PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES

FORENSIC 101

FORENSIC 101

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND

TECHNIQUES

1
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

Table of Contents

History and Development of Fingerprint

Modern Use of Fingerprints
PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT
Fingerprint Pattern Classification
Basic Classification Patterns
Fingerprint Classification and Identification
Outline of the Fingerprint Classification Formula
Making of latent fingerprint evidence
Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence
Classification of Amputations, Missing at Birth and of Scarred Patterns
For scarred patterns
Other means of Identification

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
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Importance of personal Identification

Literature Identification deals with the exact fixation of personality based on certain features that are unique to a
particular person. Identity is said to be either absolute or incomplete based on the availability of the features and
information of a person.[1]
Identification is essential in both civil and criminal cases in living persons (cases like divorce, missing person,
impersonation, criminal abortion, etc.) and the dead (identifying an individual who is a victim ofan explosion, bomb
blast injuries, etc.).The data essential for the identification of an individual are as follows.

Complexion • Hair • Education level • Speech

• Features • Manner & Habit • IQ level • Voice
• Handwriting • Signature • Occupation marks • Gait
• Religion • Race • Sex • Age
• Stature • Dactylography • Foot prints • Cheiloscopy

Extrinsic Factors of Identification

Personal identification is defined as establishing the identity of an individual. The need for personal identification
arises in natural mass disasters like earth quakes, tsunamis, landslides, floods etc., and in man-made disasters
such as terrorist attacks, bomb blasts, mass murders, and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or
dismembered to deliberately conceal the identity of the individual [1]. The need to identify the dead is obvious for
social and medico-legal purposes. Various techniques of biological anthropology are employed in the process of
identifying the individuals from the bones or the body parts [2]. The identification of the dead from the bones/ body
parts in a legal setting forms an essential component of forensic anthropology [3]. The foremost task in achieving
the personal identification is to establish whether the skeletal remains are human or not. If the remains belong to a
human being, then various anthropological techniques can be used to identify the dead. The ‘big fours’ of
personal identification are determination of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. These form the features of ‘tentative
identification’ [4].
Research Article Open Access
f biological anthropology are employed
in the process of identifying the individuals from the bones or the body
parts [2]. e identication of the dead from the bones/ body parts in
a legal setting forms an essential component of forensic anthropology
[3]. e foremost task in achieving the personal identication is to
establish whether the skeletal remains are human or not. If the remains
belong to a human being, then various anthropological techniques can
be used to identify the dead. e ‘big fours’ of personal identication
are determination of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. ese form the
features of ‘tentative identication’ [4].

Personal identication is dened as establishing the identity of

an individual. e need for personal identication arises in natural
mass disasters like earth quakes, tsunamis, landslides, oods etc.,
and in man-made disasters such as terrorist attacks, bomb blasts,
mass murders, and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or
dismembered to deliberately conceal the identity of the individual [1].
e need to identify the dead is obvious for social and medico-legal
purposes. Various techniques of biological anthropology are employed
in the process of identifying the individuals from the bones or the body
parts [2]. e identication of the dead from the bones/ body parts in
a legal setting forms an essential component of forensic anthropology
[3]. e foremost task in achieving the personal identication is to
establish whether the skeletal remains are human or not. If the remains
belong to a human being, then various anthropological techniques can
be used to identify the dead. e ‘big fours’ of personal identication
are determination of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. ese form the
features of ‘tentative identication’ [4].
e age can be estimated by examination of the fontenelles/
3
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

fonticulis in infacy, eruption and sequence of eruption of teeth in

childhood, appearance and fusion of ossication centers of bones in
juveniles (skeletal age estimation), obliteration of cranial sutures and
on the basis of general features of the skull in adulthood and old age.
ere are other methods which have been developed recently like public
symphy seal morphology, phase changes in the sternal rib, number of
whole osteons and osteon fragments, and degenerative changes in the
skeletal features [3].
Sex can likewise be determined from various bones/ skeletal
remains. When whole skeleton is available, the sex can be determined
with almost 99-100% accuracy. Among individual bones, pelvis is
known to provide the most accurate results in the determination of
sex (95% accuracy), followed by skull (92% accuracy). Several other
bones are also used in sex estimation such as femur, tibia, ulna, radius,
vertebrae, sternum, metatarsals and metacarpals etc. Sex determination
form bones are based on their morphological and morphometric
features. A combination of both morphological and morphometric
features can provide most accurate results. e growth process in
the children and juveniles may hamper the manifestation of some
sexually dimorphic features in the bones, and hence, methods for sex
determination are practiced on the adult skeleton [5,6].
Stature estimation is also an important part of personal
identication. It provides an idea about the size of the person. Due
to the allometric relationship of the body parts with one another, the
stature can be estimated from almost all the bones of the skeleton.
Forensic anthropologists worldwide have attempted to estimate stature
from various bones. Long bones of the lower extremity are known to
give more accurate estimates of stature as these directly contribute
to the stature of a person. Other long bones such as the bones of
the upper extremity such as humerus, ulna and radius can also be
used to estimate the stature of a person. ere are two methods for
estimation of stature from the skeletal remains; anatomical method and
mathematical method. e anatomical method is the most accurate
method as it involves the complete skeleton for stature estimation. e
mathematical method involves the use of certain statistical formulae in
estimation of stature [7,8].
Determination of ethnicity/race is also considered as one of the
mainstay in personal identication. Race determination is based on
the morphological features of the human bones. Many characteristics
of the skull such as nasal opening, zygomatic bones, maxillary bones
and teeth have been used to determine the race from the skeletal
remains. At times, proximal and distal end of femur has also been
used to determine race in forensic examinations. With intermixing
of dierent population groups in modern population the issue of race
determination from skeletal remains has becomes more challenging
[3].
In the present scenario, forensic anthropologists are involved
in discovering new methods of identication from skeletal remains,
cadavers as well as living beings. In the last decade, the stress has been
laid upon achieving the accuracy on already developed methods of
identication. Various new methods of age and sex determination
have been developed from teeth and the methods have been tested
for accuracy across the globe [9]. Another reason to work on new
populations is that the earlier acquired standards of age and sex
determination have lost their values due to secular changes in the
modern populations [10,11]. erefore, there is always a need to apply
and test the methods to newer populations for making population
4
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

standards for achieving precision and accuracy.

Once the forensic anthropologist can provide this vital information
regarding the missing person/deceased, the identication takes the form
of ‘proper identication’. Other techniques such as facial reconstruction
and DNA identication can then be applied accordingly to provide
positive identication of an individual. Forensic anthropology, as a
specialty has tremendous utility in investigations [12]. e need of this
hour is to promote newer research in the eld of Forensic anthropology
involving the modern samples.
Personal identication is dened as establishing the identity of
an individual. e need for personal identication arises in natural
mass disasters like earth quakes, tsunamis, landslides, oods etc.,
and in man-made disasters such as terrorist attacks, bomb blasts,
mass murders, and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or
dismembered to deliberately conceal the identity of the individual [1].
e need to identify the dead is obvious for social and medico-legal
purposes. Various techniques of biological anthropology are employed
in the process of identifying the individuals from the bones or the body
parts [2]. e identication of the dead from the bones/ body parts in
a legal setting forms an essential component of forensic anthropology
[3]. e foremost task in achieving the personal identication is to
establish whether the skeletal remains are human or not. If the remains
belong to a human being, then various anthropological techniques can
be used to identify the dead. e ‘big fours’ of personal identication
are determination of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. ese form the
features of ‘tentative identication’ [4].
e age can be estimated by examination of the fontenelles/
fonticulis in infacy, eruption and sequence of eruption of teeth in
childhood, appearance and fusion of ossication centers of bones in
juveniles (skeletal age estimation), obliteration of cranial sutures and
on the basis of general features of the skull in adulthood and old age.
ere are other methods which have been developed recently like public
symphy seal morphology, phase changes in the sternal rib, number of
whole osteons and osteon fragments, and degenerative changes in the
skeletal features [3].
Sex can likewise be determined from various bones/ skeletal
remains. When whole skeleton is available, the sex can be determined
with almost 99-100% accuracy. Among individual bones, pelvis is
known to provide the most accurate results in the determination of
sex (95% accuracy), followed by skull (92% accuracy). Several other
bones are also used in sex estimation such as femur, tibia, ulna, radius,
vertebrae, sternum, metatarsals and metacarpals etc. Sex determination
form bones are based on their morphological and morphometric
features. A combination of both morphological and morphometric
features can provide most accurate results. e growth process in
the children and juveniles may hamper the manifestation of some
sexually dimorphic features in the bones, and hence, methods for sex
determination are practiced on the adult skeleton [5,6].
Stature estimation is also an important part of personal
identication. It provides an idea about the size of the person. Due
to the allometric relationship of the body parts with one another, the
stature can be estimated from almost all the bones of the skeleton.
Forensic anthropologists worldwide have attempted to estimate stature
from various bones. Long bones of the lower extremity are known to
give more accurate estimates of stature as these directly contribute
to the stature of a person. Other long bones such as the bones of
the upper extremity such as humerus, ulna and radius can also be
5
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

used to estimate the stature of a person. ere are two methods for
estimation of stature from the skeletal remains; anatomical method and
mathematical method. e anatomical method is the most accurate
method as it involves the complete skeleton for stature estimation. e
mathematical method involves the use of certain statistical formulae in
estimation of stature [7,8].
Determination of ethnicity/race is also considered as one of the
mainstay in personal identication. Race determination is based on
the morphological features of the human bones. Many characteristics
of the skull such as nasal opening, zygomatic bones, maxillary bones
and teeth have been used to determine the race from the skeletal
remains. At times, proximal and distal end of femur has also been
used to determine race in forensic examinations. With intermixing
of dierent population groups in modern population the issue of race
determination from skeletal remains has becomes more challenging
[3].
In the present scenario, forensic anthropologists are involved
in discovering new methods of identication from skeletal remains,
cadavers as well as living beings. In the last decade, the stress has been
laid upon achieving the accuracy on already developed methods of
identication. Various new methods of age and sex determination
have been developed from teeth and the methods have been tested
for accuracy across the globe [9]. Another reason to work on new
populations is that the earlier acquired standards of age and sex
determination have lost their values due to secular changes in the
modern populations [10,11]. erefore, there is always a need to apply
and test the methods to newer populations for making population
standards for achieving precision and accuracy.
Once the forensic anthropologist can provide this vital information
regarding the missing person/deceased, the identication takes the form
of ‘proper identication’. Other techniques such as facial reconstruction
and DNA identication can then be applied accordingly to provide
positive identication of an individual. Forensic anthropology, as a
specialty has tremendous utility in investigations [12]. e need of this
hour is to promote newer research in the eld of Forensic anthropology
involving the modern samples.
Personal identication is dened as establishing the identity of
an individual. e need for personal identication arises in natural
mass disasters like earth quakes, tsunamis, landslides, oods etc.,
and in man-made disasters such as terrorist attacks, bomb blasts,
mass murders, and in cases when the body is highly decomposed or
dismembered to deliberately conceal the identity of the individual [1].
e need to identify the dead is obvious for social and medico-legal
purposes. Various techniques of biological anthropology are employed
in the process of identifying the individuals from the bones or the body
parts [2]. e identication of the dead from the bones/ body parts in
a legal setting forms an essential component of forensic anthropology
[3]. e foremost task in achieving the personal identication is to
establish whether the skeletal remains are human or not. If the remains
belong to a human being, then various anthropological techniques can
be used to identify the dead. e ‘big fours’ of personal identication
are determination of age, sex, stature and ethnicity. ese form the
features of ‘tentative identication’ [4].
e age can be estimated by examination of the fontenelles/
fonticulis in infacy, eruption and sequence of eruption of teeth in
childhood, appearance and fusion of ossication centers of bones in
juveniles (skeletal age estimation), obliteration of cranial sutures and
6
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

on the basis of general features of the skull in adulthood and old age.
ere are other methods which have been developed recently like public
symphy seal morphology, phase changes in the sternal rib, number of
whole osteons and osteon fragments, and degenerative changes in the
skeletal features [3].
Sex can likewise be determined from various bones/ skeletal
remains. When whole skeleton is available, the sex can be determined
with almost 99-100% accuracy. Among individual bones, pelvis is
known to provide the most accurate results in the determination of
sex (95% accuracy), followed by skull (92% accuracy). Several other
bones are also used in sex estimation such as femur, tibia, ulna, radius,
vertebrae, sternum, metatarsals and metacarpals etc. Sex determination
form bones are based on their morphological and morphometric
features. A combination of both morphological and morphometric
features can provide most accurate results. e growth process in
the children and juveniles may hamper the manifestation of some
sexually dimorphic features in the bones, and hence, methods for sex
determination are practiced on the adult skeleton [5,6].
Stature estimation is also an important part of personal
identication. It provides an idea about the size of the person. Due
to the allometric relationship of the body parts with one another, the
stature can be estimated from almost all the bones of the skeleton.
Forensic anthropologists worldwide have attempted to estimate stature
from various bones. Long bones of the lower extremity are known to
give more accurate estimates of stature as these directly contribute
to the stature of a person. Other long bones such as the bones of
the upper extremity such as humerus, ulna and radius can also be
used to estimate the stature of a person. ere are two methods for
estimation of stature from the skeletal remains; anatomical method and
mathematical method. e anatomical method is the most accurate
method as it involves the complete skeleton for stature estimation. e
mathematical method involves the use of certain statistical formulae in
estimation of stature [7,8].
Determination of ethnicity/race is also considered as one of the
mainstay in personal identication. Race determination is based on
the morphological features of the human bones. Many characteristics
of the skull such as nasal opening, zygomatic bones, maxillary bones
and teeth have been used to determine the race from the skeletal
remains. At times, proximal and distal end of femur has also been
used to determine race in forensic examinations. With intermixing
of dierent population groups in modern population the issue of race
determination from skeletal remains has becomes more challenging
[3].
In the present scenario, forensic anthropologists are involved
in discovering new methods of identication from skeletal remains,
cadavers as well as living beings. In the last decade, the stress has been
laid upon achieving the accuracy on already developed methods of
identication. Various new methods of age and sex determination
have been developed from teeth and the methods have been tested
for accuracy across the globe [9]. Another reason to work on new
populations is that the earlier acquired standards of age and sex
determination have lost their values due to secular changes in the
modern populations [10,11]. erefore, there is always a need to apply
and test the methods to newer populations for making population
standards for achieving precision and accuracy.
Once the forensic anthropologist can provide this vital information
regarding the missing person/deceased, the identication takes the form
7
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

of ‘proper identication’. Other techniques such as facial reconstruction

and DNA identication can then be applied accordingly to provide
positive identication of an individual. Forensic anthropology, as a
specialty has tremendous utility in investigations [12]. e need of this
hour is to promote newer research in the eld of Forensic anthropology
involving the modern samples.
Age can be estimated by examination of fontanelles in infancy, eruption and continued eruption of teeth in
childhood, bony appearance and fusion (estimating skeletal age) in juveniles, and occlusion of cranial sutures.
Increase. Basic adulthood and geriatrics of common cranial features. There are other methods that have been
recently developed, including public symphy seal morphology, sternal-rib phase changes, whole bone and
fragment counts, and degenerative changes in skeletal features [3]. Gender can also be determined from various
bone/skeletal remains. Given the entire skeleton, we can determine gender with nearly 99-100% accuracy. Of the
individual bones, the pelvis (95 - accuracy) gives the most accurate results in determining sex, followed by the
skull (92 - accuracy). Several other bones are also used for gender estimation, including the femur, tibia, ulna,
radius, vertebrae, sternum, metatarsals, and metacarpals. Bone sex determination is based on morphological and
morphometric features. A combination of morphological and morphometric features provides the most accurate
results. Because the growth process of children and adolescents can interfere with the expression of some
sexually dimorphic characteristics of bone, methods of adult skeletal sex determination are practiced.

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

Fingerprint Identification (sometimes referred to as Dactyloscopy) is the process of comparing questioned and known
friction skin ridge impressions from fingers, palms, and toes to determine if the impressions are from the same
finger (or palm, toe, etc.) The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever
exactly alike (never identical in every detail), even two impressions recorded immediately after each other.
Fingerprint identification (also referred to individualization) occurs when an expert (or an expert computer system
operating under threshold scoring rules) determines that two friction ridge impressions originated from the same
finger or palm (or toe, sole) to the exclusion of all others.

The History and Development of Fingerprint:

Personal Identification can be traced to the earliest dared prints of the ridged skin on human hands and feet were
made about 4,000 years ago during the pyramid building era in Egypt. In addition, one small portion of palm print, not
known to be human, has been found impressed in hardened mud at a 10,000 year old site in Egypt.

In the East, it was common practice for the Chinese to use inked fingerprints on official documents, land sales,
contracts, loans and acknowledgments of debts. The olds existing documents so endorsed dates back from the third
century BC. Even though it is recorded that the Chinese used their fingerprints to establish identity in court litigation over
disputed business dealings, criminalists and researchers fail to agree as to whether the Chinese were fully of the
uniqueness of a fingerprint or whether the physical contact with documents had some spiritual significance.

The first documented interest in the skin’s ridges in the western world, a paper written in 1684 by an Englishman,
Dr. Nehemiah Grew, was mainly of an anatomical nature. A small number of other academics from various European
countries also made anatomical studies of the skin.

Professor Marcello Malphigi, a plant morphologist at the University of Bologna, performed study similar to Grew’s
and published similar findings in his 1686 publication De Externo Tactus Organo. This anatomical treatise, though less
detailed about the surface of the hand than that of Dr. Grew, probed further beneath the surface. Malphigi’s anatomical
work was so outstanding that one of the layers of the skin was named: stratum Malphigi” after him. It was not until 1798,
however, that J C Mayer of Germany theorized that the arrangements of friction ridges were unique.

In 1823, Professor Johannes Evangelist Purkinje published the most detailed description of fingerprints to have
appeared anywhere up to that time. Professor Purkinje’s thesis entitled A Commentary on the Physiological Examination
of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System describes, with illustrations, it can be seen that the Latin classifications
refer to what Henry would later name arches, tented arches, lops, whorls and twinned loops. Purkinje’s research was
purely anatomical, and he made no mention of individuals being identified by the patterns that he described. However, he
recommended further study, and others soon took up his challenge.

It was not until 1858 that the first practical application of the science was made, when Sir William Herschel an
English administrator in India, commenced placing the inked palm impressions and, later, thumb impressions of some
members of the local population on contracts. These prints were used as a form of signature on the documents because
of the high level of illiteracy in India and frequent attempts at forgery. Herschel also began fingerprinting all prisoners
detained in jails.

The significant advances in fingerprint science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were made by Dr. Henry
Faulds, a Scottish missionary doctor of the United Presbyterian Church. After careful experiment and observation, he
became convinced that fingerprint patterns did not change, that the fingerprint patterns on the fingers were highly variable
and that surface or superficial injury did not alter them, they returned to their former design as the injury healed.

He further described the pattern formations on the fingers, referred to “loops” and “whorls” and stating how good
sets of fingerprints may be obtained by the use of a common slate or smooth board of any kind, or a sheet of thin, spread
over very thinly with printer’s ink. This technique, still in use today, appears to be a botanical technique called nature-
printing. His most important conclusion was that fingerprints do not changed and that latent prints left on objects by bloody
or greasy fingers “may lead to the scientific identification of criminals”.

Herschel’s main role as a fingerprint pioneer lies in the area of the immutability of the ridged skin. Throughout his
life, Herschel took his own fingerprints and noted that no change had occurred in them in over 50 years. He also had a
small collection of about 20 sets of fingerprints and used his technique of hand printing to detect forgeries of legal
9
 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
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documents. The fingerprints taken from prisoners were also of great interest to him, and he had no opportunity to see the
same prisoners fingerprinted several times over a number of years with no change occurring in their fingerprints.

In 1892, Sir Francis Galton, a noted English scientist published an accurate and in-depth study of the
fingerprinting science that included an attempt at a system of fingerprint classification to facilitate the handling of large
collections of fingerprints. Although Galton’s work proved to be sound and became the foundation of modern fingerprint
science and technology, his approach to classification was inadequate, and it was to be others who were to successfully
apply his work.

Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian police officer, researched the science of fingerprints which correspond with Galton.
He then devised his own system of fingerprint classification, which he called”icnofalagometrico”. This system was put into
practice in September 1891, and in March 1892, Vucetich opened the first fingerprint bureau at San Nicholas, Buenos
Aires. Within a short time of the bureau being established, the first conviction by means of fingerprint evidence in a murder
trial was obtained. In June 1892, at Necochea, Francisca Rojas claimed that she had been brutally attacked and her two
children murdered by a neighboring ranch worker named Velasquez. Velasquez was arrested but refused to confess to
the murder of the two children. Nine days after the crime, a search of the crime scene was carried out and a number of
fingerprints in blood were found on a door post of the woman’s hut. The post was taken to the fingerprint bureau for
comparison with the inked fingerprint impressions of Velasquez. They were not identical, but the blood impressions were
found to be identical with those of Rojas. When confronted with this evidence, Rojas confessed to the murder of her
children, and in July 1892 she was found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.

An Englishman, Sir Edward Henry, who had been given instruction in fingerprints by Galton, devised a workable
classification system and implemented it in India in 1897. In 1900, Henry published his book Classification and Uses of
Fingerprints. In 1901, Henry as appointed Assistant Commissioner of Police at New Scotland Yard and began to introduce
his fingerprint system into that institution. By the end of that year, the Fingerprint Office at New Scotland Yard was fully
functional, the first British court conviction by fingerprints was obtained in 1902. Approximately 10 years after the
publication of Henry’s book, his classification system was used by the police forces and prison authorities throughout the
English-speaking world.

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

Activity Number 1: ILLUSTRATION OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

Direction: In a long bond paper illustrate the human skeleton and label each parts (20 points).

Activity Number 2: SKETCH

Direction: In a long bond paper make a cartographic sketch (20 points).

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
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Modern Use of Fingerprints:

As crime-detection methods improved, law enforcement officers found that any smooth, hard surface touched by
a human hand would produce fingerprints made by the oily secretion present on the skin. When these so-called latent
prints were dusted with powder or chemically treated, the identifying fingerprint pattern could be seen and photographed
and preserved. Law enforcement agencies can also use computers to digitally record fingerprints and to transmit them
electronically to other agencies for comparison. By comparing fingerprints at the scene of a crime with the fingerprint
record of suspected persons, police investigators can establish absolute proof of the presence of a person to the crime
scene and identify the individual.

Law enforcement agencies are now in the process of transferring all its fingerprint records onto a computerized
system known as the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). IAFIS will scan fingerprint cards
electronically, store fingerprint data digitally, and automatically search the database to match fingerprints.

PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT:

 Fingerprints never change. Small ridges form on a person’s hands and feet before they are born and do
not change for as long as the person lives.

 No two fingerprints are alike. The ridges on the hands and feet of all persons have three characteristics
(ridge endings, bifurcations and dots) which appear in combinations that are never repeated on the hands
or feet of any two persons. A ridge ending is simply the end of a ridge. A bifurcation is a Y-shaped split of
one ridge into two. A dot is a very short ridge that looks like a “dot”.

The uniqueness of a fingerprint is a working hypothesis which in the mathematical sense is difficult (if not
impossible) to prove. The opposite is more provable, namely finding two identical fingers. Until now, no two
fingerprints from different fingers have been found which are identical. This holds true even for identical twins,
between right and left fingers and can be anticipated also for clones.

Are fingerprints inherited… are they more similar between family members than between strangers? The
general shape or overall pattern of finger and palm prints can be inherited. Family members will often have similar
patterns or designs (whorls, loops, etc) on the same fingers of their hands. The tiny details in the fingerprint
ridges, however, are not inherited and are different between all friction skin areas of all persons… even between
twins.

Fingerprint patterns are inherited and thus non-fingerprint experts looking in a police fingerprint file must
be careful not to confuse fingerprint records of close relatives based on fingerprint classification.

Likewise, a National Crime Information Center Fingerprint Classification Code (FPC) may be very similar
for close relatives. The actual finger and palm print detail used to effect identification is not inherited and experts
have no problem differentiating even identical twins. Only the overall whorl, loop, etc., pattern are inherited.

The actual finger and palm print detail used to effect identification is not inherited and experts have no
problem differentiating even identical twins. Only the overall whorl, loop, etc., patterns are inherited. The police
might confuse your fingerprints with your twin brother’s…for about ten seconds. The moment they put a
magnifying glass on them they will see obvious differences.

Fingerprint Pattern Classification: The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general
similarities allows the fingerprint examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint within a specific section of the
fingerprint file rather than having to search the whole file.

 There are various fingerprint classification systems in use throughout the world today. These systems are
all based in three primary or fundamental ridge formations depicted by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and
Henry. They are the arch, the loop-radial and ulnar, and the whorl.

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION AND TECHNIQUES
FORENSIC 101

Basic Classification Patterns:

ARCHES: Arches represent only about 5 per cent of the fingerprint patterns encountered. In arch patterns, the ridges run
from one side to the other of the pattern, making no backward turn.

 There is ordinarily no delta, but where there is the appearance of a delta, no recurving ridge must
intervene between the core and delta points.

 Kinds of arches: Arches come in two types, plain or tented. Arches by definition have no deltas. If the
pattern has a delta then it is a loop and if it has more than one delta it is a whorl. In plain arches it is
evident that there is no delta and no significant core.

 By comparison of plain arch and tented arch, a plain arch is that type of pattern in which the ridges enter
upon one side, makes a rise or wave in the center, and tend to flow or floe out upon the opposite side;
while a tented arch refers to that type of pattern which possess either an up thrust, an angle or two of the
basic characteristic of a loop.

 The technical definition is that a tented arch has a “significant up thrust” where a plain arch does not.

LOOP: Loops constitute or make up between 60 and 70 per cent of the patterns encountered. In a loop pattern, one or
more of the ridges enters on either side of the impression; crosses, recurves or touches the line of the glass running from
the delta to the core, and terminates or tends to terminate on or in the direction of the side where the ridge or ridges
entered. There is one delta.

 By definition the existence of a core and one delta makes this pattern a loop. Loops are classified not
only by the fact that they have one delta and one core but also by a ridge count.

 Loops are of two kinds:” radial and ulnar”, named after the radius and ulna, the two bones in the
forearm. The radius joins the hand on the same side as the thumb, and the ulna on the same side as
the little finger.

 Kinds of loops distinguished: The distinction between Ulnar and Radial Loops depends on which the
loop is found on. Ulnar loops, are manifested when the downward slope of the ridges about the core is
from the direction of the thumb toward the little finger; while radial loops, occurs when the downwards
slope of the ridges about the core is from the direction of the little finger toward the thumb. To make the
distinction between these two types of loops you have to know on which hand they appear because if a
loop pattern is an ulnar loop on the right hand, then by default it will be a radial loop.

If found on the left hand. Radial loops are not very common. Most of the time if you find a radial loop on a person
it will usually be on the index fingers. An impression to be considered as a loop must own the following
fundamentals:

1. It must possess a delta.

2. It must have core.

3. It must possess a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and the core.

4. It must have at least one ridge count.

Ridge counting is the method of counting the ridges that cross or touch an imaginary line drawn between the delta and the
core of a loop. A white space must always ensue between the first ridge to be counted and the delta.

Rules in Ridge Counting:

1. First pinpoint the exact site of the core and delta.

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2. Count all ridges which cross or touch an imaginary line drawn between the core and delta.

3. Do not include delta and the core in the ridge count.

4. Never count incipient ridges, no matter where they may appear. In order to be counted, the width of a ridge must
be equal to the width of the other ridges in the pattern under scrutiny.

Ridges subjected to ridge counting with given numerical values are as follows:

1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.

2. A long ridge is given one ridge count.

3. A short ridge is given one ridge count.

4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given one ridge count.

5. A bifurcating ridge where the ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the imaginary line, the count given is
two. Should the imaginary line cross only the bifurcation directly at the point of forking, it is given two ridge counts.
If the imaginary line does not cross the point of forking or falls short of touching it crosses only one ridge and the
count is given as one.

6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges.

7. Criss-crossing ridges or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges.

WHORLS: Between 25 and 35 per cent of the patterns encountered consist of whorls. In a whorl, some of the ridges
make a turn through at least one circuit.

 Any fingerprint pattern which contains 2 or more deltas will be a whorl pattern. In the scheme of classification you
can make the assumption that if a pattern contains no delta’s then it is an arch, if it contains one (and only one)
delta it will be loop and if it contains 2 or more it will always be a whorl. If a pattern does contain more than two
deltas it will be an accidental whorl.

 Plain Whorls: As with any whorl, there must more than one valid delta or else it is a loop. A plain whorl consists of
one or more ridges which tend to make or make a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which when an
imaginary line is drawn at least one recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is touched or cut.

 Elements of the plain whorl:

o A complete circuit,
o Two deltas
o At least one circulating ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing through the two deltas.

 Central pocket loop whorls: A central pocket whorl consists of at least one recurving ridge, or an obstruction at
right angles to the line of flow, with two deltas, between which when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge
within the pattern area is cut or touched.

 Elements of a Central Pocket Loop:

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o At least one obstruction ridge or recurving ridge at right angle;

o Two deltas; and
o No recurving ridge within the pattern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line drawn between the two
deltas.

 Double loop whorls: A double loop whorl consists of two separate and distinct loop formations with two separate
and distinct shoulders and two deltas.

 Accidental Whorl: It consists of a combination of two different types of pattern with the exception of the plain arch,
with two or more deltas, or a pattern which possess some of the requirements for two or more different types or a
pattern which conforms to none of the other definition of patterns.

 Types of core formation which are not classified as a double loop whorl: The interlocking type core:”S” type core
and the formation of a loop inside another loop.

COMPOSITES: Composites include patterns in which combinations of the tented arch, loop and whorl are found in the
same print, also patterns where the majority of ridges are loops and a few ridges at the center or side are whorls.

 Composites are subdivided into central pocket loops, double loops and accidentals.

Central Pocket Loop. Central Pocket Loops are differentiated from whorls by placing the line of the glass across the two
delta points. This line must not touch or cross any ridge formation within the inner area of the pattern. (The inner pattern is
that portion of the print contained inside both deltas.)

Double Loop- Double Loop patterns consist of two separate loop formations, with two separate and distinct sets of staples
and two deltas. They include the lateral pocket loop and twinned loop types. Only those patterns with well-defined loops
come within this category. In cases where the two sets of staples are joined but where there is a definite recurving ridge
forming each staple, the pattern is classed as a double loop, the presence of a well-defined loop does not affect the
pattern.

 Lateral pocket and twin loops: Henry described lateral pocket loops as patterns whose core points have their exist
s on the same side of none of the deltas. In twin loops the ridges containing the core points have there exists on
different sides.

Accidentals- Under this heading is the relatively small number of patterns too irregular in outline to be grouped with central
pocket loops and double loops. They have two or more deltas and a combination or fusion of two or more types of
patterns not including the plain, radial or ulnar arch. This category also includes any freak pattern or accidental formation
that does not conform to any conventional type.

WHORL TRACINGS: There are two components of a whorl classification. The first is the whorl pattern such a plain,
double, central pocket and the second is the tracing.

 To determine the tracing we must first identify the left delta we will follow the first line blow the delta across the
print until we reach a point that is directly below the right delta. Once these lines stop the point where the
intersecting lines are counted.

 There are three types of tracings, outer, meet and inner. Outer means that there are three or more intersecting
lines and they are outside of the pattern area.

 If the number of intersecting lines had been three or less, then this would have been a meet tracing.

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 If there is more than three and this time the intersecting point is inside the pattern area. This makes this an inner
tracing.

 If the imaginary intersecting line is within three intervening lines of the right delta when counting across an
imaginary line, then it would be a meet tracing.

 More than three to the inside of the pattern area makes it an inner tracing and more than three outside the pattern
area make it an outer tracing.

Fingerprint Identification: Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge
characteristics, also so known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison of the relative
positions of these minutiae points with a reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print.

 There are three basic ridge characteristics, the ridge ending, the bifurcation and the dot (or island).

Ridge Characteristics: The most common ridge characteristics which are used as points to identify are as follows:

o Short ridge- A ridge of limited,

o Ending ridge-Terminus of a long or short ridge,

o Dot ridge-Refers to ridge which resembles a point,

o Ridge bifurcation- The forking of single ridge into two or more branches,

o Island ridge- A single ridge which splits into two branches flowing side by side toward the same direction at a
certain point met forming the original ridge.

Friction Ridge Skin: Only the hairless parts of the body –the inner surfaces of the hands and the soles of the feet__are
covered with patterns formed by raised ridges of skin known as friction or papillary ridges.
The study of fingerprints, or dactyloscopy, friction or papillary ridges is the more widely used section in practice
even though prints from the soles of the feet are as characteristic as fingerprints; they are less often used for identification
purposes due to their low rate of occurrence. The patterns formed by the papillary ridges are important since they are
already formed in the fetus by the fourth month of pregnancy and they do not change until death. These patterns cannot
be altered, except by accident, mutilation, or very serious skin disease, as they are formed in deep layers of the dermis.

The skin is made up of two main layers: the outer skin or epidermis, and the inner or true skin, known the dermis.
The epidermis is regularly being worn away and replaced by new skin generated by the upper layer of the dermis- a
papillary layer (stratum mucosum) which is the source of the ridges known as ‘papillary ridges’.

The sweat glands, to be found in the dermis, discharge sweat at the skin surface through sweat at the skin
surface through sweat pores found at the top of the ridges. Such pore holes are significant to the production of latent
prints since sweat reaches the surface of the hand and efficiently coats the tops of the fingerprint ridges with sweat.

Sweat glands serve as small chemical reservoirs and contain an assortment of water-soluble chemical
compounds, produced or stored by the body. The dermal layer of the skin also contains the nerves of touch which
terminate at the underside of the epidermis. The epidermis contains no nerves but does contain nerve endings.

Fingerprint patterns are not formed at the surface of the skin but are determined by the arrangement of various
elements, such as sweat glands, nerves, and blood vessels found below the surface of the skin. Sebaceous glands and
hair follicles are found in the dermal layer of other skin surfaces but are absent in friction skin.

In case the top layer of skin suffers any injury, the ridges grow back after healing in the exact pattern they had
before. Superficial cuts or abrasions alter fingerprint characteristics only temporarily. If the injury reaches deep into the
dermis and destroys the dermal papillae, then growth of new epidermal cells is impaired and a permanent scar is created.

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Fingerprint detail is unique and individual for a given finger, the detail in a fingerprint is formed in an accidental
manner during gestation. The ridge characteristics that make fingerprints unique are known as minutiae, Galton points,
characteristic points or points of identification.

General Fingerprint Rules: Within the pattern area of a whorl and loop type fingerprint enclosed by type lines are
found fixed focal points known as core and delta. Delta location and formation will be taken first then followed by core
formation. These focal points are used in classifying fingerprints.

 The word delta was of Greek origin, its literal meaning in English is a deposit of earth at the mouth of a river.

 In dactyloscopy, a delta refers to the point on the first ridge formation located directly at or in front of and nearest
the center of the divergence of the type lines.

 Delta formation as a physical feature of a river, which is an island that is formed due to the increased deposit of
soil which rises above the surface making an island or obstruction and delta formation in fingerprint patterns are
quite similar.

 In fingerprint the ridges forming type liens swerve, similar to the banks of a river when a delta is reached. Just
like the river banks, the type lines of a fingerprint run parallel and abruptly diverge when they reach a delta.

 Basic Delta Formation:

o Delta as an ending ridge,
o Delta as a bifurcating ridge,
o Delta as a short ridge,
o Delta as a point on a long ridge,
o Delta as a converging ridge and
o Delta as a dot.

Rules Governing the Choice between Two or More Possible Deltas:

o The delta may not be located at a point of a bifurcation which does not open towards the core. To be a
delta, a bifurcation must be the initial ridge formation in front of the divergence of the type lines and the
bifurcation must open up toward the pattern area.

o A bifurcation is at all times chosen as a delta, if there is another type of delta formation just equally close
to the point of divergence of the type lines.

o When a pattern illustrates a series of bifurcation opening toward the core at the point of divergence of the
type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is selected as the delta.

o Delta location is relatively confusing when several bifurcating ridges opening toward the core, but the
delta are located at the point of the first bifurcating ridge just in front of the divergence of the type lines.

 Two legs of a bifurcation will serve as type lines when it opens towards the core, but is should be so far outside
the pattern area that the legs of the bifurcation run parallel some distance before they diverge. In this case, a
bifurcation is considered as a type line.

Core Formation: The core is referred to as the inner terminus and the delta is often times called the outer terminus. The
core approximates the center of a finger impression. The core is the heart of a pattern. Since we put our attention only on
the details inside the pattern area surrounded by the type lines, we must find the core somewhere in the center or as near
the center as practicable.

 The core then is a point on a ridge formation most of the time located at the heart or center of the impression.
 Rules in Core Formation:

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o Cores in a loop pattern are created in a variety of ways, but are always located on or within the innermost
recurving or looping ridge.

o When the innermost recurving ridge has no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders of a loop, the
core is positioned on the shoulder of the loop farthest from the delta.

o When the innermost recurving ridge contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the shoulders of
said recurving ridge, the core is positioned upon the end of the center rod, whether it touches the looping
ridge or not.

o When the innermost recurving ridge contains an even number of rods mounting as high as the shoulders of
said recurving ridge, the core is positioned upon the end of the farthest one of the two center rods, the two
center rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Fingerprint Classification and Identification:

Class characteristics of friction ridge prints refer to those characteristics that can be possessed by more than one
print. The class characteristics of friction ridge skin extend to many factors other than digit or palm, or toe or sole, and the
definable pattern type.

Patterns of the same type, by definition, may appear quite diverse. The individualizing characteristics of friction
skin are those features of the ridges which make it possible to characterize or identify a specific print as having been
made by a specific person. These characteristics are considered with respect to their location, general appearance,
orientation and interrelationship when comparison is made between two prints.

In fingerprinting, classification and identification are separate concepts. The two functions may and often are
performed by different personal. In some police departments, the division of labor may be so sharp that a person skilled in
fingerprint classification may not be qualified to identify suspects based on fingerprint examinations.

The examination may be conducted manually or by computer (AFIS) followed by visual comparison. The
Automated Fingerprint Identification System is a biometric identification methodology that uses digital technology to
obtain, store and analyze fingerprint data. Originally used by the FBI in criminal cases, it has gained favor more general
identification and fraud prevention application. A more sophisticated advanced form of AFIS uses a process called plain
impression live scanning.

The (IAFIS) Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System is an enhancement of the (AFIS) it provides to
local, national criminal justice agencies access to electronic ten-print identification services, subject search and criminal
history database, latent fingerprint database, document and fingerprint services and remote search service.

Fingerprint classification is a technique to assign a fingerprint into one of the several pre-specified types already
established in the literature which can provide an indexing mechanism. Fingerprint classification can be viewed as a
coarse level matching of the fingerprints. An input fingerprint is first matched at a coarse level to one of the pre-specified
types and then, at a finer level, it is compared to the subset of the database containing that type of fingerprints only.

 The Henry Classification System- developed by Henry in the late 1800’s.

 Icnofalangometric System- the original name of the system developed by Vucetich.

 Dactyloscopy-the new name of the system developed by Vucetich.

 The Oloriz System of Classification- developed by Oloriz. Identakey-developed in the 1930’sby G.Tyler Mairs.

 The American System of Fingerprint Classification- developed by Parke in 1903.

 The Conley System. The Flak-Conley System developed in 1906 in New Jersey, an improved Conley System.

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 NCIC Fingerprint Classification System. Collins System- a classification system for single fingerprints used in
Scotland Yard in the early 1900’s.

 Jorgensen System- a classification system for single fingerprints used in early 1900’s.

 Battley System –a classification system for single fingerprint used in the 1930’s.

Outline of the Fingerprint Classification Formula:

Primary Classification: attained by using the four stages. The primary represents the total numerical value of the even
numbered fingers plus one over the total number of numerical value of the odd numbered fingers plus one. It is the first
step in the fingerprint classification formula.

Secondary Classification: Refers to the part of the formula after the primary, appearing just to the right of the primary. It is
the only portion of the formula which indicates fingerprint pattern types only. Capital lettered group and small lettered
group.

The third phase is the sub-secondary classification: Undertaken by ridge counting of loops on index, middle and ring
finger using the letter symbols I, M, O.

 The following is the breakdown for ulnar loops:

o Index fingers 1-9 (Inner) 10 or more (Outer)

o Middle fingers 1-10 (Inner) 11or more (Outer)
o Ring finger 1-13 (Inner) 14 or more (Outer)

Major Divisions: Letter symbols S, M, and L for ridge count of loop on thumbs; I, M, O for ridge tracing of whorls. This
indicates the classification of the thumb prints on the fingerprint card, and it appears showing the right hand over the left
hand. It is placed just to the left of the primary.

The following represents the table for major division of loops:

Left thumb Right thumb

Denominator Numerator

1-11, inclusive S (small) 1-11, inclusive, S

12-16 inclusive,M
17 or more ridges, L

1-11, inclusive,S
12-16, inclusive, M (medium) 12-16, inclusive, M
17 or more ridges, inclusive, L

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1-17, inclusive, S
17 or more ridges, L (large) 18-22 inclusive,M
23 or more ridges, L

Final Classification: Exhibiting of numbers as a result of ridge count of loops on little finger.

Key: Exhibiting of a number indicating the result of the ridge count of the first loop in a set of prints. This count starts with
the right thumb and excludes the little fingers. The key is always situated in the extreme left of the numerator of the
classification.

 Under the index finger the proper capital letters should be placed for every pattern with the exception of the ulnar
loop.

 Under all other fingers the proper small letter should be placed for every pattern except the ulnar loop and the
whorl as follows:

o Arch= a
o Tented Arch= t
o Radial Loop= r

 Ulnar loops in any finger are represented by the letter “U”.

Making of latent fingerprint evidence:

 All such evidence should be marked in a unique manner, such is the case with any other type of physical
evidence, not to damage or destroy potential latent fingerprints.

 Lifted, developed latent prints should also be marked or sealed in distinct envelopes.

 Photograph-developed latent print with and without identifying markings and scale.

Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence:

 The major precaution in all cases is the prevention of adding fingerprints to evidence or of destroying those
already present.

 Most fingerprints submitted will be on paper, glass, metal or other smooth surfaced objects. When articles
containing latent must be picked up, touched as little as possible, and then only in areas likely to contain
identifiable latent, such as rough surfaces.

 While gloves or handkerchief may be used to pick-up such exhibits, any unnecessary contact should be avoided.
Although using a cloth may prevent leaving additional prints on such articles, it may smear or wipe off prints
originally present unless great care is taken.

 Large articles containing latent prints should be placed on wood or heavy card board fastened down with string to
prevent shifting and contact with other objects in transit.

 Papers and documents containing latent prints should be placed individually in a cellophane or manila envelope.
Such a container can be sandwiched between two sheets of stiff cardboard, wrapped and placed in a box for
mailing.

Classification of Amputations, Missing at Birth and of Scarred Patterns:

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 In cases wherein one or more amputation appears on a fingerprint card, it may be separately filed from those
having no amputations to facilitate searching. If one finger is amputated is amputated, it is given an identical
classification with that of the opposite finger, including among other patterns, ridge count or tracing, and
referenced to every other possible classifications.

 If two fingers are amputated, they are given the same classification of the opposite finger, with no additional
tracings. In case wherein both amputated fingers are opposite each other they are both given the classification of
whorls with meeting tracings.

 If in case all fingers are amputated or missing at birth the classification would be:

M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM

If both hands are amputated and missing at birth, footprints are to be taken

For scarred patterns:

When an impression is moderately scarred, the impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of the
corresponding finger and its sub-classification value as indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.

When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern may be determined with reasonable
accuracy, but the ridges could not be counted or traced as to fall within appropriate sub-secondary classification, the
impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, in case the
corresponding is not of the same general type, the scarred impression should be given the probable value and referenced
to all thee possibilities.

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor ridge count or tracing may be
determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression is given the general type value and the sub-classification value of
the corresponding finger of the other hand. In case the opposite or corresponding of the other hand is similarly scarred,
both patterns are designated with the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.

For bandaged or unprinted fingers:

 In case the injury is temporary and if possible the prints should be taken after the wounds have healed.
However, if the fingers are injured to the extent that it may not be possible to obtain inked impressions by
special inking contrivances, the unprinted fingers are given classifications identical with the classification of the
opposite fingers.

 If only one finger is lacking, reference searches should be made in every possible classification. If more than
one finger is lacking, they ought to be given the classification of the opposite fingers but no reference searches
may be conducted. In case there are two lacking opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls with
meeting tracings.

Fingerprint Matching: Among all biometric techniques, fingerprint based identification is the oldest method which has been
successfully used in numerous applications. Everyone is known to have unique, immutable fingerprints. A fingerprint
which is made up of a series of ridges and furrows on the surface of the finger, this individuality of a fingerprint can be
determined by the pattern of ridges and furrows as well as the minutiae points. Minutiae points are local ridge
characteristics that occur at either a ridge bifurcation or a ridge ending. Fingerprint matching techniques can be
categorized into two: minutiae-based and correlation-based.

Minutiae-based technique is used by first locating the minutiae points and then mapping their relative placement
on the finger. This method does not take into account the global pattern of ridges and furrows. The correlation-based
method is able to overcome the limitation mentioned using the minutiae-based approach. However correlation-based
technique requires the precise location of a registration point and is affected by image translation and rotation.

Other means of Identification:

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 Poroscopy- refers to the examination of the shape, size and arrangement of the small opening on friction ridge
through which body fluids are secreted or released. (pores)

 Podoscopy- a term coined by Wilder and Wentworth which refers to the examination of the soles and their
significance in personal identification.

 Cheiloscopy- refers to the examination of lip prints which may serve to identify an individualize persons.

 Chiroscopy- it is the examination and thorough study of the palms of the human hand as a point in identifying
persons.

 Edgeoscopy- the study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges; shape or contour of the edges of
friction ridges.

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