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About HOWARD ANTON Howard Anton obtained his B.A. from Lehigh University, his M.A. from the University of Illinois,
and his Ph.D. from the Polytechnic University of Brooklyn, all in mathematics. In the early 1960s
he worked for Burroughs Corporation and Avco Corporation at Cape Canaveral, Florida, where he
was involved with the manned space program. In 1968 he joined the Mathematics Department at
Drexel University, where he taught full time until 1983. Since that time he has been an Emeritus
Professor at Drexel and has devoted the majority of his time to textbook writing and activities for
mathematical associations. Dr. Anton was president of the EPADEL section of the Mathematical
Association of America (MAA), served on the Board of Governors of that organization, and guided
the creation of the student chapters of the MAA. He has published numerous research papers in
functional analysis, approximation theory, and topology, as well as pedagogical papers. He is best
known for his textbooks in mathematics, which are among the most widely used in the world. There
are currently more than one hundred versions of his books, including translations into Spanish,
Arabic, Portuguese, Italian, Indonesian, French, Japanese, Chinese, Hebrew, and German. His
textbook in linear algebra has won both the Textbook Excellence Award and the McGuffey Award
from the Textbook Author’s Association. For relaxation, Dr. Anton enjoys traveling and
photography.

About IRL BIVENS Irl C. Bivens, a recipient of the George Polya Award and the Merten M. Hasse Prize for Expository
Writing in Mathematics, received his A.B. from Pfeiffer College and his Ph.D. from the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, both in mathematics. Since 1982 he has taught at Davidson
College, where he currently holds the position of professor of mathematics. A typical academic
year sees him teaching courses in calculus, complex analysis, and the history of mathematics. He
has published numerous articles on undergraduate mathematics, as well as research papers in
differential geometry. Past service to the MAA includes membership on the editorial boards of The
College Mathematics Journal, the Problem Book series, Dolciani Mathematical Expositions, along
with service on awards committees for expository writing. For recreation, he enjoys swimming,
juggling, and the exploration of mathematical legerdemain.

About STEPHEN DAVIS Stephen L. Davis received his B.A. from Lindenwood College and his Ph.D. from Rutgers
University in mathematics. Having previously taught at Rutgers University and Ohio State
University, Dr. Davis joined the faculty at Davidson College in 1981, where he is currently a
professor of mathematics. He regularly teaches calculus, linear algebra, abstract algebra, and
computer science. Professor Davis has published numerous articles on calculus reform and testing,
as well as research papers on finite group theory. Professor Davis has held several offices in the
Southeastern section of the MAA, including chair and secretary-treasurer, and has represented the
section on the MAA Board of Governors. He has been involved in the grading of the Advanced
Placement Calculus Exam since 1988 and began a four-year term as Chief Reader in 2015. He is
also webmaster for the North Carolina Association of Advanced Placement Mathematics Teachers
and is actively involved in nurturing mathematically talented high school students through
leadership in the Charlotte Mathematics Club. For relaxation, he plays basketball, travels, and
occasionally juggles. Professor Davis and his wife Elisabeth have three children, Laura, Anne, and
James, all former calculus students.
        #       

To
my wife Pat and my children: Brian, David, and Lauren

In Memory of
my mother Shirley
my father Benjamin
my thesis advisor and inspiration, George Bachman
my benefactor in my time of need, Stephen Girard (1750–1831)
—HA

To
my son Robert
—IB

To
my wife Elisabeth
my children: Laura, Anne, and James
—SD
               

PREFACE
This eleventh edition of Calculus maintains those aspects of previous editions that have led
to the series’ success—we continue to strive for student comprehension without sacrificing
mathematical accuracy, and the exercise sets are carefully constructed to avoid unhappy
surprises that can derail a calculus class.
All of the changes to the eleventh edition were carefully reviewed by outstanding teach-
ers comprised of both users and nonusers of the previous edition. The charge of this com-
mittee was to ensure that all changes did not alter those aspects of the text that attracted
users of the tenth edition and at the same time provide freshness to the new edition that
would attract new users.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

• Most of the pre-calculus material in the 10th edition Chapter 0 has been moved to Ap-
pendices, and the remaining Chapter 0 material is merged into Chapter 1.
• Some prose in other areas of the text has been tightened to enhance clarity and student
understanding.
• New applied exercises have been added to the book and some existing applied exercises
have been updated.

OTHER FEATURES

Flexibility This edition has a built-in flexibility that is designed to serve a broad spec-
trum of calculus philosophies—from traditional to “reform.” Technology can be empha-
sized or not, and the order of many topics can be permuted freely to accommodate each
instructor’s specific needs.

Rigor The challenge of writing a good calculus book is to strike the right balance be-
tween rigor and clarity. Our goal is to present precise mathematics to the fullest extent
possible in an introductory treatment. Where clarity and rigor conflict, we choose clarity;
however, we believe it to be important that the student understand the difference between
a careful proof and an informal argument, so we have informed the reader when the argu-
ments being presented are informal or motivational. Theory involving -δ arguments ap-
pears in separate sections so that they can be covered or not, as preferred by the instructor.

Rule of Four The “rule of four” refers to presenting concepts from the verbal, algebraic,
visual, and numerical points of view. In keeping with current pedagogical philosophy, we
used this approach whenever appropriate.

Visualization This edition makes extensive use of modern computer graphics to clarify
concepts and to develop the student’s ability to visualize mathematical objects, particularly

ix
              

x Preface

those in 3-space. For those students who are working with graphing technology, there are
many exercises that are designed to develop the student’s ability to generate and analyze
mathematical curves and surfaces.

Quick Check Exercises Each exercise set begins with approximately five exercises
(answers included) that are designed to provide students with an immediate assessment
of whether they have mastered key ideas from the section. They require a minimum of
computation and are answered by filling in the blanks.

Focus on Concepts Exercises Each exercise set contains a clearly identified group of
problems that focus on the main ideas of the section.

Technology Exercises Most sections include exercises that are designed to be solved
using either a graphing calculator or a computer algebra system such as Mathematica,
Maple, or the open source program Sage. These exercises are marked with an icon for easy
identification.

Applicability of Calculus One of the primary goals of this text is to link calculus
to the real world and the student’s own experience. This theme is carried through in the
examples and exercises.

Career Preparation This text is written at a mathematical level that will prepare stu-
dents for a wide variety of careers that require a sound mathematics background, including
engineering, the various sciences, and business.

Trigonometry Summary and Review Deficiencies in trigonometry plague many

students, so we have included a substantial trigonometry review in Appendices A and J.

Appendix on Polynomial Equations Because many calculus students are weak in

solving polynomial equations, we have included an appendix (Appendix H) that reviews
the Factor Theorem, the Remainder Theorem, and procedures for finding rational roots.

Principles of Integral Evaluation The traditional Techniques of Integration is enti-

tled “Principles of Integral Evaluation” to reflect its more modern approach to the material.
The chapter emphasizes general methods and the role of technology rather than specific
tricks for evaluating complicated or obscure integrals.

Historical Notes The biographies and historical notes have been a hallmark of this text
from its first edition and have been maintained. All of the biographical materials have
been distilled from standard sources with the goal of capturing and bringing to life for the
student the personalities of history’s greatest mathematicians.

Margin Notes and Warnings These appear in the margins throughout the text to
clarify or expand on the text exposition or to alert the reader to some pitfall.
              

SUPPLEMENTS

The Student Solutions Manual provides detailed solutions to the odd-numbered exercises
in the text. The structure of the step-by-step solutions matches those of the worked exam-
ples in the textbook. The Student Solutions Manual is also provided in digital format to
students in WileyPLUS.
Volume I (Calculus: Early Transcendental) ISBN: 978-1-119-14781-7
Volume II (Calculus: Late Transcendental) ISBN: 978-1-119-19366-1
The Student Study Guide is available for download from the book companion Web site at
www.wiley.com/college/anton or at www.howardanton.com and to users of WileyPLUS.
The Instructor’s Solutions Manual contains detailed solutions to all of the exercises
in the text. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual is also available in PDF format on the
password-protected Instructor Companion Site at www.wiley.com/college/anton or at
www.howardanton.com and in WileyPLUS.
ISBN: 978-1-119-14782-4
The Instructor’s Manual suggests time allocations and teaching plans for each section in
the text. Most of the teaching plans contain a bulleted list of key points to emphasize. The
discussion of each section concludes with a sample homework assignment. The Instruc-
tor’s Manual is available in PDF format on the password-protected Instructor Companion
Site at www.wiley.com/college/anton or at www.howardanton.com and in WileyPLUS.
The Web Projects (Expanding the Calculus Horizon) referenced in the text can also be
downloaded from the companion Web sites and from WileyPLUS.
Instructors can also access the following materials from either the book companion site or
WileyPLUS:

• The Printable Test Bank features questions and answers for every section of the text.
• PowerPoint lecture slides cover the major concepts and themes of each section of
the book. Personal-Response System questions (“Clicker Questions”) appear at the
end of each PowerPoint presentation and provide an easy way to gauge classroom
understanding.
• Additional calculus content covers analytic geometry in calculus, mathematical mod-
eling with differential equations and parametric equations, as well as an introduction to
linear algebra.

xi
             

xii Supplements

WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS, Wiley’s digital-learning environment, is loaded with all of the supplements
listed on the previous page, and also features the following:

• Homework management tools, which easily allow you to assign and grade algorithmic
questions, as well as gauge student comprehension.
• Algorithmic questions with randomized numeric values and an answer-entry palette for
symbolic notation are provided online though WileyPLUS. Students can click on “help”
buttons for hints, link to the relevant section of the text, show their work or query their
instructor using a white board, or see a step-by-step solution (depending on instructor-
selecting settings).
• QuickStart predesigned reading and homework assignments. Use them as-is or cus-
tomize them to fit the needs of your classroom.
• The e-book, which is an exact version of the print text but also features hyperlinks to
questions, definitions, and supplements for quicker and easier support.
• Guided Online (GO) Tutorial Exercises that prompt students to build solutions step
by step. Rather than simply grading an exercise answer as wrong, GO tutorial problems
show students precisely where they are making a mistake.
• Are You Ready? quizzes gauge student mastery of chapter concepts and techniques
and provide feedback on areas that require further attention.
• ORION Algebra and Trigonometry Refresher provides students with an opportunity
to brush up on the material necessary to master calculus, as well as to determine areas
that require further review.

WileyPLUS. Learn more at www.wileyplus.com.

            

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It has been our good fortune to have the advice and guidance of many talented people
whose knowledge and skills have enhanced this book in many ways. We wish to thank
John Wiley and Sons, in particular Shannon Corliss and Jennifer Brady for their dedication
in preparing this edition. We would also like to thank Carol Sawyer for her amazing work
on the text layout.

Furthermore for their valuable help we thank the following people.

Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition

Jay Abramson, Arizona State University
Gerardo Aladro, Florida International
University
Theodore M. Alper, Online High School of
Stanford University
Mahboub Baccouch, University of Nebraska
Omaha
Jeffery J. Boats, University of Detroit Mercy
Tom Bella, University of Rhode Island
Michael Boardman, Pacific University
Charles W. Bock, Philadelphia University
Olguta Buse, Indiana University at Purdue
University Indianapolis
Christopher Butler, Case Western Reserve
University
Thomas Cassidy, Bucknell University
Manning G. Collier, University of Mary
Washington
Charles L. Cooper, University of Central
Omaha
John Davis, Baylor University
Madhu Motha, Butler County Community
College
Bharath Narayanan, Pennsylvania State
University
Deborah Doucette, Erie Community College
Judith Downey, University of Nebraska Omaha
Raluca Dumitru, University of North Florida
Mark Dunster, San Diego State University
Catherine Famiglietti, University of
California, Irvine
Jennifer Galovich, St. John’s University
William Girton, Florida Tech
Frank Gonzalez, Saddleback College
William Hamill, University of Tulsa
Rita Hibschweiler, University of New
Hampshire
Derek Hiley, Cuyahoga Community College
Randall Holmes, Boise State University
Dragos Hrimiuc, University of Alberta
Cindy J. Parsons, Pennsylvania State
University
Bin Jiang, Portland State University
Clarence Johnson, Cuyahoga Community
College
Jim E. Jones, Florida Tech
Ron Jorgensen, Milwaukee School of
Engineering
Uwe Kaiser, Boise State University
Kristi Karber, University of Central Omaha
Michael Kouritzin, University of Alberta
M. Paul Latiolais, Portland State University
Douglas Lloyd, Golden West College
Lew Ludwig, Denison University
Paolo Mantero, University of California,
Riverside
William McGovern, University of Washington
Thomas Milligan, University of Central
Oklahoma
Carla Monticelli, Camden County College
Laura Moore-Mueller, Green River
Community College
Jeanette Palmiter, Portland State University
Cynthia Piez, University of Idaho
Emma Previato, Boston University
Ferdinand Rivera, San Jose State University
Joan Rosebush, University of Vermont
Hossein Rostami, Philadelphia University
Nathan Ryan, Bucknell University
Ronda Sander, University of South Carolina
Jonathan Scott, Cleveland State University
Eugene Schlereth, University of Tennessee
Chattanooga
Mark Serebransky, Camden County College
Qin Sheng, Baylor University
Slobodan Simic’, San Jose State University
Satyanand Singh, New York City College of
Technology
Adi Tcaciuc, MacEwan University
Michael Tom, Louisiana State University
Brian VanPelt, Cuyahoga Community College
Stephanie Van Rhein, University of Missouri,
Kansas City
Kathy Vranicar, University of Nebraska
Omaha
Belinda Wang, University of Toronto
Anna Wlodarczyk, Florida International
University
Nataliya Zadorozhna, MacEwan University
Constance Ziemian, Bucknell University
Diane Zych, Erie Community College

xiii
             

xiv Acknowledgments

Reviewers and Contributors of the Tenth Edition

Frederick Adkins, Indiana University of
Pennsylvania
Gerardo Aladro, Florida International
University
Mike Albanese, Central Piedmont Community
College
Faiz Al-Rubaee, University of North Florida
Mahboub Baccouch, University of Nebraska at
Omaha
Jim Brandt, Southern Utah University
Elizabeth Brown, James Madison University
Michael Brown, San Diego Mesa College
Christopher Butler, Case Western Reserve
University
Nick Bykov, San Joaquin Delta College
Jamylle Carter, Diablo Valley College
Hongwei Chen, Christopher Newport
University
David A. Clark, Randolph-Macon College
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina
Agricultural and Technical State University
Michael Cohen, Hofstra University
Hugh Cornell, Salt Lake Community College
Kyle Costello, Salt Lake Community College
Walter Czarnec, Framingham State University
Michael Daniel, Drexel University
Judith Downey, University of Nebraska,
Omaha
Artur Elezi, American University
David James Ellingson, Napa Valley College
Elaine B. Fitt, Bucks County Community
College
Greg Gibson, North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical State University
Yvonne A. Greenbaun, Mercer County
Community College
Jerome I. Heaven, Indiana Tech
Derek Hiley, Cuyahoga Community College
John Khoury, Brevard Community College
Kathryn Lesh, Union College
Eric Matsuoka, Leeward Community College
Ted Nirgiotis, Diablo Valley College
Mihaela Poplicher, University of Cincinnati
Adrian R. Ranic, Erie Community
College–North
Thomas C. Redd, North Carolina Agricultural
and Technical State University
R. A. Rock, Daniel Webster College
John Paul Roop, North Carolina Agricultural
and Technical State University
Philippe Rukimbira, Florida International
University
Joseph P. Rusinko, Winthrop University
Susan W. Santolucito, Delgado Community
College, City Park
Dee Dee Shaulis, University of Colorado at
Boulder
Michael D. Shaw, Florida Institute of
Technology
Jennifer Siegel, Broward College–Central
Campus
Thomas W. Simpson, University of South
Carolina Union
Maria Siopsis, Maryville College
Mark A. Smith, Miami University, Ohio
James Sochacki, James Madison University
Kelly Stady, Cuyahoga Community College
Alan Taylor, Union College
Kathy Vranicar, University of Nebraska,
Omaha
Anke Walz, Kutztown University
Zhi-Qiang Wang, Utah State University
Tom Wells, Delta College
Greg Wisloski, Indiana University of
Pennsylvania

We would also like to thank Thomas Polaski and Roger Lipsett for their accuracy check of the eleventh edition. Thanks also to
Tamas Wiandt for revising the solutions manuals and Jennifer Blue for accuracy checking those solutions. We also appreciate
the feedback we received from Mark Dunster, Cecelia Knoll, and Michael Rosenthal on selected WileyPLUS problems.
             

CONTENTS

1 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1

1.1 Limits (An Intuitive Approach) 1
1.2 Computing Limits 13
1.3 Limits at Infinity; End Behavior of a Function 22
1.4 Limits (Discussed More Rigorously) 31
1.5 Continuity 40
1.6 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions 51
1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 56
1.8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 63

2 THE DERIVATIVE 79
2.1 Tangent Lines and Rates of Change 79
2.2 The Derivative Function 89
2.3 Introduction to Techniques of Differentiation 100
2.4 The Product and Quotient Rules 108
2.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 113
2.6 The Chain Rule 118

3 TOPICS IN DIFFERENTIATION 129

3.1 Implicit Differentiation 129
3.2 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 135
3.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 140
3.4 Related Rates 146
3.5 Local Linear Approximation; Differentials 153
3.6 L’Hôpital’s Rule; Indeterminate Forms 160

4 THE DERIVATIVE IN GRAPHING AND APPLICATIONS 172

4.1 Analysis of Functions I: Increase, Decrease, and Concavity 172
4.2 Analysis of Functions II: Relative Extrema; Graphing Polynomials 183
4.3 Analysis of Functions III: Rational Functions, Cusps, and Vertical
Tangents 192

xv
              

xvi Contents

4.4 Absolute Maxima and Minima 204

4.5 Applied Maximum and Minimum Problems 212
4.6 Rectilinear Motion 225
4.7 Newton’s Method 233
4.8 Rolle’s Theorem; Mean-Value Theorem 239

5 INTEGRATION 253
5.1 An Overview of the Area Problem 253
5.2 The Indefinite Integral 258
5.3 Integration by Substitution 268
5.4 The Definition of Area as a Limit; Sigma Notation 275
5.5 The Definite Integral 285
5.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 294
5.7 Rectilinear Motion Revisited Using Integration 306
5.8 Average Value of a Function and its Applications 314
5.9 Evaluating Definite Integrals by Substitution 319
5.10 Logarithmic and Other Functions Defined by Integrals 325

6 APPLICATIONS OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL IN GEOMETRY,

SCIENCE, AND ENGINEERING 341
6.1 Area Between Two Curves 341
6.2 Volumes by Slicing; Disks and Washers 349
6.3 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells 358
6.4 Length of a Plane Curve 364
6.5 Area of a Surface of Revolution 370
6.6 Work 375
6.7 Moments, Centers of Gravity, and Centroids 383
6.8 Fluid Pressure and Force 392
6.9 Hyperbolic Functions and Hanging Cables 398

7 PRINCIPLES OF INTEGRAL EVALUATION 412

7.1 An Overview of Integration Methods 412
7.2 Integration by Parts 415
7.3 Integrating Trigonometric Functions 423
7.4 Trigonometric Substitutions 431
7.5 Integrating Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 437
7.6 Using Computer Algebra Systems and Tables of Integrals 445
7.7 Numerical Integration; Simpson’s Rule 454
7.8 Improper Integrals 467

8 MATHEMATICAL MODELING WITH DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS 481
8.1 Modeling with Differential Equations 481
8.2 Separation of Variables 487
             

Contents xvii

8.3 Slope Fields; Euler’s Method 498

8.4 First-Order Differential Equations and Applications 504

9 INFINITE SERIES 514

9.1 Sequences 514
9.2 Monotone Sequences 524
9.3 Infinite Series 531
9.4 Convergence Tests 539
9.5 The Comparison, Ratio, and Root Tests 547
9.6 Alternating Series; Absolute and Conditional Convergence 553
9.7 Maclaurin and Taylor Polynomials 563
9.8 Maclaurin and Taylor Series; Power Series 573
9.9 Convergence of Taylor Series 582
9.10 Differentiating and Integrating Power Series; Modeling with Taylor
Series 591

10 PARAMETRIC AND POLAR CURVES; CONIC SECTIONS 605

10.1 Parametric Equations; Tangent Lines and Arc Length for Parametric
Curves 605
10.2 Polar Coordinates 617
10.3 Tangent Lines, Arc Length, and Area for Polar Curves 630
10.4 Conic Sections 639
10.5 Rotation of Axes; Second-Degree Equations 656
10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 661

A APPENDICES
A TRIGONOMETRY REVIEW (SUMMARY) A1
B FUNCTIONS (SUMMARY) A8
C NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD (SUMMARY) A11
D FAMILIES OF FUNCTIONS (SUMMARY) A16
E INVERSE FUNCTIONS (SUMMARY) A23

ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES A28

INDEX I-1

WEB APPENDICES (online only)

Available for download at www.wiley.com/college/anton or at
www.howardanton.com and in WileyPLUS.
A TRIGONOMETRY REVIEW
B FUNCTIONS
             

xviii Contents

C NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD

D FAMILIES OF FUNCTIONS
E INVERSE FUNCTIONS
F REAL NUMBERS, INTERVALS, AND INEQUALITIES
G ABSOLUTE VALUE
H COORDINATE PLANES, LINES, AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS
I DISTANCE, CIRCLES, AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
J SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
K GRAPHING FUNCTIONS USING CALCULATORS AND
COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS
L SELECTED PROOFS
M EARLY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OPTION
N MATHEMATICAL MODELS
O THE DISCRIMINANT
P SECOND-ORDER LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

CHAPTER WEB PROJECTS: Expanding the Calculus Horizon

(online only)
Available for download at www.wiley.com/college/anton or at
www.howardanton.com and in WileyPLUS.
ROBOTICS – CHAPTER 2
RAILROAD DESIGN – CHAPTER 7
ITERATION AND DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS – CHAPTER 9
COMET COLLISION – CHAPTER 10
BLAMMO THE HUMAN CANNONBALL – CHAPTER 12
HURRICANE MODELING – CHAPTER 15
       
THE ROOTS OF CALCULUS
Today’s exciting applications of calculus have roots that
can be traced to the work of the Greek mathematician
Archimedes, but the actual discovery of the fundamental prin-
ciples of calculus was made independently by Isaac Newton
(English) and Gottfried Leibniz (German) in the late seven-
teenth century. The work of Newton and Leibniz was mo-
tivated by four major classes of scientific and mathematical
problems of the time:
• Find the tangent line to a general curve at a given point.
• Find the area of a general region, the length of a general
curve, and the volume of a general solid.
• Find the maximum or minimum value of a quantity—for
example, the maximum and minimum distances of a planet
from the Sun, or the maximum range attainable for a pro-
jectile by varying its angle of fire.
• Given a formula for the distance traveled by a body in any
specified amount of time, find the velocity and acceleration
of the body at any instant. Conversely, given a formula that
ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727)
[Image: Public domain image from http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Hw-newton.jpg. Image provided courtesy of the University
of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin.]
planets, and the tides; he formulated basic theories of light, thermodynamics, and hydro-
dynamics; and he devised and constructed the first modern reflecting telescope. Through-
out his life Newton was hesitant to publish his major discoveries, revealing them only to a
   !"! #   #$ %
The Roots of Calculus xix
specifies the acceleration of velocity at any instant, find the
distance traveled by the body in a specified period of time.
Newton and Leibniz found a fundamental relationship be-
tween the problem of finding a tangent line to a curve and
the problem of determining the area of a region. Their real-
ization of this connection is considered to be the “discovery
of calculus.” Though Newton saw how these two problems
are related ten years before Leibniz did, Leibniz published
his work twenty years before Newton. This situation led to
a stormy debate over who was the rightful discoverer of cal-
culus. The debate engulfed Europe for half a century, with the
scientists of the European continent supporting Leibniz and
those from England supporting Newton. The conflict was ex-
tremely unfortunate because Newton’s inferior notation badly
hampered scientific development in England, and the Conti-
nent in turn lost the benefit of Newton’s discoveries in astron-
omy and physics for nearly fifty years. In spite of it all, New-
ton and Leibniz were sincere admirers of each other’s work.
Newton was born in the village of Woolsthorpe, England. His father died be-
fore he was born and his mother raised him on the family farm. As a youth
he showed little evidence of his later brilliance, except for an unusual talent
with mechanical devices—he apparently built a working water clock and a
toy flour mill powered by a mouse. In 1661 he entered Trinity College in
Cambridge with a deficiency in geometry. Fortunately, Newton caught the eye
of Isaac Barrow, a gifted mathematician and teacher. Under Barrow’s guidance
Newton immersed himself in mathematics and science, but he graduated with-
out any special distinction. Because the bubonic plague was spreading rapidly
through London, Newton returned to his home in Woolsthorpe and stayed there
during the years of 1665 and 1666. In those two momentous years the entire
framework of modern science was miraculously created in Newton’s mind. He
discovered calculus, recognized the underlying principles of planetary motion
and gravity, and determined that “white” sunlight was composed of all col-
ors, red to violet. For whatever reasons he kept his discoveries to himself. In
1667 he returned to Cambridge to obtain his Master’s degree and upon gradu-
ation became a teacher at Trinity. Then in 1669 Newton succeeded his teacher,
Isaac Barrow, to the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Trinity, one of the most
honored chairs of mathematics in the world.
Thereafter, brilliant discoveries flowed from Newton steadily. He formu-
lated the law of gravitation and used it to explain the motion of the moon, the
            !! #   #$ %

xx The Roots of Calculus

select circle of friends, perhaps because of a fear of criticism or controversy. In 1687, only
after intense coaxing by the astronomer, Edmond Halley (discoverer of Halley’s comet),
did Newton publish his masterpiece, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). This work is generally considered to be
the most important and influential scientific book ever written. In it Newton explained the
workings of the solar system and formulated the basic laws of motion, which to this day
are fundamental in engineering and physics. However, not even the pleas of his friends
could convince Newton to publish his discovery of calculus. Only after Leibniz published
his results did Newton relent and publish his own work on calculus.
After twenty-five years as a professor, Newton suffered depression and a nervous break-
down. He gave up research in 1695 to accept a position as warden and later master of the
London mint. During the twenty-five years that he worked at the mint, he did virtually no
scientific or mathematical work. He was knighted in 1705 and on his death was buried in
Westminster Abbey with all the honors his country could bestow. It is interesting to note
that Newton was a learned theologian who viewed the primary value of his work to be its
support of the existence of God. Throughout his life he worked passionately to date bib-
lical events by relating them to astronomical phenomena. He was so consumed with this
passion that he spent years searching the Book of Daniel for clues to the end of the world
and the geography of hell.
Newton described his brilliant accomplishments as follows: “I seem to have been only
like a boy playing on the seashore and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother
pebble or prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered
before me.”

GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ (1646–1716)

This gifted genius was one of the last people to have mastered most major
fields of knowledge—an impossible accomplishment in our own era of spe-
cialization. He was an expert in law, religion, philosophy, literature, politics,
geology, metaphysics, alchemy, history, and mathematics.
Leibniz was born in Leipzig, Germany. His father, a professor of moral
philosophy at the University of Leipzig, died when Leibniz was six years old.
The precocious boy then gained access to his father’s library and began reading
voraciously on a wide range of subjects, a habit that he maintained throughout
his life. At age fifteen he entered the University of Leipzig as a law student
and by the age of twenty received a doctorate from the University of Altdorf.
Subsequently, Leibniz followed a career in law and international politics, serv-
ing as counsel to kings and princes. During his numerous foreign missions,
Leibniz came in contact with outstanding mathematicians and scientists who
stimulated his interest in mathematics—most notably, the physicist Christian
Huygens. In mathematics Leibniz was self-taught, learning the subject by
reading papers and journals. As a result of this fragmented mathematical edu-
cation, Leibniz often rediscovered the results of others, and this helped to fuel
[Image: Public domain image from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ the debate over the discovery of calculus.
File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_ Leibniz.jpg] Leibniz never married. He was moderate in his habits, quick-tempered but
easily appeased, and charitable in his judgment of other people’s work.
In spite of his great achievements, Leibniz never received the honors showered on
Newton, and he spent his final years as a lonely embittered man. At his funeral there
was one mourner, his secretary. An eyewitness stated, “He was buried more like a robber
than what he really was—an ornament of his country.”
            

GEOMETRY FORMULAS
A = area, S = lateral surface area, V = volume, h = height, B = area of base, r = radius, l = slant height, C = circumference, s = arc length

ALGEBRA FORMULAS

THE QUADRATIC
FORMULA THE BINOMIAL FORMULA

The solutions of the quadratic n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3

equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are (x + y) n = x n + nx n−1 y + x y + x y + · · · + nxy n−1 + y n
 1·2 1·2·3
−b ± b 2 − 4ac n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
x= (x − y) n = x n − nx n−1 y + x y − x y + · · · ± nxy n−1 ∓ y n
2a 1·2 1·2·3

TABLE OF INTEGRALS

BASIC FUNCTIONS
 
u n+1 au
1. u n du = +C 10. a u du = +C
n+1 ln a
 
du
2. = ln|u| + C 11. ln u du = u ln u − u + C
u
 
3. e u du = e u + C 12. cot u du = ln|sin u| + C
 
4. sin u du = − cos u + C sec u du = ln|sec u + tan u| + C
13.   
  
= lntan 14 π + 12 u  + C
5. cos u du = sin u + C 
 csc u du = ln|csc u − cot u| + C
6. tan u du = ln|sec u| + C 14.
= ln|tan 12 u| + C
   
7. sin−1 u du = u sin−1 u + 1 − u 2 + C 15. cot−1 u du = u cot−1 u + ln 1 + u2 + C
   
8. cos−1 u du = u cos−1 u − 1 − u 2 + C 16. sec−1 u du = u sec−1 u − ln|u + u 2 − 1| + C
   
9. tan−1 u du = u tan−1 u − ln 1 + u 2 + C 17. csc−1 u du = u csc−1 u + ln|u + u 2 − 1| + C
           

RECIPROCALS OF BASIC FUNCTIONS

 
1 1
18. du = tan u ∓ sec u + C 22. du = 12 (u ∓ ln|sin u ± cos u|) + C
 1 ± sin u  1 ± cot u
1 1
19. du = − cot u ± csc u + C 23. du = u + cot u ∓ csc u + C
 1 ± cos u  1 ± sec u
1 1
20. du = 12 (u ± ln|cos u ± sin u|) + C 24. du = u − tan u ± sec u + C
 1 ± tan u  1 ± csc u
1 1
21. du = ln|tan u| + C 25. du = u − ln(1 ± e u ) + C
sin u cos u 1 ± eu

POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 
26. sin2 u du = 12 u − 14 sin 2u + C 32. cot2 u du = − cot u − u + C
 
27. cos2 u du = 12 u + 14 sin 2u + C 33. sec2 u du = tan u + C
 
28. tan2 u du = tan u − u + C 34. csc2 u du = − cot u + C
   
1 n−1 1
29. sinn u du = − sinn−1 u cos u + sinn−2 u du 35. cotn u du = − cotn−1 u − cotn−2 u du
 n n   n−1 
1 n−1 1 n−2
30. cosn u du = cosn−1 u sin u + cosn−2 u du 36. sec u du =
n
secn−2 u tan u + secn−2 u du
 n  n  n−1 n−1 
1 1 n−2
31. tann u du = tann−1 u − tann−2 u du 37. cscn u du = − cscn−2 u cot u + cscn−2 u du
n−1 n−1 n−1

PRODUCTS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 
sin(m + n)u sin(m − n)u cos(m + n)u cos(m − n)u
38. sin mu sin nu du = − + +C 40. sin mu cos nu du = − − +C
 2(m + n) 2(m − n) 2(m + n) 2(m − n)
sin(m + n)u sin(m − n)u  
39. cos mu cos nu du = + +C sinm−1 u cosn+1 u m−1
41. sinm u cosn u du = − + sinm−2 u cosn u du
2(m + n) 2(m − n) m+n m+n

sinm+1 u cosn−1 u n−1
= + sinm u cosn−2 u du
m+n m+n

PRODUCTS OF TRIGONOMETRIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

 
e au e au
42. e au sin bu du = 2 (a sin bu − b cos bu) + C 43. e au cos bu du = 2 (a cos bu + b sin bu) + C
a +b 2 a + b2

POWERS OF u MULTIPLYING OR DIVIDING BASIC FUNCTIONS

 
44. u sin u du = sin u − u cos u + C 51. ue u du = e u (u − 1) + C
  
45. u cos u du = cos u + u sin u + C 52. u n e u du = u n e u − n u n−1 e u du
  
u na u n
46. u 2 sin u du = 2u sin u + (2 − u 2 ) cos u + C 53. u n a u du = − u n−1 a u du + C
  ln a ln a  u
u
e du e u 1 e du
47. u 2 cos u du = 2u cos u + (u 2 − 2) sin u + C 54. =− +
   u n (n − 1)u n−1 n − 1  u n−1
a u du au ln a a u du
48. u n sin u du = −u n cos u + n u n−1 cos u du 55. =− +
   u n (n − 1)u n−1 n−1 u n−1
du
49. u n cos u du = u n sin u − n u n−1 sin u du 56. = ln|ln u| + C
 u ln u
u n+1
50. u n ln u du = [(n + 1) ln u − 1] + C
(n + 1)2

POLYNOMIALS MULTIPLYING BASIC FUNCTIONS


1 1 1
57. p(u)e au du =p(u)e au − 2 p  (u)e au + 3 p  (u)e au − · · · [signs alternate: + − + − · · · ]
 a a a
1 1 1
58. p(u) sin au du = − p(u) cos au + 2 p  (u) sin au + 3 p  (u) cos au − · · · [signs alternate in pairs after first term: + + − − + + − − · · · ]
 a a a
1 1 1
59. p(u) cos au du = p(u) sin au + 2 p  (u) cos au − 3 p  (u) sin au − · · · [signs alternate in pairs: + + − − + + − − · · · ]
a a a
               

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Air resistance prevents the velocity of a skydiver from
increasing indefinitely. The velocity approaches a
limit, called the “terminal velocity.”
1
The development of calculus in the seventeenth century by Newton and Leibniz provided
scientists with their first real understanding of what is meant by an “instantaneous rate of
change” such as velocity and acceleration. Once the idea was understood conceptually,
efficient computational methods followed, and science took a quantum leap forward. The
fundamental building block on which rates of change rest is the concept of a “limit,” an idea
that is so important that all other calculus concepts are now based on it.
In this chapter we will develop the concept of a limit in stages, proceeding from an
informal, intuitive notion to a precise mathematical definition. We will also develop
theorems and procedures for calculating limits, and use limits to study “continuous” curves.
We will conclude by studying continuity and other properties of trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential functions.

1.1 LIMITS (AN INTUITIVE APPROACH)

The concept of a “limit” is the fundamental building block on which all calculus concepts
are based. In this section we will study limits informally, with the goal of developing an
intuitive feel for the basic ideas. In the next three sections we will focus on computational
methods and precise definitions.

Many of the ideas of calculus originated with the following two geometric problems:

THE TANGENT LINE PROBLEM Given a function f and a point P(x0 , y0 ) on its graph,
find an equation of the line that is tangent to the graph at P (Figure 1.1.1).

Figure 1.1.1
THE AREA PROBLEM Given a function f , find the area between the graph of f and
an interval [a, b] on the x-axis (Figure 1.1.2).

Traditionally, that portion of calculus arising from the tangent line problem is called
differential calculus and that arising from the area problem is called integral calculus.
However, we will see later that the tangent line and area problems are so closely related
that the distinction between differential and integral calculus is somewhat artificial.

Figure 1.1.2 TANGENT LINES AND LIMITS

In plane geometry, a line is called tangent to a circle if it meets the circle at precisely one
point (Figure 1.1.3a). Although this definition is adequate for circles, it is not appropriate
for more general curves. For example, in Figure 1.1.3b, the line meets the curve exactly
once but is obviously not what we would regard to be a tangent line; and in Figure 1.1.3c,
the line appears to be tangent to the curve, yet it intersects the curve more than once.
To obtain a definition of a tangent line that applies to curves other than circles, we must
view tangent lines another way. For this purpose, suppose that we are interested in the
tangent line at a point P on a curve in the xy-plane and that Q is any point that lies on

1
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Image of CAUSED BY CORRECTED BY
right eye as
Name of (2) Artificially
compared (1) By a natural (2) Prism placed
diplopia by a prism (1) Turning
with that of deviation of with base
the left is placed, base

Heteronymous On the Either eye outward Out before either Both eyes inward In before either
(or crossed) left (exophoria, eye. (convergence.) eye.
exotropia.)

Right eye up Up before right Right eye down Down before right
Right or left eye down eye, down before and left eye up eye or up before left
Below (right hyperphoria, left eye. (left supravergence.)
right hypertropia,
left hypotropia.)
Vertical
Right eye up Up before right Right eye up and Up before right
or left eye down eye, down before left eye down eye or down
Above
(right hyperphoria, left eye. (rightsupravergence.) before left.
Left right hypertropia,
left hypotropia.)

Movement of Each Eye Singly

The movements of each eye individually are effected as follows:
The external rectus moves the eye directly outward; the internal rectus, directly inward.
The primary action of the superior rectus is to raise the eye. Because of the way in which the
muscles run, obliquely from within outward, its lifting action increases when the eye is abducted and
diminishes to little or nothing when the eye is adducted.
The inferior rectus carries the eye down. Owing to the oblique direction of the muscle, its depressing
action increases as the eye is abducted and decreases to zero as the eye is adducted.
The inferior oblique is inserted back of the equator of the eye. Hence it pulls the back part of the eye
down and consequently throws the front part up. It is thus an elevator of the eye, reinforcing the action
of the superior rectus. Owing to the way in which it runs, from the front backward and outward, its
elevating action is greatest when the eye is adducted, and diminishes to little or nothing when the eye is
abducted.
The superior oblique, so far as its action on the eyeball is concerned, may be regarded as arising
from the trochlea. From this point it runs backward and outward and is inserted back of the equator of
the eye. It there pulls up the back part of the eye and consequently throws the front part down. It is thus
a depressor, reinforcing the action of the inferior rectus. Owing to the oblique way in which it runs, its
depressing action is greatest when the eye is adducted, and diminishes to little or nothing when the eye
is abducted.

Subsidiary Actions
Besides these actions, rightly regarded as the main action of the ocular muscles, there are various
subsidiary actions, due to the oblique way in which the superior and inferior recti and the two obliques
run. Thus, both the superior and inferior recti adduct the eye, their action being most pronounced when
the eye is already adducted. The two obliques, on the other hand, abduct the eye and do so most
effectively when the eye is already abducted.
 The superior rectus and superior oblique rotate the top of the vertical meridian of the eye inward
(intorsion); while the inferior oblique and inferior rectus rotate it outward (extorsion). The superior and
inferior recti act thus on the vertical meridian mainly when the eye is adducted; the oblique, on the other
hand, when the eye is abducted.
Hence the eye is adducted by the internal rectus, assisted toward the end of its course by the
superior and inferior recti. It is abducted by the external rectus, assisted toward the end of its course by
the two obliques. It is carried straight up by the superior rectus and inferior oblique, up and out by the
superior rectus and external rectus (the inferior oblique helping to carry it out, but not up; and in, mainly
by the inferior oblique and internal rectus). The superior rectus assists in carrying it in, but hardly up at
all.
The eye is likewise carried straight down by the inferior rectus and the superior oblique; down and
out by the inferior and external recti, and down and in by the superior oblique and internal recti.

Field of Action of Muscles

As will be seen, each muscle acts most energetically in some special direction of the gaze, termed
field of action of that particular muscle; thus the external rectus acts most powerfully when the eye is
directed outward, and acts little or not at all when the eye is directed inward, except by purely passive
traction. Likewise the superior rectus acts mainly when the eye is directed down. Furthermore, its action
is limited to the upper and outer field; for in the upper and inner field elevation is performed chiefly by
the inferior oblique.
This is also true of all the other muscles.

Direction of the Gaze

There are six cardinal directions of the gaze, each corresponding to the field of action of one of the
six ocular muscles as follows:
Cardinal Direction: Muscles Specially Active:
Straight out External rectus
Straight in Internal rectus
Up and out Superior rectus (as an elevator)
Up and in Inferior oblique (as an elevator)
Down and out Inferior rectus (as a depressor)
Down and in Superior oblique (as a depressor)
It is to be noted that the action of each muscle does not absolutely stop at the middle line, but
extends somewhat beyond it. Thus the action of the right externus extends not only throughout the
whole right half of the field of vision, but also some fifteen to twenty degrees to the left of the median
line; and that of the superior rectus extends not only above the horizontal plane but also somewhat
below.

Primary Position—Field of Fixation

Under normal conditions, when the head is erect and the eye is directed straight forward—that is,
when its line of sight is perpendicular to the line joining the centres of rotation of the two eyes in the
horizontal plane—the muscles are all balanced. This is called “the position of equilibrium” or the primary
position. It is this position which must be assumed by the patient in conducting tests for balance of the
muscles.
From the primary position, the eye may make excursions in every direction so that the patient can
look at a whole series of objects in succession without moving the head. This portion of space, occupied
by all the objects that may thus be seen directly by moving the eye without moving the head, is called
“the field of fixation.”
 Binocular Movements
While either eye alone may move in all possible directions, one cannot move independently of the
other eye. Under ordinary circumstances, those movements only are possible which are regularly
required to subserve binocular vision, hence, binocular single vision, as well. These movements are as
follows:

Parallel Movements
When one eye looks at a distant object the other is also directed to it, so that the lines of sight of the
two eyes are parallel; if the distant object is moved about, the lines remain parallel, one moving as fast
and as far as the other. These parallel movements of the two eyes are executed with considerable
freedom in all directions, either eye being able to move readily to the right, left, up, down, or obliquely,
provided the other eye moves precisely with it.
In executing any parallel movement, each eye is acted upon by at least three and sometimes by as
many as five muscles. At times, but one of these muscles is required to produce any great movement of
the eye, the others simply serving to steady it in its course. Thus when we look up to the right, although
there are five muscles really acting upon each eye, the right eye is moved mainly by the external rectus
and the left eye by the internal rectus.
Similarly, when we look up and to the right, although other muscles take part, the superior rectus is
the chief muscle that moves the right eye up, and the external rectus the chief one that moves it to the
right; while for the left eye the inferior oblique and the internal rectus are the efficient muscles.
A careful study of the action of the individual muscles will make it clear that these facts hold good for
each of the cardinal directions of the gaze.
Furthermore, if we attentively consider the action of the twelve muscles moving the two eyes, we see
that they may be divided into three groups, viz.; four lateral rotators, four elevators and four depressors.

Lateral Rotators
Right rotators Left rotators
L. Internal rectus to R. Internal rectus
R. External rectus L. External rectus

Elevators
Right-handed elevators Left-handed elevators
(acting mainly when the (acting mainly when the
eyes are directed to the right) to eyes are directed to the left)
R. Superior rectus R. Inferior oblique
L. Inferior oblique L. Superior rectus

Depressors
Right-handed depressors Left-handed depressors
(acting mainly when the (acting mainly when the
eyes are directed to the right) to eyes are directed to the left)
R. Inferior oblique R. Superior oblique
L. Superior oblique L. Inferior rectus.
Each group, it will be seen, comprises two pairs of muscles; one pair acting solely when the eyes are
directed to the right, the other when they are directed to the left. It will further be noted that of the two
muscles constituting any one pair, one is situated in the right eye, the other in the left.
 Eye Associates
The muscles forming any one pair are called associates. Any two associates acting together will
move their respective eyes in precisely the same direction and to the same extent. Thus the right
superior rectus moves the eye up to the left and rotates its vertical meridian to the left; and its associate,
the left inferior oblique, moves its eye up to the left and rotates its vertical meridian to the left. This
likewise applies to each of the other five groups of associates.
If one eye fails to keep pace with the other in executing parallel movements, diplopia ensues. If the
eyes are moved in all directions and the point noted where the patient just begins to see double, we
delimit the field of binocular single vision.
Normally, however, the two eyes maintain parallelism to the very limit of their excursion, so that
diplopia occurs only at the extreme periphery of the field of vision, if at all. In fact, the field of binocular
single vision usually extends not less than 40 degrees from the primary position in every direction.
Each of the various parallel movements of the eye appear to be governed by a distinct nerve
mechanism, there being one centre for movements to the right, one for movements to the left, one for
movements up, etc.

Movements of Convergence
In order to see an object at a nearby point, the eyes have to converge—a movement affected by a
simultaneous and equal contraction of both internal recti. This movement may be combined with a
vertical, lateral or oblique parallel movement. Thus, when we wish to look at a near object situated
twenty degrees to our right, we first turn both eyes twenty degrees to the right, then converge both
equally, turning the left a little more to the right and the right a little back toward the left.
Convergence is governed by a distinct mechanism of the nerves, the source of which has not been
determined.

Movements of Divergence
In passing from a position of convergence to a position of parallelism, the lines of sight separate or
diverge. This movement of divergence is a simultaneous, equal contraction of both externi; or, probably,
of both actions combined. The eyes may even diverge somewhat beyond parallelism, as in overcoming
prisms, base in, when looking at a distant object.

Vertical Divergence
The amount by which the lines of sight can separate in a vertical direction is very limited—at most
but one or two degrees.

Orthophoria
The term orthophoria is used to denote an absolutely normal balance of the extrinsic muscles, just as
the term emmetropia denotes a normal refractive condition. They are equally rare.

Heterophoria
The term heterophoria includes all those conditions in which there is a tendency to depart from
normal balance, but which nature is able to compensate for; while the term also includes the conditions
in which nature has been unequal to the task and an actual turning or squint has occurred.
 Subdivisions
The subdivisions of these terms at first reading appear complicated, but prove simple enough on
closer study, indicating only the direction of the turning or tendency to turn. For instance:

Esophoria signifies inward tendency.

Exophoria signifies outward tendency.
Hyperphoria signifies upward tendency.
Hypophoria signifies downward tendency.
Cyclophoria signifies tendency to torsion.
Esotropia signifies inward turning.
Exotropia signifies outward turning.
Hypertropia signifies upward turning.
Hypotropia signifies downward turning.
Cyclotropia signifies actual torsion.
Combinations are describable in similar terms. A tendency of the right eye to turn up and inward, is a
“right hyperesophoria”; the left eye to turn down and out, a “left hyperexophoria,” etc. Tendencies of both
eyes together are denoted by the terms which follow:

Anaphoria signifies an upward tendency.

Kataphoria signifies a downward tendency.
Dextrophoria signifies a right tendency.
Laevophoria signifies a left tendency.
 Chapter XVII
SYMPTOMS OF HETEROPHORIA

T hese depend on the kind of error present as well as the degree

and widely vary.
In general, they may be said to fall into three classes—(1)
defective vision, (2) pain of greater or less degree—(3) reflex
symptoms.
Defective Vision. The first class may be present, even though
each eye has a normal visual acuity; since, even when
compensation is very good, the brain gets the impression of two
objects, nearly, though not quite fused; and vision may be
considerably worse with both eyes together than with either eye
singly.
When compensation is considerably impaired, the diplopia
becomes more and more persistent, till the brain finally makes
choice of one image as more satisfactory, entirely suppressing the
other. Visual acuity may not suffer in either eye; but vision being no
longer binocular, everything is seen in the flat, the judgments of
depth and distance being regularly more or less defective. While this
is a tremendous disadvantage in many occupations, people
gradually and not infrequently become accustomed to these visual
defects and are not conscious of the handicap.
Pain. It is quite different with the second set of symptoms, which
are always accompanied with pain. In fact, the character of the
subjective symptoms in refractive errors and muscular imbalance is
so similar that it is practically impossible to differentiate in many
cases.
In muscular asthenopia, however, in addition to becoming easily
tired, the patient often complains that letters seem to jump or run
together or he may contend that he sees double for an instant; or
again that he can “feel his eyes turn” involuntarily in their sockets.
These pains or conditions are sometimes present only during actual
use of the eyes. At other times they persist for hours. In some cases,
after days or weeks of overstimulation, an explosion in migraine form
occurs at irregular intervals. This condition often lasts a day or two.
Reflex Symptoms. In the third and last case, there are other
reflex symptoms—such as dizziness, nausea, fainting, indigestion,
insomnia and pains in other portions of the body—sometimes
stimulating organic diseases.
The possibility of heterophoria as a factor in chorea, migraine,
neurasthenia and other diseases which may be primarily due to
unstable nerves, equilibrium is not to be forgotten. It is a notable fact
that when the fusion compensation fails so completely that one
image is entirely suppressed, or the diplopia is so great as to be
overlooked, the symptoms often cease entirely.

Treatment
The treatment of heterophoria depends on a careful study of
each individual case, but it cannot be too strongly emphasized that in
the great majority of cases the subjective symptoms disappear after
a full correction of the refraction is made.
In many cases, if the visual acuity in each eye be made normal,
the fusion impulse alone will be sufficient to restore compensation.
Many cases of esophoria result from overstimulation of the
centers for convergence and accommodation, made necessary by
hyperopia and astigmatism, entirely disappearing when glasses
abolish the need of accommodation. Cases of exophoria are
sometimes due to the abnormal relaxation of accommodation and
convergence which secures the best distant vision in myopia.
Likewise the correction of myopia, by increasing the far point, may
diminish the amount of convergence necessary for near vision.
Prisms for constant use are often prescribed, so placed as to
help the weak muscles and counteract the strong. For instance, in
esophoria we find the prism which, base in, will produce orthophoria
for distance and prescribe a quarter of it, base in, before each eye.
While this is very successful in some cases, the tendency in others is
for the externus to increase slightly from constant exercise in
overcoming the prism, while the internus decreases in proportion to
the amount of work of which it is relieved. Prisms for permanent use
are very beneficial in vertical deviations, since when the images are
brought on the same level they require much less effort to secure
fusion; and when prescribed base up or down, the effect secured is
commonly an unchanging one.
We sometimes take advantage of this tendency when we
prescribe for constant use weak prisms with the apex over the weak
muscle, which gradually becomes strong from the exercise of
overcoming it. This plan is effective only in patients who have a
strong fusion impulse, and the prism selected must be weak enough
to be easily overcome. We can accomplish the same effect by
decentering the patient’s refraction lenses.
For instance, a convex lens so placed that the visual line passes
the reverse will be the case if the lens is concave. The amount of
prismatic action depends on the strength of the lens and the amount
of decentering, the rule being that every centimeter of displacement
causes as many prism diopters as there are diopters in that meridian
of the lens. Thus +1 sphere, or cylinder axis 90, decentered one
centimeter outward, is equivalent to adding a one degree prism
diopter lens, base out.

Destrophoria and Laevophoria

These are terms denoting a condition in which both eyes are
capable of abnormal rotating toward the right or left, as the case may
be. The movement in the opposite direction is most common. The
patient can often rotate his eyes 60 degrees toward the right, and to
perhaps only 40 degrees to the left. His position of rest is parallel
with his visual lines, but to the right, in looking at objects directly in
front, he is much more comfortable with his head turned slightly to
the left.
 It is difficult to account for, except on the theory that definite
movement of the eyes is rather to the right than to the left in most
occupations. The position of the paper in writing at a desk tends
toward dextrophoria; in reading, we move our eyes steadily from left
to right and then begin a new line by a single brief movement to the
left; the things that a man uses most—whether he be laborer or
student—are kept within reach of the right hand, and in referring to
them the eyes are constantly turned toward the right.
However, when these conditions result from other imbalances,
they must be treated more carefully. For instance, a patient whose
right internus is paralysed or congenitally defective on looking to the
left, has a cross diplopia which vanishes to the right; as a result, he
soon assumes a habit of carrying his head in this position. Ordinarily,
this will cause no discomfort; but if the left internus is so weak that it
cannot follow the right externus to its position of greatest ease, the
visual lines are evidently different and the case must be treated as
an exophoria.
If, on the other hand, the left internus over-balances the right
externus, the condition is an esophoria and must be treated as such.
Similar reasoning applies to the conditions known as Anaphoria
and Kataphoria, in which the visual lines are parallel to each other
but directed up or down with regard to the horizontal plane of the
body.
In the first, owing to congenital abnormalities, the eyes usually
tend upward and the individual must go about with his chin on his
chest, so that his eyes may look in front and yet remain in the
position of rest. In the second, the chin is held in the air and the body
arched backward.
But, unless extreme, neither of these conditions causes more
than cosmetic difficulty and both should be undisturbed owing to the
extreme difficulty of securing the same operative effect on both eyes.
Suitable prisms are much more likely to be beneficial.
 Supports for Holding
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Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
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