by motivated mentors, and repeated
practice for novice teachers to support growth and devel-
opment in classroom management (Baran et al., 2017;
Confait, 2015; Wallace et al., 2021). Engagement in social
discussions of classroom management issues with trainers,
veteran teachers, and peers provides support and eventual
Figure 1. classroom management learning framework.
199
autonomy for struggling novice teachers (Yoders, 2014). The
selected theoretical framework (see Figure 1) shows that
elements of constructivist, social constructivist, and instruc-
tional scaffolding practice develop within a teacher’s zone
of proximal development during their classroom manage-
ment training to build toward the teacher’s independent
classroom management practice (Shank & Santiague, 2021).
Purpose
The study’s purpose was to describe how feelings of unpre-
paredness were shaped by inadequate teacher preparation
in classroom management based on novice teachers’ per-
ceptions. This study used classroom management strategy
sets collected by Moore et al. (2017) from previous class-
room management research studies which included: (a) using
rules and routines, (b) promoting appropriate behavior, (c)
active monitoring, (d) providing classroom structure, (e)
using appropriate instructional supports, (f) applying feed-
back and consequences, (g) using differential reinforcements,
(h) manipulating antecedents, (i) teaching replacement
behaviors, and (j) designing and utilizing interventions.
The study addressed the following research question: how
have novice teachers’ feelings of classroom management
unpreparedness been shaped by their classroom management
preparation? Research goals achieved by this study included:
200 M. K. SHANK
Table 1. Participant demographics.
number of Participants Years teaching
1 1
1 1
1 2
1 2
1 3
1 3
2 3
(a) identifying issues contributing to novice teachers’ class-
room management unpreparedness, (b) describing novice
teachers’ successful incorporation of classroom management
strategies, and (c) identifying novice teachers’ perceptions
of evidence-based classroom management preparation in
teacher training.
Materials and methods
The researcher chose a descriptive case study design to
describe novice teacher concerns and issues surrounding
feeling unprepared for classroom management. Participant
interviews and document analysis of teacher preparation
transcripts and preparation course descriptions were
included. Classroom management needs were shown through
real-life concerns of participating novice teachers.
Sampling procedure
After IRB approval, a school district in the California Bay
Area participated in this study of evidence-based classroom
management strategies. The district was selected for its loca-
tion, student test scores above and below the state average,
novice teacher complement within a district-wide induction
program, and researcher access to the educational community.
A district administrator emailed the teacher induction pro-
gram manager. The induction program included approxi-
mately 30 qualifying novice teachers among the approximately
500 teachers in the California Bay Area district (Ed-Data,
2019). Novice teachers qualified for this study if they were
within their first three years of teaching, worked for the
selected California Bay Area school district, and participated
in or completed the district’s induction program. Since the
initial purposive sampling did not supply enough volunteers,
snowball sampling was used, and participants were invited
to share the details of the study with other qualifying teachers
resulting in eight novice teacher participants.
Respondent demographics
The eight novice teacher volunteers included both male
(25%) and female (75%) teachers, first (25%), second (25%),
and third-year (50%) teachers, teachers in elementary
(12.5%) education and secondary (87.5%) education, a vari-
ety of subjects taught, and with bachelors (62.5%) and mas-
ters (37.5%) degrees as their highest level of education (see
Table 1). This information provided differing perspectives
based on novice teachers’ educational levels, subjects, and
years of teaching.
Subject(s) taught highest level of education
elementary education Master’s degree
Social Studies Bachelor’s degree
Social Studies & leadership Master’s degree
vocal & instrumental Music Bachelor’s degree
Social Studies & drama Master’s degree
english language arts Bachelor’s degree
Social Studies Bachelor’s degree
Table 2. interview question topics.
1. experiences managing a classroom
• daily routine
• Stand out issues and successes
2. Feelings of classroom management preparation
• Feeling prepared
• Feeling unprepared
3. classroom management strategies used
• What an observer might see
4. Perception of successful classroom management strategies
• reasons for strategy success
5. classroom management preparation
• teacher preparation courses
• Strategies modeled during preparation
6. evidence-based classroom management strategy sets (from Moore et al.,
2017)
• rules and routines
• appropriate behavior promotion
• Student monitoring
• Structure and predictability
• instructional support
• Feedback and consequences
• reinforcement
• response to inappropriate behavior (manipulating antecedents)
• teaching replacement behaviors
• design and implementation of interventions
7. any additional classroom management experiences
Data collection
An email requested unofficial copies of participant teacher
preparation transcripts as well as available interview times.
Individual teacher preparation transcripts supplied the level
of the education program, course names, and course lengths
in semester or quarter credits. Document review included
course descriptions from teacher training program catalogs
and website information to identify classroom management
coursework. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all interviews
were conducted remotely. Respondents shared years of teach-
ing experience, highest education level, teaching level (ele-
mentary or secondary), and subjects taught. Interviews
consisted of nine semi-structured, open-ended questions
describing (a) classroom management experiences, (b) feel-
ings on classroom management preparation, (c) personally
used classroom management strategies and perceptions, (d)
teacher preparation in classroom management, and (e) prepa-
ration for specific evidence-based strategies (see Table 2).
The final interview question identified evidence-based
strategies from Moore et al. (2017) including (a) classroom
rules and routines such as requesting help or procedures
for turning in assignments, (b) procedures used to promote
appropriate behavior like praise and rewards or behavior
contracts, (c) active monitoring using methods such as scan-
ning and verbal or written responses, (d) structure and
predictability of activities including the classroom layout
 PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
and efforts to minimize distractions, (e) use of instructional
supports such as peer tutoring or guided notes, (f) feedback
and consequences like time out from activities, (g) rein-
forcements for appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, (h)
antecedent changes such as altering demands and providing
choice, (i) teaching replacements for inappropriate behaviors,
and (j) creation and implementation of interventions to
uncover behavior frequency and monitor response progress.
As interviews occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic
stay-at-home mandates, all interviews were conducted vir-
tually via Google Meet. Interview field notes were added to
the data collection process to include participant vocal
inflection, emphases, gestures and teaching signals, laughter,
and facial expressions during participant responses.
Data analysis
The researcher performed a comparative analysis of training
program transcripts and course descriptions in order to
uncover the presence or absence of classroom management
courses, timing of classroom management training within
the full teacher education program, length of time for class-
room management study, and integration of classroom man-
agement training within other subjects. Three cycles of
coding were used beginning with systematic text condensa-
tion (Malterud, 2012) to support the development of codes
through patterns, Yin’s (2018) five-step data analysis approach
to support the interpretation of themes and findings, and
clear final study themes from Saldana’s (2016) phases of
manual coding.
The researcher used short, participant phrases to seek
commonalities and then narrowed lists using text conden-
sation, patterns, and descriptive coding. The second cycle
matched phrases into codes and categories to join ideas
based on topic or meaning to develop key terms and con-
cepts common across participants. The final coding linked
phrase groups to the research problem and objectives. The
researcher synthesized themes from descriptions by linking
concepts under a single sentence heading and classified
feelings of unpreparedness, issues contributing to feelings
of unpreparedness, management strategies incorporated into
novice teachers’ classrooms, and perceptions of classroom
management preparation.
Results
The novice teacher research uncovered several important
themes from interviews, teacher preparation transcripts, and
preparation course descriptions. A selection of interview
excerpts describing novice teacher needs illustrates the main
themes (see Table 3).
Inadequate preparation for classroom management
Teacher training programs included more theoretical than
practical approaches to classroom management. Some par-
ticipants reported reading texts on classroom management
when the topic was covered at all. One participant shared
201
that “it was very much more- here’s the text. Read the text.
Come to class. Talk about the text.” Another stated, “I just
didn’t have the hands-on experience, and I think that is the
key piece.” A third participant explained that they did not
feel prepared to manage a classroom “because the things
that I had been taught in the first semester to prepare me
for student teaching didn’t work.” Another novice teacher
expressed the impracticality of their classroom management
preparation stating that training was not supportive “in a
practical sense. I feel like it was more like armchair class-
room management than like- this is how to handle these
actual situations. We didn’t do enough of that. We did very,
very little.”
Novice teachers were given few practical strategies for
classroom management and reported the need for more
support and practice with classroom management. One sug-
gested “more practice, maybe a veteran teacher that comes
in and talks about these extreme (behavior) experiences…
I think that there is a way that it could be worked in the
program to support that more.” Another novice teacher
requested preparation in non-verbal classroom management
strategies such as training teachers:
to be able to walk up to (students) and make eye contact as a
way for them to realize- oh, I need to stop having this side
conversation. Or having to pause… it doesn’t take very long to
pause so that kid goes- oh, that’s right, I’m not supposed to be
doing this. That non-verbal communication.
Novice teachers requested preparations such as handling
technology or managing a large class. One stated “I didn’t
have enough Chromebooks for that. I didn’t have enough
paper on the desks… so I had to modify almost every lesson
into using a cell phone.” Another said, “I knew how to
promote the behaviors that should be expected, that are
everywhere, but not as prepared to deal when those expec-
tations and those behaviors weren’t met by students.”
Analysis of teacher preparation documents showed a
range of classroom management preparation (see Table 4).
One graduate program didn’t offer any classroom manage-
ment training whereas another integrated the topic with
lesson planning. Two graduate programs had dedicated class-
room management courses, but only during a shortened
summer term. Undergraduate teaching programs offered
either short, dedicated courses early in the program or inte-
grated courses with other subjects. Only one program
offered a dedicated classroom management course concur-
rent with teaching practice. Unfortunately, another partici-
pant’s transcripts taken two years later from the same
program showed that the classroom management course had
been moved to the second term of the three-term program,
removing classroom management instruction from practical
teaching experience.
Student behavior issues
Participants reported challenges dealing with disruptive sit-
uations stemming from student behavior. One teacher
described applying consequences as their “weakest area. I
didn’t really know what to do.” Another shared that their
202 M. K. SHANK

Table 3. thematic participant comments.

theme
theoretical focus during
preparation
Student behavior issues
classroom management
training needs
example interview excerpts
“talked in circles and never really gave you examples” “We didn’t get to apply anything” “Just kept giving us books to
read” (teacher 1)
“they gave us all this theory” “Found it not to be authentic” (teacher 3)
“here’s the text. read the text” “they give you the basics… it’s kind of fight or flight” (teacher 4)
“narrow conversation” “too much on the technical side” (teacher 5)
“read that famous book the first days of school” “a lot of theory” (teacher 7)
“didn’t have the hands-on experience” (teacher 8)
“challenges…and student behavior are very different due to socioeconomic status” (teacher 1)
“Behavior was getting progressively worse. like i kept seeing the same kids, same thing, day in and day out” (teacher 2)
“Spreading yourself thin” “not necessarily trained for those high-risk, extreme situations” (teacher 4)
“overwhelmed with the class size” “Students… not doing anything” (teacher 6)
“out of touch with… the kids and what they needed” “i wish they had given us more in terms of how we incorporate
technology to monitor students” (teacher 1)
“i’ve now warned you. We’ve done three strikes. Your behavior is still- you’re excessively talking. how can i help you to
stop?” (teacher 2)
“give us an actual toolbox… we’re not prepared.” “if the reward is not
something they want, then they’re not buying into our process… that’s not something that’s going to work.” (teacher 3)
“i think that (applying consequences) was my weakest. i didn’t really know what to do.” (teacher 6)
“they didn’t give me as much training as i would have liked.” “We prepare in the individual schools. and i think it’s
lacking.” (teacher 8)

Table 4. classroom management in california teacher training programs.

Participant(s) attending Program type classroom Management credits (in Semester credits) classroom Management
2 undergraduate- teaching 2 or 3 credits (program changed from quarter to semester Single dedicated course
credential only credits)
1 undergraduate- teaching 3 credits Single integrated course (with
credential only veteran teacher observations)
2 undergraduate- teaching 1.33 credits Single dedicated course
credential only
1 graduate- teaching credential 1.33 credits Single dedicated course
only
1 graduate- education degree none no course
1 graduate- education degree 4 credits Single integrated course (with
lesson planning)

workplace “was a pretty rough school. It was gangs and
there were (difficult) kids” which affected student behavior.
One novice teacher struggled with students who “were all
over the place. I had, literally, one kid that would roll on
the floor.” “If you don’t have (classroom management),” one
teacher explained, “then you have chaos.” Another simply
stated, “I definitely didn’t feel like I had been prepared.”
Disinterested students were a common factor as novice
teachers didn’t know how to engage them or handle their
disruptions. One teacher identified issues with students
who were disengaged with learning. Some of their students
showed that “they didn’t want to (participate). So they just
choose not to and then either they’re kind of just sitting
there… or they’re actively just talking and goofing around.”
“There still needs to be some sort of consequence when
one kid is stealing my attention to where I can’t teach…
others in the room,” explained a participant. Another said
that they tried classroom management strategies taught
during teacher preparation with different groups but that
“one management technique worked for one, did not work
for the other.” All eight novice teacher participants reported
struggles to manage classroom discipline sharing: “trying
to align myself with what is expected as a school is chal-
lenging,” “we had a lot of change in our admin… a dif-
ferent admin every year,” “there are students who don’t
(care),” or simply “I tried so many (classroom management)
things.”
Practical classroom management strategies
The participating teachers shared that few classroom man-
agement strategies came from their teacher preparation pro-
grams. One teacher mentioned that classroom management
preparation seemed “out of touch with kids and what they
needed” and expressed a desire for “more in terms of how
we incorporate technology.” Another novice teacher requested
support with classroom arrangement and seating charts stat-
ing, “they never really discussed many arrangements. It was
more of- they went over it for like 15 minutes one day. The
old adage was- everything was just in rows, very structured.
You come in, you sit at your seats.” One teacher said class-
room management strategies taught during preparation were
not useful in practice but that “many of those (useful) strat-
egies, to be honest, I’ve learned from others. I didn’t learn
them from the credential program.” Another participating
teacher shared, “the person I student taught with,” during
teacher preparation, “They did not actively engage with
students… they taught the material, and then (students) did
it or they didn’t,” and that their mentor teacher “didn’t really
care” about classroom management.
Teachers reported struggles using evidence-based, pre-
ventative, and nonverbal classroom management strategies.
Participants explained that those strategy types were not
taught or were hurried through during teacher preparation.
“We all were told (to) just figure it out,” one teacher
explained about learning to manipulate classroom
 PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
antecedents and providing choices. One novice teacher said,
“to be honest, I don’t feel like I was trained for that (pro-
moting appropriate behavior). I don’t think that was ever
addressed” sharing that “sometimes you get placed (for stu-
dent teaching) with a teacher that maybe doesn’t have that
great of classroom management.” Another teacher struggled
with differing expectations for applying consequences at
different school sites “because at (their current school), they
don’t really do detentions. It’s a totally different system,” but
that at another site, “they had detentions twice a week. And
detention was normal, and they (students) would go. Totally
different.”
Other participants tried classroom management strategies
taught during their teacher preparation but found them
confusing, not applicable to their student population, or
unsuccessful in practice. One participant shared:
I tried this thing that they (professors) showed us. About what
does respect look like or sound like in your classroom… I tried
it out and it didn’t work… You try the things you’re supposed
to do… and then you lose control as a new teacher because
you don’t know how to facilitate… These are really cool, inno-
vative things, where they get to talk, when they get to build,
and they get to debate, and… it just devolves into chaos. So
that’s been the hard part.
Another teacher shared their school’s unspoken rule, “I
also know and have been told many times at this school-
don’t ask admin for help. Don’t bring attention to admin
that you’re having problems,” stating that they had to “stop
instruction for two weeks to teach them classroom man-
agement” as “there was no backup.”
Successful training efforts were notable as well. One nov-
ice teacher explained that a professor from their teacher
preparation program “was actively in the classroom during
the day and then teaching us at night,” explaining that this
helped reinforce classroom management because the pro-
fessor “wasn’t removed” from daily teaching practice. Novice
teachers remembered some evidence-based and nonverbal
classroom management strategies that were successfully
learned. To actively monitor students, one teacher said:
we got a lot of strategies. That was helpful. Like a lot of hand
gestures and that kind of thing. On how to do thumb reports
and whip-arounds and those kinds of strategies for monitoring.
Quick checks for learning. So that ended up being super
helpful.
Another shared, “what I learned from my (preparation)
program was not necessarily the material, but it was the
way that each professor presented it… I took these strategies
that they literally did in their course… and applied them
to myself.” One novice teacher was taught “if it’s not work-
ing, you can change,” and to not worry when management
plans aren’t working. “I kind of got the idea that your plan,
just because you built it, doesn’t mean you’re going to use it.”
Useful classroom management strategies
Despite these areas of concern, all eight interviewed teachers
also shared positive ways they learned to support students
using classroom management skills. Participating teachers
203
emphasized that they worked to create a positive tone in
the classroom, established rules and applied them fairly,
refocused students on learning, showed respect to students,
planned for classroom success, and involved and engaged
students. By focusing on these learned tools of classroom
management, the participating teachers were able to support
students and enhance learning in their classrooms.
Three teachers shared that they make an effort to greet
students at the door. “I stand at the door, and I say, what’s
your name?” one explained. Another said they tried “making
that, single word, smiling, just that genuine connection”
with students first thing. Teacher participants emphasized
the need to show respect and engage their students. One
asked themself, “what kind of thing can I stop and do right
now for the whole class or for that individual?” when they
saw students in need. Another teacher used “eye contact
across the room. I might shrug my shoulders a little bit.”
to get through to students nonverbally and explained, “I try
my best not to say anything across the room” calling it
“trying to be as low risk as possible”. Another teacher rec-
ommended engaging with students from different cultures
saying, “for me specifically, it was using the music from
different cultures to feel like people were getting their back-
grounds in. Paying attention to who those students are and
what they’re interested in.”
All eight of the interviewed teachers shared the impor-
tance of creating classroom expectations, procedures, and
rules when planning student lessons. Seven teachers used
an agenda or shared daily objectives with students to guide
expectations. One explained that "having the routines down
well, I think is another one that saves time and keeps (the)
structure in the class.” Another had students use “planners
to make sure that they know that they have homework or
that they don’t.” A third participating teacher described how
“you have to be really clear in what you expect and how
things need to be… having clear expectations and clear
goals for each day.” Planning for rules was an important
part of classroom management for these novice teachers.
One teacher clarified that students “play a little prediction
game of- what do you think the teacher’s classroom rules
are… then they brainstorm the rules and I'm like- so does
this make sense?” Another teacher agreed that student-created
rules were helpful saying “then it’s not just rules and rou-
tines that you’ve implanted on them. It’s ones that they’ve
come up with and they’re agreeing with you that it’s going
to happen that way.” One teacher explained that “having
that structure… it’s helpful also just so that I also know
how the routines work and I can plan that into my lessons
and everything.”
The interviewed teachers shared the need for fair and
positive engagement as part of their classroom management
structure. Five teachers used nonverbal attention-getting
techniques such as counting on their fingers, playing a bell
or chime, clapping rhythmically, pointing to a classroom
sign, or just waiting quietly to gain student attention. These
nonverbal classroom management strategies were successful
in helping reengage and refocus students. The engagement
was increased by promoting a positive classroom environ-
ment and building relationships between teachers and
204 M. K. SHANK
students. One teacher shared using “positive rewards for
things that (students) should be doing.” Another explained
that the teacher needs to “show a positive attitude because
students can pick up on facial expressions and the tone of
your voice” as they modeled classroom behaviors. One
teacher described classroom interactions as “very positive
and light.” Another teacher chose “pointing out the positives”
by “noticing the students who are doing what you’re asking
them to do and saying something.” Students were engaged
in discussions, group learning, learning checks, or “jobs for
everyone in the classroom.”
Four novice teachers shared the importance of their
induction program to their evidence-based classroom man-
agement preparation. Three teachers focused on the positive
and individualized support received during induction
through a mentor to answer questions and suggest strate-
gies to address specific classroom issues. One teacher
explained, “in an induction meeting we had a great rec-
ommendation that I would use the next day… and it
worked” and “with professional development we have ways
to look at things differently. It adds another layer of per-
spective.” Another said that the professional development
offered in induction was “great… not just the program,
but once you begin, you’re doing your induction… I feel
much more supported now.” A third teacher shared that
in induction they were trained in “sitting down with stu-
dents and just talking to them… at the end of my induc-
tion program… when I started doing it, I felt like it was
really controversial or inappropriate… but it’s one of the
better strategies.” Only one teacher explained that they
struggled with their induction program. They said that an
induction mentor was needed, but that the veteran teacher
assigned was “useless in terms of helping with classroom
management.” This teacher requested classroom manage-
ment support but was never offered opportunities to ask
questions or observe classroom management in other class-
rooms. This teacher also shared, “I felt scared asking for
a different induction mentor. I didn’t want to look like I
was being too needy. I didn’t want to put a target on my
back in my department.”
Discussion
Classroom management helps novice teachers prevent class-
room problems, manage students and tasks, and remediate
disruptions in daily teaching practice (Flower et al., 2017).
Novice teachers reported feeling unprepared to manage the
classroom environment including handling disruptive stu-
dent behavior (Alter & Haydon, 2017; Butler &
Monda-Amaya, 2016; Kwok, 2017; U.S. Department of
Education, 2019). Novice teachers needed to have stronger
classroom management training and support specifically in
the areas of evidence-based and nonverbal preventative
strategies.
This study aimed to answer the research question: how
have feelings of unpreparedness in classroom management
been shaped by classroom management preparation for nov-
ice teachers? Participating California Bay Area novice
teachers described feelings of unpreparedness in classroom
management that were shaped by their teacher preparation
programs. Findings described inadequate training and prepa-
ration for classroom management, novice teachers struggling
with implementing classroom management strategies, con-
tinued difficulties managing student behaviors, as well as
unfamiliarity with useful classroom management strategies.
This study agreed with previous findings (Freeman et al.,
2014) that evidence-based classroom management strategies
were not effectively taught during collegiate preparation and
that this overlooked topic needed further emphasis during
teacher training.
All or almost all participants reported needing increased
professional development training in promoting appropriate
behavior, providing performance feedback and applying
consequences, differential reinforcement, teaching replace-
ment behaviors, and designing, implementing, and evalu-
ating interventions in the classroom. Half or just over half
of the participants reported receiving minimal training in
providing structure, providing instructional support, and
manipulating antecedents. Three of the novice teacher par-
ticipants reported needing additional training in active
monitoring. However, none of the participants requested
additional training in creating rules and routines. Four of
the eight teachers shared that induction, professional devel-
opment, and post-collegiate mentoring supported them in
learning and practicing evidence-based classroom manage-
ment strategies.
Classroom management is a vital subject often confined
to a single class during teacher preparation and classroom
management support is a common request by novice teach-
ers (Alter & Haydon, 2017). As results showed, all eight
participating teachers reported struggles with classroom
management. District and school officials could provide
increased support. Administrators can clarify classroom
management expectations and provide school-wide support
for novice teachers. Mentors and veteran teachers can share
effective methods for communicating with students and
parents. Induction trainers and coaches can demonstrate
how to implement classroom management strategies with
role play, modeling, and active learning. Classroom man-
agement interventions can reduce teacher attrition and real-
ity shock to novice teachers (Dicke et al., 2015).
Participants’ teacher training programs showed the inclu-
sion of classroom management topics in 87.5% of programs.
Despite this seemingly high inclusion rate of classroom
management training, only 37.5% of programs included a
classroom management course of three credits or more indi-
cating a lack of time spent on classroom management com-
pared to other subjects. A mere 12.5% of teacher training
programs included a course dedicated to classroom man-
agement that was at least three credit hours in length. No
programs included classroom management paired with active
learning practices such as student teaching. Based on this
data, it is unsurprising that few novice teachers felt that
their teacher preparation contained adequate classroom man-
agement training. As many of the classroom management
strategies taught during teacher preparation were found to
 PREVENTING SCHOOL FAILURE: ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
be ineffective in practice, increased support utilizing
evidence-based practices is needed for novice teachers both
inside and outside of collegiate teacher preparation (Flower
et al., 2017; Hepburn & Beamish, 2019).
Evidence-based and nonverbal classroom management
strategies deter disruptive behaviors and refocus students
on organized learning efforts. Participating novice teachers
successfully used evidence-based and nonverbal classroom
management strategies such as preventative rules and rou-
tines, active monitoring with verbal and nonverbal elements,
promoting appropriate behaviors using praise and feedback,
and applying consequences. Structuring the classroom with
rules and routines was a major focus of many of the par-
ticipants’ teacher preparation courses on classroom manage-
ment, but other elements such as monitoring and feedback
were often picked up later from mentors, coaches, or veteran
teachers. School leaders can support novice teachers by
providing training and discussions on how to use
evidence-based classroom management strategies such as
teaching replacement behaviors, manipulating antecedents,
and implementing interventions. Novice teachers should
practice active monitoring, providing clear rules and rou-
tines, using preventative and nonverbal strategies to refocus
students, and removing disruptions. Reactive classroom man-
agement measures such as disciplinary consequences should
be used sparingly.
Novice teachers’ knowledge of classroom management
was limited, and there was a clear need for additional train-
ing utilizing evidence-based and nonverbal strategies to
increase novice teacher comfort (Barmaki & Hughes, 2018;
Flower et al., 2017; Hepburn & Beamish, 2019). As some
evidence-based classroom management strategies are clearly
taught and others are excluded from teacher preparation,
novice teachers can benefit from different training methods
to teach and support their practice with evidence-based
classroom management. School culture needs to encourage
teachers’ use of a “positive disciplinary approach” (Hepburn
et al., 2021, p. 12) to support the use of evidence-based
classroom management practices beyond simple expecta-
tions. Professional development and coaching can support
teachers’ awareness of their evidence-based classroom man-
agement strategy use and encourage experimentation with
new strategies to refine daily classroom management practice
(Hepburn et al., 2021). Training and practice will support
teachers in developing an increased use of preventative strat-
egies rather than relying on reactive measures once class-
room issues occur.
All eight participants requested additional training and
practice in giving feedback, applying consequences, actively
monitoring the classroom, designing and implementing
interventions, addressing behavior needs, manipulating
antecedents, and providing structure and predictability.
Findings from this study show that novice teachers feel
unprepared to manage a classroom as many teacher training
programs lack adequate training in evidence-based, nonver-
bal, and preventative classroom management strategies.
Classroom management training must include active learning
elements and clear goals. Some successful training programs
205
include modeling classroom management practices, reading
and discussing scenarios such as case studies, and role-playing
difficult classroom behavior situations. Addressing missed
classroom management strategies can close the gap between
novice teacher concerns and teacher preparation in class-
room management.
Implications for practice
This research is significant to teachers and educational lead-
ers, as obtaining a better understanding of the classroom
management needs of novice teachers supports the devel-
opment of teacher training and professional development.
Novice teachers can receive additional coaching and men-
toring during their first years of teaching to reduce the
impact of poor classroom management strategies on students
and the school. Results can inform positive change that will
support novice teachers with evidence-based classroom man-
agement strategies based on their needs.
Teacher preparation coursework at the university level
could be better structured to provide a stronger focus on
evidence-based practices by offering classroom management
courses centered on evidence-based practices. Additionally,
university programs can support incoming teachers by offer-
ing opportunities to practice classroom management skills
in tandem with coursework such as teaching classroom
management alongside or just before student teaching.
University teaching programs also need to focus on preven-
tative classroom management strategies that are not disrup-
tive to other students such as nonverbal strategies. Novice
teachers benefit from preventing classroom disruptions as
well as how to manage disruptions that have already or
repeatedly occur.
Novice teachers struggling with classroom management
should be identified by mentor teachers, teaching profes-
sionals associated with induction, or administration and
provided additional support. Reports from participating
novice teachers that the administration is unapproachable
or in constant turnover are concerning. The introduction
of an induction program with mentoring for novice teachers
can support classroom management success by monitoring
issues, sharing strategies, and providing novice teachers with
mentor teachers to observe. Novice teachers need to know
who they can speak to about classroom issues without reper-
cussion or fear of termination. Teachers who find themselves
struggling with classroom management in practice should
find ways to supplement their education in classroom man-
agement. Even the best teaching programs can miss research
findings or new strategies that support new teachers.
Induction meetings, teacher mentors, and administrators can
suggest books, blogs, videos, or other resources that could
help struggling teachers.
Assigning a mentor to each novice teacher is a good
start, but every mentor must be willing and able to offer
the time and patience needed. Often mentor teachers receive
minimal or no training for such positions or worse, are
assigned a mentoring position without their consent. Novice
teachers need better support from schools and districts
206 M. K. SHANK
through open discussions about problems in the classroom.
Induction meetings are a good beginning as long as they
are supported with the time, training, and resources needed
to support novice teachers. Retention of novice teachers
may be helped by the offer of additional support such as a
caring mentor, helpful induction meetings, and approachable
administrators.
Limitations
Several limitations exist within this study such as the sam-
pling procedure limiting the generalizability of the findings.
The researcher communicated initially with a member of
the participating district who forwarded communications to
potential participants to eliminate privacy concerns, but this
led to a small sample size even after using snowball sam-
pling. Though data saturation was reached, other methods
may have provided different results. Interview data was
self-reported with no way to confirm response validity as
observation of teachers’ classroom management was unavail-
able due to COVID-19 school closures and work-from-home
mandates. The research findings were interpreted by a single
researcher, only general education teachers volunteered for
this study, and the inclusion of special education teachers
may have provided different results.
Future studies could address identified limitations by
focusing on different geographic locations and populations
to gain additional information about novice teacher needs.
Administrators, teacher educators, special educators, and
veteran teachers could add helpful information to the dis-
cussion of classroom management training and needs.
Including a larger sample of participating teachers could
highlight differing perspectives and information.
Conclusion
Novice teachers have been feeling unprepared for classroom
management for many years. This study shows novice teach-
ers also feel unprepared to use evidence-based classroom
management strategies. Supporting novice teachers with
preventative classroom management strategies can reduce
classroom issues and increase novice teacher success. This
study described novice teachers’ preparation concerns to
better understand their classroom management needs.
Inadequate classroom management preparation calls for
increased support of novice teachers through professional
development and induction programs. Support from school
leadership, coaches, and mentors is also vital to support
novice teachers’ understanding and use of evidence-based
classroom management strategies. Continued student behav-
ioral issues can be reduced by developing novice teachers’
awareness of preventative and nonverbal strategies that are
less disruptive in the classroom.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Dr. Mansureh Kebritchi and the Dissertation to Publication
workshop at the University of Phoenix, for supporting article
preparation with special thanks to workshop reviewer, Dr. James Lane,
for helping finalize the manuscript.
Declaration of interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported.
Notes on contributor
Dr. Melissa K. Shank is a fellow at the University of Phoenix with an
Ed.D. in Education and an MBA. Current research interests include
teacher preparation, distance learning, and remote work. Dr. Shank is
currently working as a PMP-certified project & program manager for
a global technology company.
ORCID
Melissa K. Shank http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9515-8414
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Appendix
Evidence-Based Classroom Management Descriptions and
Examples (Moore et al., 2017)
• Systematically teaching, posting, reinforcing, and monitoring class-
room rules and routines (e.g., specific procedures for turning in
work, requesting assistance)
• Using procedures for promoting appropriate behavior for the class
as a whole (e.g., reinforcing appropriate behavior with specific,
contingent praise; tokens; special activities or group contingencies)
and individual student’s appropriate behavior (e.g., providing spe-
cific praise or rewards, teaching students to self-manage,
self-monitor, or self-evaluate their own behavior, developing
behavior contracts)
• Actively monitoring students to provide assistance or to intervene
as needed (e.g., actively scanning, using response cards, choral
responding, verbal and written response)
• Providing structured and predictable classroom activities; physically
arranging the classroom to promote flow and traffic and minimize
distractions
• Providing appropriate instructional supports to allow for high rates
of opportunities for all students to respond correctly to academic
questions or demands; Utilizing research-based instructional strat-
egies and providing individually-adapted instructional supports
to engage all students in learning (e.g., direct instruction, medi-
ated scaffolding, learning strategies, peer tutoring, computer-assisted
208 M. K. SHANK
instruction, providing guided notes, modifying curricula and
materials to meet student needs)
• Providing performance feedback and applying consequences to
reduce problem behavior (e.g., planned ignoring, time-out from
positive reinforcement, response cost)
• Providing differential reinforcement (withholding reinforcement for
inappropriate behavior and providing reinforcement for desired
behavior)
• Manipulating antecedents to prevent the occurrence of inappro-
priate behavior (e.g., pre-correction, reducing/altering demands,
providing choice in order of completing assignments)
• Explicitly and systematically teaching desired replacement behaviors
• Observing student behavior or analyzing behavioral data for
designing, implementing, and evaluating interventions (e.g., deter-
mine the frequency of problem behavior, and to monitor student
progress and response to interventions)