11/28/2022

Nuclear Physics
nuclear model of atom
Plum-pudding Model
An old model regarded the atom as a
positively charged sphere and negative
electrons were distributed all over it.
And it makes the atom neutral.

Rutherford Experiment
Scattering Experiment
Geiger and Marsdens’s Experiment

What does the experiment need?

1- ∝-particles radiation (positive radiation) source.
2- gold thin foil
3- Geiger Molar (GM) tube to detect the radiation
4- glass screen coated with zinc sulfide fixed to a rotatable
microscope.
5- the radiation produces scintillations when they received
by zinc sulfide.

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Scattering Experiment

Observation
Conclusion
“Results”

Most of ∝-particles were undeflected

(Pass straight through very thin metal The atom is mostly empty space
foil)

the nucleus contains most of the mass

Some ∝-particles were scattered
of the atom. It is positively charged
(deflected from their initial direction)

There is a very small nucleus that is

Some ∝-particles were bounced back positively charged

Scattering Experiment
Particle 1 is clear of all nuclei and passes
straight through the gold atoms.
Particle 2 is deflected slightly.
Particle 3 approaches a gold nucleus so
closely that it is violently repelled by it
and ‘rebounds’, appearing to have had a
head-on ‘collision’.

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Nuclear model of the atom

Rutherford Model
All positive charge and most of the mass of an
atom formed a dense core called nucleus, of a very
small size compared with the whole atom.

Atomic Structure
Atom is constructed of
1- Nucleus:
it is very small and dense compared with the whole atom size. It contains the
positive particles which called Protons and the neutral particles called Neutrons
2- Electrons:
are very small with mass much smaller than the protons and neutrons.
They have a negative charge which has the same magnitude of the proton charge.
Electrons are in orbits around the nucleus.

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Neutral atom
The atom is neutral because number of
positive protons inside the nucleus is the
same of number of electrons surrounding
the nucleus.

Ion

Two types of ions

Positive ion Negative ion

It is the atom that It is the atom that
loses one or more gains one or more
electrons electrons

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Proton
1- Hydrogen atom minus an electron (Hydrogen ion)
2- has a positive charge with the same size of electron
3- has much higher mass than electron
4- has a mass approximately the same of neutron.

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Neutron
1- Uncharged particle
2- has a mass approximately the same of proton.

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Electron
1- Has a negative charge with the same size of proton’s
charge
2- has a much smaller mass than proton and neutron

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Relative charge

Particle Relative charge

Proton +1
Neutron 0
Electron -1

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Nucleons
Because Protons and Neutrons are in the nucleus,
they are called Nucleons.
Nucleons account for the mass of the nucleus and
atom. WHY??!!!!

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Atomic number Z

Also, Z is called the proton number

It is the number of proton in the nucleus
Also, it is the number of electrons in neutral atom.

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Mass number A

Also, A is called the nucleon number

It is the number of nucleons in the nucleus
It is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

How can we calculate the number of neutrons (N) ???

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Mass number A

Also, A is called the nucleon number

It is the number of nucleons in the nucleus
It is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

How can we calculate the number of neutrons (N) ???

N=A-Z

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Nuclide notation
A: nucleon number
Z: proton number
X: the atom

A Z protons electrons neutrons

𝐿𝑖

𝐶𝑢

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Nuclide notation
A: nucleon number
Z: proton number
X: the atom

A Z protons electrons neutrons

𝐿𝑖 7 3 3 3 4

𝑂 16 8 8 8 8

𝐶𝑢 63 29 29 29 34

𝐻 1 1 1 1 0

𝐻 2 1 1 1 1

𝐻 3 1 1 1 2

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Mass and charge of nucleus

Relative charge of nucleus = Z × proton’s charge

Relative mass of nucleus = A × proton’s mass

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Isotopes and nuclides

Isotopes of an element are atoms that have the same number
of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

It means that the Isotopes have the same number of protons

but not the same nucleon numbers.

Important
1- Isotopes are atoms of the same element.
2- Isotopes have identical chemical properties. WHY!!!!
a. they have same number of electrons
b. occupy the same place in the periodic table
2- Most elements are mixtures of isotopes.

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Isotopes of Hydrogen
isotopes Name A Z Nucleons protons electrons neutrons
𝐻 Hydrogen 1 1 1 1 1 0

𝐻 Deuterium 2 1 2 1 1 1

𝐻 Tritium 3 1 3 1 1 2

Water is H2O is made by 𝐻 Each form of an

element is called a
nuclide.
Heavy Water is H2O is made by deuterium ( 𝐻 ).
If nuclides have same Z
Its molecular mass is greater than ordinary water. So,
but different A, they are
it has higher density and greater freezing point and
called isotopes.
greater boiling point.
If the nucleus is not
stable, it is called
radioisotopes
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Isotopes of Chlorine

isotopes A Z Nucleons Protons Electrons Neutrons

=A =Z =Z = A -Z
𝐶𝑙 35 17 35 17 17 18

𝐶𝑙 37 17 37 17 17 20

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Isotopes of Oxygen

isotopes A Z Nucleons Protons Electrons Neutrons

=A =Z =Z = A -Z
𝑂 16 8 16 8 8 8

𝑂 17 8 16 8 8 9

𝑂 18 8 16 8 8 10

The isotope can be written in this form

Oxygen-16
Chlorine-37
Hydrogen-3
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Isotopes of Uranium

isotopes A Z Nucleons Protons Electrons Neutrons

=A =Z =Z = A -Z
𝑈 235 92 235 92 92 143

𝑈 236 92 236 92 92 144

𝑈 237 92 237 92 92 145

The isotope can be written

Uranium-235
Uranium-236
Uranium-237
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Nuclear Energy

Einstein Equation: E = mc2 c is the speed of light.

According to Einstein equation, the mass can be converted to energy.
During the reaction, if the mass changes (mass defect), this change is a source of
energy.

Mass is a concentrated store of energy.

In any nuclear reaction the conservation law is called

Mass-Energy conservation.
And not conservation of mass or conservation of energy.
Because the sum of the mass and energy is the same before and after the
reaction. But the mass itself is not the same

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Fission Reaction
Uranium is a heavy metal and found as a mixture of isotopes.
Uranium- 235 is the most important.

1-Some atoms of Uranium- 235 decay quit naturally and emitting a high-speed
neutrons.
2-This neutron will hit another uranium-235 nucleus.
3-This nucleus will break into two nearly equal radioactive nuclei. This process is
called Fission
4-The resultants of the fission of uranium-235 are barium-144 , krypton-90 and
another two neutrons.
5- the mass defect in this nuclear reaction is large and converted to kinetic energy
for the fission fragments.
6- the fission fragments will collide with the surrounding atoms to raise the
temperature.

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Fission Reaction
Nuclear fission: is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nearly equal radioactive
nuclei.

Fission fragments: are the resultants of the nuclear fission reaction.

Important: for any nuclear reaction

1- Energy-mass is conserved
2- total values of A is conserved in the two sides of the reaction (nucleons are
conserved)
3- total values of Z is conserved in the two sides of the reaction (charges are
conserved)

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Chain Reaction

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Chain Reaction
If the fission neutrons hit other uranium-235, a new fission will happen, and so on.
This is called chain reaction

Not all the neutrons cause a fission reaction. Because some of them escape the
surface of uranium.
As the uranium mass increases the number of the neutrons causing the fission
increases. Also, ratio of neutrons causing fission to those escaping the surface
increases.

For the chain reaction, there is a critical value of the ratio between the neutrons
causing fission to those escaping the surface.

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Fusion Reaction
Fusion reaction : is a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei are joining together
to form a heavier nucleus.

There will be a mass defect, which converts to energy.

This reaction is the

source of energy
from the sun.

1- In this reaction, deuterium and tritium nuclei repel each other.

2- High energy is needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion. “condition for the
fusion to occur”
3- A very high temperature of 100 million 0C is needed for the reaction.
4- If first fusion occurs, the energy released by the reaction is enough to keep the
reaction going. So it is called self-sustaining.
5- it is called thermonuclear fusion, because it needs enough heat to start.
6- in the sun hydrogen burning sequence is the source of energy. Which is a
sequence of thermonuclear fusion. 34

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Nuclear reactor
In nuclear reactor, heat from a nuclear reactor produces steam which is used rotate
the turbines.

Chain reaction occurs in the reactor and can be controlled by controlling the number
of neutrons. Moderator (graphite core) is used for this duty. Which slows down the
neutrons.

Heat exchanger is used to transfer energy from the reaction to a pipe containing
water to produce steam.

The concrete shield is used to protect workers from radiation emissions

The atomic bomb is the supplier of the atoms. If the mass of uranium-235 exceeds the
critical mass, uncontrolled chain reaction will occur.

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