A Handout on Argument.

When we write to inform people, we can take four approaches:

• Expository
• Descriptive
• Narrative
• Argumentative

Arguments are used when we want to put forward a mixture of our opinions, and evidence to
support our opinion. The major purpose of them is to make our thoughts known to other people
and to try to persuade them of our position.

The point that you are arguing for or against or trying to persuade people of is generally
referred to as a moot.

An effective argument is written in a manner that shows the writer’s ability to use reason and
logic. Ideas are set out in a sequence – usually the points go from the weaker point to the most
substantial of the most substantial to the weaker. A well-balanced argument should at least
address the strongest counter reason to your position.

A counter reason is one that could be used to argue the opposite position of yours. So to
successfully argue a position you must not only understand your position but also that of the
other side of the argument.

The types of evidence that you can use for your arguments include scholarly material like
books, journal articles, plays, newspapers, case studies or research ndings/reports.

Format of an argument:

Generally, arguments contain:

An introduction

Reason 1

Reason 2

Reason 3

(Counter reason) – not necessary in the argument where you do not take a side

Conclusion

It is important to note that arguments can be a 1200-word essay, or they can be an entire thesis
length work.

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When an argument is set as an assignment, it could require you to:

1. Argue for or against a topic

2. Discuss the points for and against a topic without having to take a side

3. Discuss the points for and against a topic and taking a position

4. Argue in such a manner so as to persuade or convince the reader/audience to agree

with your views

Generalizations as an important part of argument

Generalizations are the conclusions we can arrive at after having enough evidence to support
them. Usually ‘enough evidence’ is at least two to three pieces of evidence from the types of
evidence list above. ‘Types of evidence’ can also be referred to as supporting statements. A
generalization is NOT just your opinion that you add all or many to.

So for example:

Canada is a white settler country. This is a generalization based on the scholarly work of
historians (Constance Backhouse), Black Canadian Studies practitioners (Rinaldo Walcott) and
geographers (Katherine McKittrick).

Canada does not have a problem with racism is NOT a generalization. It is an opinion. There
are no credible scholars that can be used to support this in the same way that we saw that play
out in the example above.

Relevance of Evidence

Arguments should be based on credible, current evidence. Usually for scholarly purposes
references should be about ve (5) years old. In other words, try to use journal articles or books
written between 2018 to 2023 if you are writing in 2024. An exception to this rule is what we call
‘classic texts’. If we are discussing class and we quote Antonio Gramsci or Karl Marx that is
acceptable although these men wrote years and years ago. This is because they are the
authors that Marxist theory and ideas depend on heavily (to this day).

Fact vs. opinion

Your ideas are only opinion (no matter how strongly you hold them) until you are able to use
credible evidence to support them. See the list of types of evidence above to determine the
types of evidence we use.

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Conclusion

Your conclusion in an argument ‘ties’ the pieces of your argument together. So you reiterate
your moot, Summarize your evidence and perhaps offer a sentence or two about ‘what next’.
Restating your moot does not mean repetition. If this is something you have really been able to
prove – restate in other words.

Some useful words and phrases in argument:

Supporting evidence
• For example – In the Caribbean, for example people speak a standard language such as
English and a Creole as well.
• For Instance – In Canada, for instance land acknowledgements are an important part of
an ongoing process of reconciliation.
• A typical case is – Animals are very useful to humans as service companions – a typical
case is dogs used to help ex war veterans.
• Such as – Women activists argue that the government has to pay more attention to
family court and how it responds to unsafety such as parental alienation in cases.

Drawing Conclusions
• Consequently – In the Caribbean, there are high levels of generation poverty and
systemic exclusion of certain groups form economic prosperity. Consequently, there are
high levels of crime.
• As a result – In Canada, as a result of ongoing racist logics informing immigration policy
there are still harmful practices such as temporary worker programmes.
• Therefore – The government of Canada has announced a cap on international student
enrolment. Therefore, universities who were depending on programmes to attract more
international students to plug budget gaps will have to nd other strategies.
• Because of – Canada’s environmental policy can be seen as contradictory because of
efforts to divide the Green Belt for housing.
• Thus – The agricultural sector in Guelph remains robust thus restaurants in the area can
offer farm fresh options in their menus.
• For this reason – University Campuses continue to be affected by high levels of sexual
abuse affecting female identifying students. For this reason, it is important for universities
to ensure that they are not only offering victim services, but also training and education
on consent to all students.

Reporting or Presenting an Alternative View

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 • On the other hand – Canada’s Central Bank reports in ation is down. On the other
hand, food banks in Canada are still reporting signi cant increases on their services and
within demographics they have never before served.
• Against that – Many parents with children in Barbados are dissatis ed with the level of
reading instruction that children in the elementary school system receive. They note that
many students are reaching age eleven without a functional literacy ability. Against that
is the Ministry of Education’s assertion that education in Barbados remains free and
accessible to all learners.
• On the contrary – Parents are often blamed for antisocial behaviour in children. On the
contrary parents of children requiring mental heal and behavioural supports
• In spite of – International students continue to nd themselves in vulnerable positions in
spite of the assertion by universities that they oversee the recruiters they hire.

Responding to the Contrasting View (i.e reiterating your argument)

• Nevertheless – Canada is often lauded for the quality of its school infrastructure.
Nevertheless, especially in the post-COVID context many teachers are opting out of the
profession due to unresolved issues with classroom behaviour and injuries they receive.
• However – In Canada, there is some concern about the level of drug use among people
– especially the use of opioids. However, community activists believe the problem
should be understood as a mental health crisis for results that really help people.
• On the one hand ____ on the other – On the one hand Canada advertises itself as a
multicultural country but on the other some immigrants feel discriminated against in the
workplace due to differences in language, dress and culture.
• Yet – There have been concerns about pollution from cruise ships affecting the marine
environment, yet cruises remain an option for many people.
• But – There have been some abuses of government aid packages to mitigate against

Other Helpful Words

• Notwithstanding – Canada has laws that regulate game hunting of animals.
Notwithstanding, a worrying percentage of animals lose their lives to game hunting yearly.
• Whereas – Former generations of people had to depend heavily on of cial
communication from governments whereas social media has resulted in a signi cant
expansion of people’s access to information.
• Conversely – Access is the right of children. Conversely the court has the right to ensure
that the child comes to no harm in exercising their right.

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