Terminology and translation

In translation, terminology is considered a tool to solve particular problems, while in terminology, translated
documents may serve as a source for extracting terms when there are no original texts on the subject in the target
language.

1. The relations between terminology and translation

Both terminology and translation have a long history as practical applications but have more recently gained
recognition as formal disciplines. They originated from the practical needs related to specialized knowledge and
comprehension. Second, both fields emphasize characteristics, differing them from other subjects. They also rely on
theories to establish their autonomy. Thirdly, these fields are interdisciplinary and rooted in cognitive, linguistic, and
communicative principles. Their concepts are from cognitive, language, and communication sciences, and they are
concerned with information and communication in specific social contexts. Last but not least, language is the essence
of both disciplines that allows individuals to interact and express their ideas and thoughts.

Terminology and translation

Translation involves the study of the translation process and the analysis of the translated text and terminology
focuses on the lexical form and content nodes that represent knowledge structured in experts' minds. Translation's
purpose is to express a semantic-pragmatic structure originally created in one language into another. In contrast,
terminology's goal is to collect specialized terms and compile them into terminological resources like glossaries,
dictionaries, vocabularies, or databases, with the intention of making them easily available and useful, particularly for
translation experts.

Exists an asymmetrical relationship between translation and terminology. Specialized translation needs terminology
because experts use specific terms in their texts. Terminology work involves on extracting terms from texts created
by specialists in real communicative situations. However, when creating glossaries, term extraction from original texts
is a priority. Translated texts are only used as terminological sources when there's a lack of discourse on a subject in a
given language.

2. Terminology as a field of knowledge

Terminology is a field focused on studying terms. It has both theoretical and practical aspects. Involve activities such
as collecting, analyzing, and sometimes standardizing terminological units in glossaries or databases contributing to
the development of terminological resources. Terminological units can be understood from three perspectives:
Linguistically, terms are lexical language units that convey specialized meanings in specific contexts, recognized and
stabilized within expert communities.

From a cognitive perspective, terms represent specialized knowledge, and from a communicative perspective, they
act as discourse units, identifying individuals within a professional group and facilitating communication, knowledge
transfer, and teaching. These linguistic, cognitive, and communicative perspectives are interrelated for a
comprehensive understanding of terms, even though they are analyzed separately for academic purposes.

Terminology is fundamentally centered on terms. Its descriptive and theoretical aspects pretend to explain terms and
their functioning, while the practical side involves collecting terms to create glossaries for professional use. Nominal
terms with referential and denominative value are the typical examples, but specialized knowledge can also be
conveyed through units of various lexical categories, as well as supralexical (specialized phraseology and fixed
sequences) and infralexical units (specialized formants).

3. The translation perspective on terminology

Terminology plays a role for translation. Terminology resources provide to translators the information needed to find
an equivalent in the target language, understand source language terms or select the best terminology option. It also
acts as a means for translators to acquire knowledge about specialized domains. Terms within a specialty form
knowledge structure, connecting through various relationships (generic-specific, cause-effect, part-whole, anterior-
posterior, material-object, function-instrument, etc.). Thus, knowing the terminology of a field implies acquiring
knowledge of it. In this sense, terminology has a metacognitive function as it helps translators to organize their
knowledge on the subject, and provides them the lexical units (terms) to express the specialized knowledge units of
the field adequately.

4. Terminological problems of translation

The relationship between terminology and translation involves two situations: first, the terminology requirements of
any translation (terminology in translation) and, the translators’ terminology needs (terminology for translation). In
the first case, the terminology work to be carried out by the translator is ad hoc terminology, while in the second,
they create glossaries useful to translators, involving systematic terminology work. When translating, translators face
a diversity of problems either by the text to be translated or the different contexts of production and reception of the
original and the translated text, among which only a few are terminological problems. A terminological problem may
be related to term understanding and the term pragmatic properties in the original text, or to the search for
equivalents. Common situations translators may face are:

– Not knowing term or part of it, its meaning, its grammatical use or pragmatic value in the source language.

– Not knowing how to find equivalent terms in the target language.

– Doubts about the most appropriate equivalent.

– Ignoring or having doubts about the phraseology used in a particular field of specialization.

Translators face various challenges when trying to understand the source text. They often rely on reference materials
like specialized dictionaries or multilingual databases in the original language to grasp the meaning of terms and their
grammatical and pragmatic usage. Additionally, they may ask assistance from experts proficient in the source
language. During the translation process, the primary task for translators is to resolve equivalence problems by
finding suitable equivalents. This is different from the general logic of translation, as it involves identifying equivalent
terms rather than translation strategies. However, there are cases where terminological resources may not provide
solutions. This can occur due to a lack of reference terminology in the target language or outdated glossaries that
don't meet the specific needs of translation. Problems stemming from the absence of terminology include the
following situations in the target language:

 Inability to find an established term because specialists do not use the language for communication in the
subject.
 Lack of a satisfactory term from a linguistic perspective due to systematic use of loanwords.
 Absence of a standard term agreed upon by specialists or endorsed by standardization bodies.

When translators search equivalents, they typically assume that every term in the source text will have a
corresponding term in the target language. If no equivalent can be found (which occurs when the subject is
unfamiliar in the target language), translators may suggest a new term, duly noted with a footnote. To propose a
term, translators need a strong grasp of linguistic aspects and a sense of the term's practicality. Proposing a term
requires a solid understanding of lexical morphology, lexicology, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics. The decision to
choose between existing terms or choose a new one is complex, involving considerations of linguistic criteria,
standardization guidelines, language structure, lexical resources, grammatical possibilities, the characteristics of the
specialized area, and the likelihood of acceptance by the expert group. Once all the possibilities have been
considered, the translator must make a decision and choose the term to be used in the translation, it must be
sufficiently documented so as to avoid the proliferation of terms coined by translators, as individual translators are
not sources of consolidated reference terminology.

Translators must decide whether to respect the original text's variation or use variants selectively or systematically as
forms of reference. To maintain or reduce variants, the translator considers linguistic variation aspects such as the
geographic scope of the language, geolectal variation, pragmatic diversity, language and terminology planning
criteria, the domain's scope, interdisciplinarity, and its relation to various fields of knowledge.

5. Terminology resources for translators: To solve the terminological problems that arise in the translation phase, all
involving the search for an equivalent or the selection of the most appropriate equivalent, translators make use of
three main types of resources:
– Monolingual textual documentation resources: specialized texts on the subject, preferably in digital format, usually
via the Internet.

– Terminological documentation resources: bilingual and multilingual dictionaries, terminology and knowledge
databases.

– Bilingual or multilingual textual resources: parallel or multilingual comparable corpus.

5.1 Textual resources

Translators acquire general subject information from specialists, general and specialized works (manuals, articles,
etc.), encyclopedias, and documentary tools, such as hierarchical classifications and thesauri. Nowadays, the
internet's advanced search engines are valuable for these queries. These engines not only provide terms but also
linguistic contexts (concordances) containing the searched term. It's important to note that the criteria for evaluating
specialized texts differ from general texts. General texts prioritize expressiveness, variety, and originality, while
specialized texts prioritize conciseness, accuracy, and adequacy.

5.2 Terminological resources

Translators use various resources to resolve equivalent-related translation issues, such as dictionaries, specialized
lexicons, terminology standards, and terminological databases. Lexicographical works are valuable for obtaining
knowledge on specific subjects, especially when aligned parallel corpora are used to provide terminological
equivalents in context. It's important for translators to consider the reliability and purpose of the documents they
consult, distinguishing between informative or descriptive texts and those with instructive or standardization
purposes, including international and national standards and compilations of terms standardized by authorized
institutions. Terminology banks have played a significant role in the information society, originally focusing on
facilitating translation work, especially for bilingual or multilingual purposes. Later, monolingual banks became
important for studying content-related aspects. These banks offer continuous updates and the storage of a large
number of terms and related information, enabling selective data retrieval.

Initially, translation-oriented terminology banks aimed to simplify translators' searches by providing comprehensive
information in one place. However, the importance placed on the concept-term relationship and standard forms
sometimes overshadowed other crucial data for translators, such as contexts of use, grammar, and variants.

– Integrate various related databases: textual, terminological, documentary and fractographic, plus a domain
ontology.

– Contain a wide variety of data such as nomenclatures, specialized terms, collocations and phraseology, with the
information necessary to identify all those units.

– Can be used as monolingual, bilingual or multilingual dictionaries indistinctively.

– Allow online access.

– Can be used as the basis for the production of dictionaries.

The text highlights the evolution of databases, which have transformed from simple tools for consultation into
versatile instruments for dictionary editing and knowledge transfer. Instead of isolated databases, we now have a
system environment that enables access to remote information from various databanks. This is made possible
through intelligent search engines that collect and present information from different sources based on user queries.

5.3 Bilingual textual resources: It should be mentioned that, for translators, parallel corpus (containing original texts
and their translations) are very useful. While working, through translation memories translators progressively create
parallel corpus they can use and profit from later on.

LAS LIMITACIONES EN LA TRADUCCIÓN: El papel de la cultura

El texto aborda los desafíos que los traductores enfrentan debido a las diferencias culturales en la traducción de
palabras y expresiones. Destaca la importancia de considerar estas diferencias al traducir, utilizando ejemplos como
el simbolismo del búho (significa la sabiduría) en diferentes culturas y expresiones que reflejan valores culturales.
También se menciona cómo la riqueza léxica en un idioma está relacionada con la importancia cultural de ciertos
aspectos. El texto subraya que algunas palabras y expresiones pueden ser difíciles de traducir debido a las diferencias
culturales, y enfatiza la necesidad de comprender el contexto cultural para una traducción precisa. Se destaca la
importancia de transmitir respuestas emocionales y el significado original del autor en la traducción, criticando las
omisiones y traducciones inexactas que pueden llevar a malentendidos.

El texto señala que la cantidad de léxico relacionado con aspectos culturales en un idioma está relacionada con la
importancia cultural de esos aspectos. Se menciona el ejemplo de Argentina, donde hay un vocabulario específico
relacionado con diferentes tipos de caballos debido a la importancia de los caballos en la sociedad rural argentina. Se
mencionan ejemplos de palabras y expresiones en inglés relacionadas con el té que no tienen una traducción exacta
en español, lo que ilustra cómo algunas palabras pueden ser difíciles de traducir debido a las diferencias culturales. El
texto habla de expresiones metafóricas en inglés que se utilizan de manera diferente a las equivalentes en español, lo
que destaca la importancia de comprender el contexto cultural para una traducción precisa.

Se menciona cómo algunas palabras pueden provocar respuestas emotivas diferentes en diferentes culturas, lo que
puede ser difícil de transmitir en una traducción. Se da el ejemplo de la palabra "corrida" en inglés y su diferente
connotación en comparación con "bullfight" en español. El texto enfatiza la importancia de traducir de manera
precisa para transmitir el significado y el estilo original del autor. Se critica la omisión de palabras o frases en algunas
traducciones que pueden llevar a malentendidos. Se mencionan ejemplos de traducciones inexactas que omiten
detalles importantes o cambian el significado original del texto, lo que subraya la importancia de una traducción
cuidadosa y precisa.

Otros defectos de las traducciones literarias

El texto aborda la falta de rigor científico en las traducciones literarias al español, atribuida a la baja valoración y
remuneración de los traductores. Se mencionan errores que van desde descuidos simples hasta cambios que alteran
el sentido original. Se destaca la dificultad de traducir títulos, citando el caso de "The Catcher in the Rye". También se
presenta un ejemplo en el que una traducción inexacta afecta el humor del texto original. Se advierte sobre el uso de
"falsos amigos" palabras que suenan similares en dos idiomas, pero tienen significados diferentes. Un ejemplo citado
es la traducción de "dissect" como "disecar" en lugar de utilizar una palabra más apropiada como "revisar" o
"escrutar".y la tendencia de algunos traductores a importar palabras en inglés al español, lo que puede causar
confusiones, especialmente en la prensa. El texto señala que algunos traductores tienden a usar palabras en español
en un contexto en el que se utilizan en inglés, lo que puede llevar a confusiones. Esto es especialmente común en la
prensa y ha sido criticado por expertos en la lengua, como Lázaro Carreter.

Problemas del léxico: los diccionarios y su limitación

Los diccionarios, especialmente los monolingues, son una herramienta indispensable para el traductor, pero no
solucionan, todos los problemas del léxico. El buen traductor utiliza el diccionario bilingüe sobre todo para confirmar
un vocablo que ya sabe y si lo utiliza para buscar una palabra desconocida, después maneja el mayor número posible
de diccionarios monolingües para cerciorarse de su uso correcto.

El traductor debe considerar la frecuencia con la que se utiliza una palabra en el idioma de destino. Por ejemplo, la
palabra "lustro"(lustrum) tiene una traducción más adecuada como "five years" en inglés debido a su menor
frecuencia de uso en ese idioma en comparación con "lustro" en español.

Un traductor puede aumentar la frecuencia de un vocablo o expresión si lo utiliza excesivamente, lo que crea una
frecuencia artificial en el texto. Esto puede afectar negativamente el estilo y la fluidez de la traducción. Es importante
identificar la acepción principal de una palabra en un idioma, ya que puede no coincidir con la acepción principal en
otro idioma. Esto puede llevar a malentendidos si se traduce una palabra en su sentido menos común. El significado
de las palabras puede cambiar con el tiempo, incluso de una generación a otra. El texto menciona el ejemplo de la
palabra "queer", que ha adquirido el matiz de "homosexual" en inglés en los últimos años. La elección del léxico
también depende del estilo del texto. Algunas palabras pueden encajar mejor en un estilo particular, y el traductor
debe tener en cuenta este aspecto al seleccionar las palabras adecuadas. No existe una sinonimia completa entre los
idiomas, lo que significa que no siempre hay una traducción exacta para una palabra. Las palabras pueden abarcar
diferentes matices de significado en diferentes idiomas. Se menciona un método llamado "análisis de componentes"
que ayuda a descomponer el significado de una palabra en sus conceptos anatómicos. Este método se utiliza para
comprender mejor las relaciones semánticas entre diferentes acepciones de una palabra.

Katz y Fodor en su obra La estructura de una teoría semántica han utilizado el esquema arbóreo para intentar
clarificar las clasificaciones del léxico. Toman como ejemplo la palabra bachelor y construyen el esquema siguiente:

Los elementos que no están entre paréntesis son marcadores gramaticales (nombre, verbos, etc.) y los que sí están
son marcadores semánticos (humano, animal, macho, hembra, etc.). Los que están entre corchetes son los
diferenciadores. Los marcadores semánticos y los diferenciadores ayudan a descomponer el significado de un
vocablo en sus conceptos anatómicos. Si buscamos el significado ‘bachelor’ en castellano: soltero, mancebo, doncel,
célibe y bachiller. Estos no son sinónimos de bachelor que es «joven sin casarse». Ninguno de ellos corresponde a
«foca joven»; «bachiller» no se usa como término para licenciado, «doncel» corresponde a «caballero j o v e n que
sirve bajo el estandarte de otro caballero». Se podrían elaborar esquemas arbóreos para los vocablos castellanos:

«Soltero» «juventud» ya que existe un vocablo para un soltero viejo («solterón»). «Célibe», en cambio, no tiene
este elemento mientras sí que tiene la posibilidad de referirse también a la mujer.

La juventud,es la característica principal de «mancebo» ocupando el 2 lugar «que no se ha casado». Una tercera
acepción («dependiente») no corresponde a los otros dos vocablos ni al inglés (bachelor).

La primera acepción es la segunda de bachelor. La virginidad es la segunda cualidad que se destaca mientras que
tanto bachelor como «soltero» no implican falta de conocimiento carnal. «Célibe», con su relación con «celibato». La
juventud es otra cualidad implícita en «doncel». Nida encuentra el sistema de Katz y Fodor insuficiente y ha
desarrollado lo que llama el «análisis de componentes». Lo elaboró en principio para palabras bíblicas que no tenían
un equivalente exacto en otras lenguas. En un eje horizontal coloca una serie de contextos en los que puede aparecer
esa palabra. Pueden ser palabras descriptivas como «pesado», «mucho», «abundan te», etc., o números que se
refieren a unas oraciones numeradas en las que se ilustran los distintos significados. En el eje vertical coloca las
cualidades relacionadas con esos vocablos en los contextos mencionados. La elección de los componentes se basa en
su importancia cultural y el número de contextos en los que aparecen. Una vez formados los ejes, se coloca una cruz
si esa cualidad está presente en determinado contexto. Se deja en blanco si no aparece y si aparece algunas veces y
otras no, se pone una cruz y además un guión. Utilizando este sistema podríamos hacer un análisis de los
componentes del vocablo «gordo» tal como aparece en los contextos siguientes:

1. Esa chica es gorda.

2. Tiene un cargo muy gordo.

3. Le ha caído el gordo.

4. Esta agua es gorda.

5. Esta leche es muy gorda.

6. Uso sal gorda e n la cocina.

7. Hizo la vista gorda.

8. Me llevé un susto gordo.

9. Armaron la gorda.

10. Sudó la gota gorda.

Un estudio de los componentes de las principales acepciones de «gordo» nos en seña de forma gráfica la distribución
del significado en los diferentes contextos. Si traducimos las mismas diez frases al inglés vemos que la traducción más
corriente de «gordo», fat, no nos sirve en muchos casos:

1. That's a fat girl.

2. He has a very important post.

3. He's won the first prize in the lottery.

4. This water is very hard.

5. This milk is very rich in fat.

6. I use coarse salt for cooking.

7. He turned a blind eye.

8. I had a bad scare.

9. They had a tremendous row.

10. He was in an awful stew.

Adaptation - John Milton

The term "adaptation" is commonly used in many creative fields such as film, television, theater, music, dance, and
others. It is used to describe the process of transforming or modifying a source material to create a new work. The
terminology related to adaptation can be confusing, likely due to the various ways it is used and understood across
different contexts.

The text mentions several terms related to adaptation, including adaptation, appropriation, recontextualization,
tradaptation, spinoff, reduction, simplification, condensation, abridgement, special version, reworking, offshoot,
transformation, remediation, and revision. Each of these terms implies a different approach or degree of modification
when adapting a source work.

The text provides a working definition of adaptation as a process that may involve omissions, rewritings, and
additions but still maintains the recognition of the original author's work.

The text draws parallels between adaptation and translation, particularly in the way they involve modifying the
source material while keeping certain elements intact. It mentions John Dryden's definition of "paraphrase" and
"imitation" as related concepts.

The discussion in Translation Studies emphasizes that adaptations can occur not only between languages
(interlingual) but also between different forms or codes (inter-semiotic), such as turning a novel into a film or a play.

The text provides examples of adaptation, including the localization of websites, adaptations for children's literature,
and changes in theater productions. It illustrates how cultural, moral, and safety considerations can influence
adaptation decisions.

Adaptations may be influenced by commercial considerations, such as reducing costs, and political factors, such as
using language and expressions that resonate with a specific audience's political context.

Historical factors play a significant role in adaptation. The text mentions how adaptations can reflect the norms and
values of a specific time period. For example, adaptations in 17th and 18th-century France had to conform to certain
standards of beauty and taste.

The text mentions specific examples of notable adaptations, such as Voltaire and Jean-François Ducis adapting
Shakespeare's works to make them more palatable for their respective audiences.