The math of China and India

The Math of China

LO SHU SQUARE
Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th
century BC. The Chinese independently developed a real number system that includes significantly large and negative numbers,
more than one numeral system (base 2 and base 10), algebra, geometry, number theory, and trigonometry.

Since the Han dynasty, as Diophantine approximation was a prominent numerical method, the Chinese made sustainable
progress in polynomial
CHINESEevaluation.
ABACUS Algorithms like regula falsi and expressions like continued fractions are widely used and
they deliberately find the principal nth root of positive numbers and the roots of equations. The achievement of Chinese algebra
reached a zenith in the 13th century during the Yuan dynasty with the development of tiān yuán shù.

How did ancient China do math?

Even as mathematical developments in the ancient Greek world were beginning to falter during the final centuries BCE, the
burgeoning trade empire of China was leading Chinese mathematics to ever greater heights.

The Chinese Number System

The simple but efficient ancient Chinese numbering system, which

dates back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, used small bamboo rods
arranged to represent the numbers 1 to 9, which were then placed in
columns representing units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. This was
large because there was no concept or symbol of zero, and it had the
effect of limiting the usefulness of the written number in Chinese.

The use of an abacus is often thought of as a Chinese idea, the first

Chinese abacus, or "suanpan", we know of dates to about the 2nd
century BCE.

There was a pervasive fascination with numbers and mathematical

patterns in ancient China, and different numbers were believed to have
cosmic significance.

The Lo Shu Square, an order 3 square where each row, column, and
diagonal add up to 15, is perhaps the earliest of these dating back to
around 650 BCE. But soon, bigger magic squares were being constructed which magic square elaborate with circles and
triangles of Yang Hui in the 13th century.

A textbook called "Jiuzhang Suanshu" or " Nine Chapters on the Mathematical

Art" become an important tool in education. It is an important guide to solving
equations using a sophis matrix-based method which did not appear in the
west until Carl Friedrich Gauss re-discovered it at the beginning of the 19th century.

Liu Hui was the greatest ancient mathematician in China, who produced a detailed commentary on the "Nine Chapters" in 263
CE, he was also known to leave roots unevaluated, giving more exact results instead of approximation, he also formulated an
algorithm that calculated the value of π as 3.13159 as well as developing integral and differential calculus.

Chinese also started to pursue more abstract mathematical problems including

what had become known as the Chinese Remainder Theorem. A technique
initially posed by Sun Tzu in the 3rd century CE. By the 13th century, the
golden ages of Chinese mathematics were 30 prestigious mathematics schools
scattered in China and the most brilliant Chinese mathematician of this time
is Qin Jiushao, who explored solutions to quadratic and even cubic equations
using a method that is very similar to that later devised in the west by Sir
Isaac Newton in the 17th century.
 Indian Mathematics
Number System

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from 1200 BCE until the end of the 18th century. In the

classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata,

Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, and Varāhamihira.

Mantras from the early Vedic period (before 1000 BCE) invoke powers of ten from a hundred all the way up to a

trillion and provide evidence of the use of arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares,

cubes, and roots. A 4th Century CE Sanskrit text reports Buddha enumerating numbers up to 1053, as well as describing six

more numbering systems over and above these, leading to a number equivalent to 10421.

As early as the 8th Century BCE, long before Pythagoras, a text known as the “Sulba Sutras” (or “Sulva Sutras”) listed

several simple Pythagorean triples, as well as a statement of the simplified Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square and for

a rectangle (indeed, it seems quite likely that Pythagoras learned his basic geometry from the “Sulba Sutras”). The Sutras also

contain geometric solutions of linear and quadratic equations in a single unknown, and give a remarkably accurate figure for the

square root of 2, obtained by adding 1 + 1/3 + 1/3x4) - (3x4x34), which yields a value of 1.4142156, correct to 5 decimal places.

As early as the 3rd or 2nd Century BCE, Jain mathematicians recognized five different types of infinities: infinite in

one direction, in two directions, in area, infinite everywhere, and perpetually infinite. Ancient Buddhist literature also

demonstrates a prescient awareness of indeterminate and infinite numbers, with numbers deemed to be of three types: countable,

uncountable, and infinite.

Like the Chinese, the Indians early discovered the benefits of a decimal place value number system and were certainly

using it before about the 3rd Century CE. They refined and perfected the system, particularly the written representation of the

numerals, creating the ancestors of the nine numerals that (thanks to its dissemination by medieval Arabic mathematicians) we

use across the world today, sometimes considered one of the greatest intellectual innovations of all time.
 As far back as 1200 BC, mathematical knowledge was being written down as part of a large body of knowledge known

The Concept
as the Vedas. In these of Zero
texts, numbers were commonly expressed as combinations of powers of ten. For example, 365 might be

expressed as three hundreds (3x10’), six tens (6x10’), and five units (5x10°), though each power of ten was represented with a

name rather than a set of symbols. It is reasonable to believe that this representation using powers of ten played a crucial role in

the development of the decimal place value system in India.

From the third century BC, they also have written evidence of the Brahmi numerals, the precursors to the modern,

Indian or Hindu Arabic numeral system that most of the world uses today. Once zero was introduced, almost all of the

mathematical mechanics would be in place to enable ancient Indians to study higher mathematics.
 Zero itself has a much longer history. The recently dated first recorded zeros, in what is known as the Bakhshali

manuscript, were simple placeholders – a tool to distinguish 100 from 10. Similar marks had already been seen in the

Babylonian NEGATIVE
and Mayan cultures
RULEin the early centuries AD and arguably in Sumerian mathematics as early as 3000 2000 BC.

Bakhsali Manuscript

The earliest recorded usage of a circle character for the number zero is usually attributed to a 9thCentury. The Indian

mathematician Brahmagupta developed the earliest known methods for computing with zero in the 7th century.

Brahmagupta established the basic mathematical rules for dealing with zero: 1+0=1;1-0 = 1; and 1 x0 = 0 (the

breakthrough which would make sense of the apparently non-sensical operation 1 = 0 would also fall to an Indian, the 12th

Century mathematician Bhaskara II).

Bhaskara II, who lived in the 12th Century, was one of the most accomplished of all India's great mathematicians. He is

credited with explaining the previously misunderstood operation of division by zero. He noticed that dividing one into two

pieces yields a half, so 1 = ½ =2. Similarly, 1+1/3 = 3. So, dividing 1 by smaller and smaller factions yields a larger and larger

number of pieces. Ultimately, therefore, dividing one into pieces of zero size would yield infinitely many pieces, indicating that

1 + 0 = ∞0 (the symbol for infinity).

Brahmagupta also established rules for dealing with negative numbers and pointed out that quadratic equations could in

theory have two possible solutions, one of which could be negative. He even attempted to write down these rather abstract

concepts, using the initials of the names of colors to represent unknowns in his equations, one of the earliest intimations of what

we now know as algebra.

 Golden Age Indian mathematicians made fundamental advances in the theory of trigonometry, a method of linking

geometry and numbers first developed by the Greeks. They used ideas like the sine, cosine, and tangent functions (which relate

the angles of a triangle to the relative lengths of its sides) to survey the land around them, navigate the seas and even chart the

heavens.

Indian trigonometry tables showed that an angle of 1/7 indicates triangle sides with a ratio of 400:1, meaning that the

Sun is 400 times further away from the Earth than the Moon. Indian astronomers used trigonometry tables to estimate the

relative distance of the Earth to the Sun and Moon.

 Gou-Gu Theorem
Introduction to Medieval Chinese math

The topographical idea of the country like mountains, deserts, and oceans framed regular limits which disconnected

China. As a result, free of different developments, there was a constant social advancement in China from antiquated or ancient

times and it is intriguing to follow numerical advancement inside that culture.

Chinese mathematics was very much problem based, motivated by problems of the calendar, trade, land measurement,

architecture, government records, and taxes.

The book: Suan Shu Shu In 1984 in Hubei Province, a book Suan Shu Shu (Book of Arithmetic) was discovered. It is a

book written on bamboo strips and is dated around 180 B.C. It contained 69 sections of mathematical problems and solutions.

For example, Section 4 is about fractions, and Sections 61-68 are about geometry. Some problems used a division of two

fractions.

Example:

4 ÷ 6 = 4 X 4= 16 = 4

8 4 8 6 48 12

The book: Zhoubi Suanjing An astronomy text, the Zhoubi Suanjing (Zhou Shadow Gauge Manual), was compiled

between 100 B. C. and 100 A. D. It shows how to measure the positions of the heavenly bodies using shadow gauges. It also

contains important sections on mathematics. The Zhoubi Suanjing contains a statement of the Gougu rule (the Chinese version

of Pythagoras’s theorem) and applies it to surveying, astronomy, and other topics. But the proof of the Gougu rule was not in

this book. The first proof of Gougu rule was made in about 300 by a Chinese mathematician Zhao Shuang.

The “Pythagorean” theorem, but understood in an equivalent form as the Gou‐Gu theorem in China. The ancient

Egyptians, Babylonians, and Chinese probably discovered this remarkable property of right triangles by empirically examining
the simplest case of 3–4–5 triangles. Whether in its geometric form or more familiar algebraic expression, , the theorem

concludes that the sum of the squares on either “side” of the right angle is equal to the square on the hypotenuse (Xian). In

China, this was established for right triangles in general, i.e., not just for the 3–4–5 triangle, or for those with sides of integer

lengths.

The book: Jiuzhang Suanshu The most famous Chinese mathematics book

of all time is Jiuzhang Suanshu (the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical

Art). The book collected lots of mathematical results over quite a long

period. There was more than one author, some of whom are not known.

Liu Hui (about 220 - about 280) wrote his commentary on the Jiuzhang

Suanshu in about 263. From his commentary, one of the revisers for this

book was Zhang, Chang (250-152 B.C.). The Jiuzhang Suanshu collected

246 mathematical problems.

THE BOOK: JIUZHANG SUANSHU Nine (9) chapters of his book:

1. Square fields measurement

This consists of 38 problems in land surveying. It looks first at area problems, then looks at rules for the addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division of fractions. The types of shapes for which the area is calculated include triangles, rectangles,

circles, and trapeziums.

2. Cereals and rice

This chapter contains 46 problems concerning the exchange of goods, particularly the exchange rates among twenty different

types of grains, beans, and seeds. Mathematics involves the study of proportions and percentages and introduces the rule of three

for solving proportion problems.

3. Proportional distribution

Here there are 20 problems that again involve proportion, many involving different sums given to or owed by officials of

various different ranks. Direct proportion, inverse proportion and compound proportion are all studied. In particular arithmetic

and geometric progressions are used in some of the problems.

4. Given area or volume find sides

This chapter contains 24 problems and takes its name from the first eleven problems which ask what the length of a field will be

if the width is increased but the area is kept constant.

5. Volumes

Here there are 28 problems in the construction of canals, ditches, dykes, etc. Volumes of solids such as prisms, pyramids,

tetrahedrons, wedges, cylinders, and truncated cones are calculated

6. Transportation

This chapter contains 28 problems involving ratios and proportions. The problems are varied and concern problems about

traveling, taxation, sharing, etc.

7. Excess and deficient

The 20 problems give a rule of double false position. Essentially linear equations are solved by making two guesses at the

solution, then computing the correct answer from the two errors.
8. Equations

Here 18 problems that reduce to solving systems of simultaneous linear equations are given. However, the method given is

basically that of solving the system using the augmented matrix of coefficients. The problems involve up to six equations in six

unknowns and the only difference with the modern method is that the coefficients are placed in columns rather than rows.

9. Gouge Rule

In this final chapter, there are 24 problems which are all based on right-angled triangles. The first 13 problems are solved using

an application of Pythagoras's theorem, which the Chinese knew as the Gougu rule. Two problems study what is now called

Pythagorean triples, while the remainder uses the theory of similar triangles.

ZHU CHONGZI AND HIS COMPUTATION OF π

• Zhu Chongzhi (429-500) was born in He Bei Province, and he was an astronomer, mathematician, and engineer. Several

generations of his family studied astronomy and the calendar. Zu Chongzhi had talent in science and mathematics at a very early

age. He collected together earlier astronomical writings, made his own astronomical observations, and made a new calendar.

His most important work was to determine accurate to 7 digits: 3.1415926, by using Liu
π

Hui’s algorithm applied to a 12288-polygon. He also proposed using it for a close

approximation value of π , and for a rough approximation of π . The reason why did Zhu

Chongzi success was that when he used the counting rods which is a device made of small

bamboo bars, he actually used the concept of “zero” to denote “place” (e.g., 20103). This

value of π by Zhu would remain the most accurate approximation of π available for the next

900 years.

Lo Shu Magic Square

 The Lo Shu Magic Square is a grid with 3 rows and 3 columns shown in the picture.

 The Lo Shu Magic Square has the following properties:

1. The grid contains the number 1 through 9 exactly.

2. The sum of each row, each column, and each diagonal all add up to the same number.
Ancient Number Symbols and Rod Numerals

 Numerals and numeral systems, symbols, and collections of symbols are used to represent small numbers, together

with systems of rules for representing larger numbers.