Diseases & Immunity

Disease & Immunity

Disease: It is a condition seen in living organisms where there is a disturbance
in the normal functioning of the parts (organs) of the body or the whole
body. It is not caused due to physical injury. There are always certain ‘signs’
and ‘symptoms’ associated with a disease.
Causes:
1. Pathogens (virus, bacteria, fungi) -----------------------------------------Infectious

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2.Improper Food and nutrition
3. Environmental factors such as pollution

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4. Hormonal Imbalances (eg diabetes)

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5. Inborn or genetic factors (Down’s syndrome) Non-Infectious
6. Mental or psychological
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7. Self-inflicted
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Types: Infectious or transmissible – Diseases which can be passed on from

one individual to another. ( eg Covid 19 , malaria)
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Non-Infectious - Diseases which are not spread from person to person.
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(Heart disease)
Pathogen- They are usually microscopic organisms which cause disease.e.g.
bacteria, virus, fungi etc.
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Signs- They are something which another person usually a doctor observes in
a patient in case of a disease like increased pulse rate, raised temperature
etc.
Symptoms- They are something which the patient himself feels and are not
visible or measurable. Eg- headache, body ache, nausea.
Diseases & Immunity

How Pathogens Harm the Body

• By Multiplication and growth within the body of the host-The organism
tends to reproduce rapidly and damages the cells of the host.
• Production of toxins (Poisons) –They are protein in nature which are
harmful for the host cells. Eg Salmonella group of bacteria produce a
toxin which affects the intestines causing diarrhoea.
• By initiating an immune response within the body of the host.

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Ways in which Infection is transmitted

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1. DIRECT CONTACT: The disease is spread directly from person to person
through blood or other body fluids. Eg. HIV, Hepatitis B & C, sexually
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transmitted diseases. Persons who are at risk are: Drug Addicts who
share needles and syringes, Surgeons, Healthcare workers and people
who have unprotected sex. [ DROPLET TRANSMISSION- According to
Centre For Disease Control (CDC), this type of transmission via large,
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short-range aerosols due to coughing, sneezing and talking by a patient

is considered to be DIRECT as the droplets fall to the ground after only
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a few feet.eg. COVID-19,Pertusis]
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2. INDIRECT CONTACT: In this type, the organisms leave their host and
infect other individuals by various other means:

a) Airborne Transmission- The infective agents are transferred to

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the new host by dust or very small droplet nuclei suspended in

air. In contrast to DROPLET TRANSMISSION, the particles remain
in the air for a much longer time and may travel great distances
via air currents. Eg. Measles, Tuberculosis, Common cold etc.
b) Vector (usually insect) borne: The disease may be transmitted by
the bite of the insects like mosquito and ticks which transfer the
infective organisms to the host via their saliva (malaria) or by
their body and feet like houseflies (cholera, typhoid)
c) By Contaminated Food & Water: Many diseases especially linked
to our alimentary system are caused due to ingestion of
contaminated food and water. Diseases like:
Diseases & Immunity

Salmonella food poisoning, E.Coli Infection, cholera are examples

of this. Improper food handling and cooking, inadequate hand
washing and poor waste disposal practices are the main culprits.

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d). Contaminated articles (Personal & Household): Many fungal

infections of the skin like tinea (ringworm) which may affect the body, scalp,
feet are spread by sharing personal items like combs, hand towel, pillows etc.
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Diseases & Immunity

Malaria- A disease caused by the protozoa Plasmodium species which is

transmitted by the bite of an infected mosquito (genus Anopheles) which
acts as the vector.
The mosquito tends to pick up the parasite by sucking blood from an infected
person (where it is present in the red blood cells). The organism then grows
inside the mosquito
and finally reaches
the salivary glands
of the mosquito.

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The mosquito then

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transmits the

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organism with its

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subsequent bite.
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The Defences of the Body

MECHANICAL BARRIERS
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• The outermost layer of skin is known as the epidermis which is

composed of a hard protein called keratin. This acts as the first line of
defence of the body and prevents the entry of microorganisms like
bacteria and viruses.
• The fine hairs present in the nose prevent large pathogens from
entering the body during breathing
CHEMICAL BARRIERS
• The mucous membrane lining the nose, mouth and urinary system
produce mucous which is a thick, sticky substance that traps various
microorganisms. Some of these membranes also have cilia (Hair like
 Diseases & Immunity

projections) which push the undesired substances towards the body

openings.
• The acid (hydrochloric acid) produced in the stomach which helps in
digestion of food, also kills harmful organisms entering the gut.
• Sweat (perspiration) and tears have anti-microbial enzymes such as
lysozyme which prevent bacteria from entering the body.
• The ear wax secreted in the ears also has anti- bacterial properties
Cells

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• Blood Clotting Mechanism- Whenever there is a wound or rupture in

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the skin, blood tends to seal the region by the means of a : Clot which

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is formed with the help of platelets ( a type of small blood cell required

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for clotting) and certain blood proteins which prevent the entry of
pathogens inside the body.
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• Most Important & Major Line Of Defence of the Body (The Army):
White Blood Cells (WBC)
1. Phagocytes- These are a type of white blood cells which
recognize pathogens, engulf and digest them using enzymes.
(Process known as Phagocytosis)
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2. Antibody Producing Cells (Lymphocytes): These are white

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blood cells which produce a chemical which is protein in
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nature called antibody-They are specific for each pathogen

(Antigen).The antibodies bind the antigens so that they can
undergo phagocytosis or destroy them directly.
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Lymphocyte

Phagocytosis
Diseases & Immunity

The Antigen –Antibody Phenomenon

Antigen: It is a substance (usually a protein or a carbohydrate) found

on the surface of micro-organisms and other foreign substances which
leads to the development of antibodies (Immune response) in the

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body. Eg. Parts of bacteria, virus

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Antibody: These are protective molecules produced by specialized

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white blood cells (lymphocytes) in response to antigens.
Properties:
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1. They are protein in nature
2. They are of “Y” shape which is very flexible.
3. They are SPECIFIC in nature i.e. antibody against a
particular bacteria will act on that bacteria only (e.g.
antibodies which act on diphtheria bacteria will not attack
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cholera bacteria and vice versa). They work in almost a

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“Lock and Key” manner-where a lock fits only a particular
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key.
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Diseases & Immunity

Immunity: It is defined as the ability of an organism to protect itself from

disease or toxins with the help of specific antibodies or specialised cells.
Major Types of Immune Cells- Lymphocytes
1. T Lymphocytes: They are lymphocytes which attain maturity in the
thymus gland of the body which lies in the chest. They directly attack
pathogen infected cells and also help in regulation of the immune
system.

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Killer T Cells Helper T Cells
These are the T Cells which directly These are the T cells which help B cells
destroy the infected cells. in their antibody production.
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B Lymphocytes: These are produced in the bone marrow and are

responsible for the production of specific antibodies in response to a
pathogen.
[Memory B Cells: Some B cells may transform into memory B cells
when they encounter a pathogen. They harbour the information of the
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Diseases & Immunity

pathogen encountered and provide a rapid response when it infects

the body the next time. This forms the basis of immunity and the
person is said to be ‘immune’ to that particular disease or pathogen. ]

What Do Antibodies Do?

• Antibodies attach themselves to the surface of pathogens or
clump them and mark them for phagocytes to ingest.
• Some antibodies de-activate the toxins produced by bacteria.
• They may directly destroy the pathogen cells.

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Vaccination & Vaccines
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 When the body encounters a micro-organism for the first time, it
takes a while before the proper lymphocytes can process the
information and prepare the necessary antibodies and cells
required to control the infection. During this period, the person
experiences the signs and symptoms of the disease. The body
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may be overwhelmed and sometimes the person may succumb

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to the disease as well before the body can mount a proper
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defence. This is where the vaccines and the process of

vaccination comes into use.
 Vaccines are biological products which increase the immunity of
the body against a particular disease and prevent it from
occurring or decrease the adverse effects of the disease in case
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the person is infected. It is administered by injection, oral or

intra nasal route. They are composed of:
1. Weakened Living Organisms- Chicken Pox,
Tuberculosis vaccine
2. Killed Organisms: Salk Polio vaccine, Hepatitis A
3. Parts/components of the Disease-causing
organism: Pneumococcal vaccine
4. Inactivated toxins (Toxoid): Tetanus, Diphtheria
vaccine.
Diseases & Immunity

Interesting Fact: COVID Vaccines

The main Vaccines prevalent worldwide are:

1. Covishield (Oxford) vaccine: This is a special type of Viral Vector

Vaccine (a harmless non growing virus acts a vehicle and carries a
part of the coronavirus {spike protein} inside the human cells.
Antibodies are formed against the coronavirus due to this protein in

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the cells.
2. Pfizer vaccine: This is another special type of mRNA vaccine where

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a specialized messenger RNA particle is injected which in turn

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instructs the cells inside the body to create copies of the spike
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protein of the coronavirus. Antibodies are then developed against
this spike protein.
3. Covaxin (Bharat Biotech): This vaccine developed wholly in India
uses an inactivated non growing coronavirus as the antigen.
Antibodies are generated due to this.
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TYPES OF IMMUNITY:
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Active Immunity Passive Immunity

1. It is the immunity due to It is the immunity due to antibodies
antibodies produced within given from outside which are obtained
the body of the host due to an from another organism.
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antigen.

2. Develops due to natural It is usually injected for preventing the

infection or vaccination development of a fast acting a disease
or given to a baby from the mother via
breast milk.
3. Long acting, probably life long Short acting, temporary.

4. Memory B cells are activated. Memory B cells not involved.

5. Takes time to develop. It provides immediate protection.
6. No side effects. Side effects may be present.
Eg. Polio Vaccination Eg. Injection of tetanus
immunoglobulin
Diseases & Immunity

Mother’s Milk: Mother’s milk is a rich source of antibodies for the new
born baby as the immune system of the baby is yet to develop fully. This is
a type of Passive Immunity as the antibodies are prepared outside the
body of the baby and their composition depends on the immune status of
the mother. This provides the new born with temporary immunity for the
first few months of life till his or her own immune system takes over.

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Herd Immunity: In a community: when enough people get vaccinated
against a certain disease, the pathogen cannot pass on from person to

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person and the spread of the disease is stopped. This is known as herd

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immunity (or community immunity). This is very important for some
people who cannot get vaccinated due to certain diseases (who have
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serious allergies, HIV). This immunity may also sometimes cause the
disease to be wiped out completely eg. Small pox
SHOULD WE STOP VACCINATION WHEN HERD IMMUNITY IS REACHED?
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The answer to this question is a big NO!!

• The pathogen may be present in small group of population which
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may start spreading if vaccination is stopped.
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• There may be asymptomatic carriers of the pathogen which may

spread the disease.
• Travellers from the place where the disease is prevalent may visit
the community and start an outbreak of the disease in the
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unvaccinated population.
• A certain group in the community who cannot be vaccinated
(pregnant women, people prone to allergies) or those who do not
respond to vaccines (people with weakened immune system) will
always be at risk if vaccination is stopped for any reason in the
community.
Diseases & Immunity

Malfunction Of The Immune System: Auto Immune Diseases

In normal circumstances, the cells of the immune system only react to
foreign pathogens from outside the body and initiate an immune
response. The body cells are recognised as their own and no antibodies
are produced against them. But in certain scenarios, the lymphocytes
treat some of their own body cells as foreign and produce antibodies
against them—giving rise to auto immune diseases such as:
Type 1 Diabetes: Islet cells of the pancreas (a gland close to the stomach)

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produce the hormone, Insulin which is responsible for regulating blood

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sugar in the body. In type 1 diabetes, the lymphocytes malfunction and

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produce antibodies against the insulin producing cells of the pancreas

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leading to their destruction. Thus there are low insulin levels in the blood.
The cause for this phenomenon is still unknown but probably some viral
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infection may trigger this immune response. This usually develops at
young age so this type of diabetes is commonly seen in children. The
affected persons have to:
• Regularly take insulin injections or use an insulin pump to maintain
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its level
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• Follow a controlled diet (especially in relation to glucose) for
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maintaining their health.

• Take frequent light meals.
• Monitor blood sugar regularly.
• This is classified as an auto immune disorder as the person’s own
immune system acts against its own body cells.
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Diseases & Immunity

IMPORTANCE OF HYGIENIC FOOD PREPARATION

Many infections of the alimentary canal especially food poisoning
(salmonella, E.coli etc.) spread by contaminated food. They tend to infect a
large number of people within a very short time so prevention is the best
possible method:
1. Proper hand washing is essential for people handling or cooking food.
It is also very important for anyone who is going to eat the food.

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2. Raw and cooked food should never be mixed and their utensils should
be kept separate.

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3. Foods –both raw and cooked should be kept covered so that they are

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away from insects and animals (houseflies, cockroaches, rats etc. carry
pathogens on their body and legs which can be transferred to the food)
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4. Milk should be pasteurized and meat should be properly cooked before
eating so that the microorganisms present inside are all destroyed. (
Pasteurization: It is the process of heating food products mainly milk
and fruit juices to a high temperature (72° C) for 15 seconds and then
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rapidly cooling it to less than 4° C)

5. People should not handle both raw and cooked food together and if
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they have to handle- proper handwashing is required before the
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process.
6. Some persons may harbour intestinal micro-organisms after recovering
from an illness or may be asymptomatic ‘Carriers’ (typhoid, cholera) of
the disease. Such persons if identified should not work in the food
industry till their condition is fully treated.
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7. Previously cooked food especially meat should not be heated as it

increases bacterial growth. It should be eaten cold or cooked at high
temperatures again.
Waste Disposal
Proper waste disposal is essential for prevention of infectious diseases.
Waste offers a breeding ground for houseflies, rats, other kinds of rodents
and insects which act as a suitable vector for diseases. The chemicals from
waste may seep into the soil and may contaminate the ground water as
well.
Diseases & Immunity

Waste management by Land Fills:

1. Landfill sites are empty spaces usually away from residential places
where the waste is buried. This can also help in land reclamation of
abandoned quarries.
2. At a properly designated and managed land fill site: the garbage is
segregated and the harmful non-degradable waste and chemicals
are removed.
3. The rubbish is compacted or compressed using rams and trucks in
order to maximise space utilisation.

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4. The waste may be decomposed to produce biogases like methane
which can be used as fuel.

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Sewage Treatment
• The liquid waste from kitchens, bathrooms & industries is known as
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sewage & it must be sent to treatment plants so that organic waste
can be removed & water cleaned so that it can be put back into the
rivers.
• If not treated, sewage can pollute the water bodies & lead to
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eutrophication.
• In Treatment plants:
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1. Screening: Sewage is passed through screens or grids to
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separate large solid objects such as paper, sticks etc.

2. Grit Settlement: Sewage is passed slowly through
channels where heavy materials like sand, gravel, egg-
shells known as grit settle down.
3. Sedimentation: The waste is then allowed to stand in
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tanks where suspended particles settle at the bottom

which is known as sludge. It is semi solid & gelatinous in
texture. The liquid part which remains on top is known as
effluent.
4. The sludge is then subjected to anaerobic digestion by
bacteria which leads to methane gas generation. This gas
is used as fuel.
5. The collected liquid effluent is pumped into large aerated
pond like area where aerobic bacteria act on the organic
material. This removes the organic waste.
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6. The bacteria are then killed by chlorination & the liquid

may be sent to another treatment plant to make it fit for
drinking or sent back to natural water sources.

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CHOLERA
• It is a disease caused by the bacterium: Vibrio cholerae often due to
contamination of food and water- due to sewage, faeces of an
infected person etc.
• It is seen frequently in refugee camps or in densely populated slums
where unhygienic conditions are prevalent.
• Course of disease- When ingested along with food, the bacteria
reproduce rapidly in the small intestine and produce a toxin
(Cholera toxin) which affects the epithelial lining of the intestine →
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outpouring of chloride ions and water→ osmotic (water) potential

inside intestine is lowered → More water enters inside the
intestines→ Makes undigested food excessively watery →
Diarrhoea

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• Treatment: By oral rehydration therapy (ORT) which is a solution of

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salts and glucose in water. An ORT solution has: sodium ions,
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potassium ions, chloride ions which are all lost during diarrhoea along
with glucose for provision of energy and water to rehydrate the blood.
• Salt and glucose solutions may also be injected into the blood stream
in a monitored environment such as hospitals and clinics if the
individual is suffering from severe diarrhoea.
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• Also, antibiotics such as tetracycline may be given in certain patients to

control the infection.