GENERAL CHEMISTRY I

Second Quarter
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
It is the branch of science that deals with the
properties, composition, structure of elements
and compounds, and the transformations they
undergo.
REVIEW
To understand the electronic structure of atoms, one
must understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
QUANTUM NUMBERS
These are the set of numbers used to describe the
position, trajectory, movement, and energy of the
electron in an atom.
It is a group of numerical values that are acceptable
by the Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen atoms.
All electrons have four quantum numbers which
describe their atomic orbital.
1. Principal quantum number, denoted by n.
2. Angular momentum quantum number (or
azimuthal quantum number), denoted by l.
3. Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
4. Electron spin quantum number, denoted by
ms.

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBERS

The principal quantum number (n) designates the
principal electron shell or the size of the orbital (the
distance between the nucleus and the electrons) and the
energy level in an electron is placed in (Fig. 2).
Figure 1. Electromagnetic Radiation Figure 2. Principal Quantum Number

Wave: A wave is a disturbance that travels from one

location to another location.

The highest peak of the wave is called the crest and the
lowest point is named as the trough.

Wavelength (): The distance between corresponding

points on adjacent waves is the wavelength.

Frequency: The number of waves passing a given point

per unit of time is the frequency.

The longer the wavelength, the smaller the frequency,

and vice versa
A collection of orbitals with the same value of n and the
Amplitude: The “height” of wave, maximum outside part of an atom around the atomic nucleus is
displacement of periodic function. frequently called a shell.

All electromagnetic radiation travels the speed of light

ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER
(c), 3.00  108 m/s (in a vacuum). Therefore: c = 
The angular momentum quantum number (denoted
by the symbol ‘l’) describes the shape of the given
Particle: A particle is an object which has distinct
orbital, and its value is equal to the total number of
chemical or physical properties such as volume or mass.
angular nodes in the orbital.

A collection of orbitals with the same value of n and l is

QUANTUM MECHANICS
referred to as a subshell.
Erwin Schrödinger derived a complex mathematical
formula to incorporate the wave and particle
A value of (l) can indicate either an s, p, d, or f subshell
characteristics of electrons. Instead of referring to orbits
which vary in shape (Fig. 3)
as in the Bohr model, quantum numbers and wave
functions describe atomic orbitals.

Wave behavior is described with the wave function ψ.

The probability of finding an electron in a certain area of
space is proportional to ψ2 and is called electron density.

The energy states and wave functions are characterized

by a set of quantum numbers.

Figure 3. Angular Momentum Quantum Number

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter

Orbitals have shapes that are best described as Example:

spherical (l = 0 or s), polar (l = 1 or p), or cloverleaf (l = 2 3p refers to the third principal quantum number (n=3)
or d). This value depends on (and is capped by) the and the p subshell (l=1).
value of the principal quantum number (n-1).

For example: LESSON SUMMARY

if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the To summarize quantum numbers:
following values: principal (n) – size
= n-1 angular (l) – shape
= 3-1
magnetic (ml) – orientation
= 0,1, and 2.
electron spin (ms) – direction of spin
When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell.
Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells are
‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively). Therefore, when n=3,
the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and 3d.

MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER

The magnetic quantum number (denoted by ml)
determines the number of orbitals and their orientation
within a subshell. Figure 4. Quantum Numbers

Its value depends on the orbital angular momentum

quantum number l. For a given value of l, the value of ml ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
ranges between the interval -l to +l. The electron configuration describes how the electrons
are distributed in the various atomic orbitals, showing
For example: which ones are filled and which ones remain vacant.
if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the
magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and Electron configurations
+3. of atoms follow a
standard notation in
The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is given which all electron-
by the formula (2 l + 1). containing atomic
subshells (with the
For example: number of electrons
the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l =2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). they hold written in
Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, superscript) are placed in a sequence.
the 3d subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.
For example:
The electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.

ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER

The value of this number gives insight into the direction
in which the electron is spinning, and is denoted by the RULES OF ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
symbol ms. The possible values of the electron spin
quantum number are +1⁄2 and -1⁄2. 1. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the The Aufbau principle
electron and is denoted by the symbol ↑, and vice versa. states that electrons are
added to the lowest
energy orbitals first
before moving to higher
NAMING ORBITALS (SHELL AND SUBSHELL) energy orbitals.
Chemists describe the shell and subshell in which an
orbital belongs with a two-character code. The first The order of occupation
character indicates the shell (n). The second character is as follows:
identifies the subshell (l) (Table 1).
1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d
Name of Subshell Value of l <4p<5s<4d<5p<6s<4f<5d
S subshell l=0 <6p<7s<5f<6d<7p
P subshell l=1
D subshell l=2 Figure 5. Electron Orbital Order
F subshell l=3

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
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2. HUND’S RULE
To place electrons in orbital diagrams, electrons:
1. Are represented by arrows and the direction of
the arrow is used to represent electron spin.
2. Fill orbitals in order of increasing energy
beginning with 1s, then 2s and 2p…
3. Orbitals can hold a maximum of two electrons.
4. Within sublevels that contain multiple orbitals,
electrons must be placed in each orbital with
positive ½ spins first before completely pairing
them.
According to Hund’s rule, the most stable arrangement
of electrons is the one in which the number of electrons
with the same spin is maximized. In other words,
electrons must be filled singly first before pairing them.
For example:
Carbon has 6 electrons. According to Hund's Rule, they
must first occupy each of the two degenerate p orbitals,
namely the 2px orbital and 2py orbital with parallel spins
3. PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Wolfgang Pauli postulated that each electron can be
described with a unique set of four quantum numbers.
No two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers. They have different spin magnetic
quantum numbers.
EXAMPLES
Determine the electron configuration of Fluorine (F).
Solution: Fluorine (F) has 9 electrons.
Step 1: According to Aufbau’s principle, electrons must
be added from the lowest energy orbitals first before
moving to higher energy orbitals.
↑↓ ↑↓ __ __ __
1s 2s 2p
Step 2: We still have 5 electrons left, using Hund’s rule,
we must first fill all orbitals in the P subshell with the
upper spin.
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
1s 2s 2p
Step 3: The remaining two electrons will be paired up by
Pauli exclusion principle.
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
1s 2s 2p
Step 4: Count the number of electrons in each subshell
and write them as subscripts of the subshell (e.g., for 2p
we have 5 electrons, so it must be written as 2p5).
Answer: 1s22s22p5
_____________________________________________
We can also abbreviate the electron configuration using
the noble gases as a shortcut. Using the same example:
Step 1: Locate the noble gases prior to the element of
interest. In this case, the noble gas prior to Fluorine is
Helium.
Step 2: Helium has an electron configuration of 1s2
He = 1s2
We can substitute it to shorten the electron
configuration. Thus, from 1s22s22p5 we can write
[He]2s22p5
Answer: [He]2s22p5
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR
Magnetic materials derive their magnetic behavior from
the magnetic properties of their electrons. The
magnetism of most materials can be categorized as
being diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic.
a. Diamagnetic
All electrons are spin paired and the material does not
have a net magnetic field. These materials are slightly
repelled by the magnetic field of a strong magnet.
b. Paramagnetic
contain atoms, molecules, or ions with unpaired
electrons. Paramagnetic materials exhibit a weak
attraction towards magnets. They still pull themselves
towards magnets, but paramagnetic materials are much
weaker than ferromagnetic materials.
c. Ferromagnetic
paramagnetic materials, contain particles with unpaired
electrons. In these materials, however, the individual
magnetic fields align naturally and produce a strong,
permanent magnetic field. The common magnets you
are familiar with are ferromagnets.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
Therefore, the largest number found in the electron
configuration is the outermost shell. To identify the
number of valence electrons, add up the superscripts
in these shells.

For example,
Chlorine’s electron configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p5.

As we can see, there are seven electrons in the 3s and

3p orbitals combined, which together make up the
PERIODIC TABLE CHEAT SHEET
outermost third orbital.
Using the periodic table alone, we can predict the
electron configuration of an element.
3s2 = 2 electrons
3p5 = 5 electrons.
5 + 2 = 7 electrons

Answer: Chlorine has 7 valence electrons

FINDING THE VALENCE ELECTRONS USING THE

PERIODIC TABLE
To make things easier, we can also find the number of
valence electrons an atom has by looking at the periodic
table. (Fig. 7)

VALENCE ELECTRONS

Valence electrons are

electrons in the
outermost shell of an Figure 7. Valence electrons in Periodic Table
atom. These electrons,
being the furthest
from the nucleus and LEWIS DOT DIAGRAM
thus the least tightly Lewis dot diagram is a very simplified representation of
held by the atom, are the valence shell electrons in a molecule. It is used to
the electrons that show how the electrons are arranged around individual
participate in bonds and reactions. atoms in a molecule. Electrons are shown as dots

This also means that the number of valence electrons Step 1: Write out the chemical symbol
that an element has determines its reactivity, Step 2: Find the number of valence electrons
electronegativity, and the number of bonds it can form. Step 3: Draw dots around the chemical symbol
corresponding to the number of valence electrons.

FINDING THE VALENCE ELECTRONS USING THE

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
In an electron configuration notation, the shells are
written first in numerical form. (Fig. 6)

Figure 6. Electron Configuration Figure 8. Lewis dot structures

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
LEWIS DOT STRUCTIRES
Lewis structures, also known as Lewis-dot diagrams, For Example,
show the bonding relationship between atoms of a
molecule and the lone pairs of electrons in the molecule.

Basic Concepts of Lewis Structures

• Electrons – drawn as dots.
• Single bond – made up of 2 shared electrons
and is represented by a line.
• Double bonds – two lines
• Triple bonds – three lines
• Lone pairs – two dots. 2. Incomplete Octet - Less than 8 electrons in the
central atom after bond forming between the central
atom and the surrounding atom.
Example:
H2CO has a Lewis For example,
structure like this.
BCl3 has an incomplete octet
since Boron only contains 6
electrons, thus not satisfying
the octet rule.

OCTET RULE
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer
to have eight electrons in the valence shell. This is 3. Duet Rule – The duet rule states that hydrogen and
only applicable to main group elements. helium may have no more than two electrons in their
valence shells.
Example:
In this image, both
carbon and oxygen
have eight electrons
around them,
satisfying the octet
rule.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE STEPS IN DRAWING THE LEWIS STRUCTURES

There are three exceptions to the octet rule. Step 1: Calculate the
number of valence
1. Expanded Octet – expanded octet occurs when an electrons of each
atom is able to have more than 8 valence electrons. element.
Step 2: Choose a central
Expansion of octet is possible only from Period 3
atom.
elements onwards, due to the presence of low-lying
Step 3: Place a bond
empty d orbitals that can accommodate the extra
between each element
electrons.
and make sure the number of electrons add up.
Step 4: Make sure each atom satisfies the octet rule
especially the central atom OR if it is an exception to the
octet rule, ensure that the number of electrons are
correct.

VSEPR THEORY OR MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR)
theory is a model used to predict 3D molecular geometry
based on the number of valence shell electron bond
pairs among the atoms in a molecule or ion.

This model assumes that electron pairs will arrange

Figure 9. Elements with an Expanded Octet
themselves to minimize repulsion effects from one
another. In other words, the electron pairs are as far
apart as possible.

Parent Shape – These are the 3D models that have no

lone pairs.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
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3. Bent
Number of Bonds or Parent VSEPR Shape • This occurs when there
Electron Groups (No Lone Pairs) are 2 bonds and 2 lone
2 Linear pairs.
3 Trigonal Planar • It has a bond angle less
4 Tetrahedral than 107° (≈105°).
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 Octahedral
Note that this is the same general geometry as the bent
molecule in the 3 electron group, but consists of a
TWO (2) ELECTRON GROUPS
different number of electron pairs.
This group consists only of the linear geometry.

1. Linear
FIVE (5) ELECTRON GROUPS
• Linear geometries occur when there are only 2 The 5 electron group consists of the trigonal bipyramidal,
bonds and 0 lone pairs. see-saw, T-shaped, and linear geometries.
• They are completely straight (Bond angle from
one bond to another is 180°) 1. Trigonal Bipyramidal
• Occurs when there are 5
bonds and 0 lone pairs.
• There are two regions of
bonds in TBPs: the axial
and the equatorial.
• The 2 axial bonds lay
THREE (3) ELECTRON GROUPS
along the axis, whereas
This group consists of trigonal planar molecules and
the 3 equatorials lay on
bent molecules.
the "equator" of the
molecule.
1. Trigonal Planar
• The angle between the 3 equatorial bonds
• In a trigonal
is 120° and the angle between each equatorial
planar molecule, there
and axial bond is 90°.
are 3 bonds and 0 lone
pairs, with bond angles
2. See-saw
of 120°

2. Bent
• Bent molecules have 2
bonds and 1 lone
pair. The bond angle is
less than 120° (≈119°) • Occurs when there are 4 bonds and 1 lone pair.
• This is because lone pairs • Just like the TBP, the see-saw has equatorial
take up more room. and axial regions.
• The linear (straight) portion is the axial whereas
the portion with the bent bonds is the equatorial.
FOUR (4) ELECTRON GROUPS • The equatorial bond angles are slightly less
This group consist of tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, and than 90° and the axial bond angles is slightly
bent geometries. less than 120°

1. Tetrahedral 3. T-Shaped
• The tetrahedral geometry • The T-Shaped geometry
exists when there are 4 occurs when there are 3
bonds and 0 lone pairs. bonds and 2 lone pairs.
• The bond angle for • The bond angle between
tetrahedral molecules is all of the bonds is slightly
approximately 109.5°. less than 90°
• The lone pairs sit where the other 2 equatorial
2. Trigonal Pyramidal bonds usually would.
• The trigonal
pyramidal geometry 4. Linear
exists when there are 3
bonds and 1 lone pair.
• The bond angle for
trigonal pyramidal
• This geometry occurs when there are 2 bonds
geometries is less than 109.5° (≈107°).
and 3 lone pairs and looks indistinguishable
from the other linear geometries.
• The bond angle between the two bonds is 180°

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
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SIX (6) ELECTRON GROUPS • There is unequal distribution of charge making
The 6 electron group geometries consist of the the molecule unsymmetrical. A partially positive
octahedral, square pyramidal, and square planar end and a partially positive negative end exist.
geometries.
Example:
1. Octahedral The electronegativity of oxygen is 3.5, whereas the
• The octahedral geometry electronegativity of hydrogen is 2.1, making the bod
(right) occurs when there unequal. Thus, OH is an unequal molecule.
are 6 bonds and 0 lone
pairs.
• The bond angles is 90°
between all bonds.

2. Square Pyramidal
• The square
pyramidal has 5
bonds and 1 lone pair.
The 1 lone pair sits on
the "bottom" of the NON-POLAR BONDS
molecule. • The polarities of the two bonds are exactly equal
• The result is that the in magnitude and opposite in direction. They
bond angles are all cancel each other out, making the molecule
slightly lower than 90° nonpolar.
• Any molecule in which the relationship of the
bonded atoms is completely symmetrical- linear,
3. Square Planar trigonal planar, or tetrahedral molecules.
• The last geometry is
the square Example:
planar which is just 4 Since Iodine’s electronegativity cancel each other out,
bonds and 2 lone pairs. they are nonpolar.
• The two lone pairs sit
on "top" and "bottom"
of the molecule,
effectively balancing each other out.
• This results in the bond angles being exactly 90°

POLARITY OF MOLECULES
Electronegativity is the tendency for an atom of a given
chemical element to attract shared electrons when IONIC BONDS
forming a chemical bond. The more electronegative • A molecule is said to be ionic when the
atoms get more of the share. Thus, the molecule electronegative difference between the two is
becomes unsymmetrical or a dipole or polar. greater than 2.0

Dipole - A molecule becomes a dipole or polar when

there is unequal distribution or sharing of charge. SUMMARY
In summary, we must consider two factors when
deciding whether a molecule is polar: the bond polarity
and the molecular shape.

a. If the bonds are polar and the molecular shape

is not symmetrical, then molecule is polar.
b. If all the bonds are nonpolar or if the molecular
shape is symmetrical, the molecule is nonpolar.

Figure 9. Electronegativity Trend in the Periodic Table

POLAR AND NON-POLAR BONDS

POLAR BONDS
• are bonded atoms that share electrons
unequally, resulting in partial charges on the Table 1. Electronegativity values and polarity
atoms.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter

ALKANES
Alkanes are hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms
are held together by single bonds.

Alkanes are called PARAFFINS because they have little

affinity towards general reagents under normal
conditions.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Physical Properties
• Alkanes have no color.
• Alkanes are lighter than water and have a lower
density.
• Alkanes dissolve more readily in non-polar than
polar solvents because they are nonpolar
molecules.
• Alkanes do not dissolve in water.
• The melting and boiling temperatures of shorter
chain alkanes are low, but as the number of
carbon atoms in the carbon chain rises, the
melting and boiling values of alkanes rise.

Chemical Properties
• Alkanes have low reactivity.
• Strong acids, bases, oxidizing agents and Figure 10. IUPAC Naming
reducing agents do not react with alkanes.
• Alkanes are valuable as fuels because they burn
and release energy.
BOND-LINE FORMULA
Each carbon atom, as well
as, the corresponding
FORMULA AND STRUCTURE
hydrogen atoms are
General Formula: CnH2n+2
represented by each corner
General Structure: 2 4 6
of the bond line structure.
Each carbon atom is singly
For example, for hexane,
bonded together with 1 3 5
we have 6 carbon atoms, so
hydrogen. Carbon can only
the bond line structure would
have 4 bondings.
look like:

Hexane

IUPAC NAMING CYCLOALKANES

In naming alkanes, the class of hydrocarbons having a ring-like structure.
you just add “-ane” to This ring is formed due to their saturated nature, and
the prefix based on they have three compounds of alkane present in the
the number of structure which helps them in forming a ring.
carbons.

Example: PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

C4H10 Temperature
• The first four classes of cycloalkanes are said to
This alkane has 4 be in gaseous state in the room temperature.
carbon atoms, so we Boiling Points
use the prefix “but” • These saturated hydrocarbons are said to have
and add “ane” their boiling points ranging between 10 – 20 K.
Structure
Thus, it is named as • These are also called as saturated
Butane. hydrocarbons since saturated compounds form
ring structure.
Melting Points
• These compounds are also reported exhibiting
higher melting points and densities.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
molecular mass or chain length, this indicates
FORMULA AND STRUCTURE that the intermolecular attractions become
General Formula: CnH2n stronger with the increase in the size of the
molecule.
Step 1: Determine the
number of carbons.
Step 2: Connect each carbon FORMULA AND STRUCTURE
atom to form a ring. General Formula: CnH2n
Step 3: Add two (2) hydrogen
atoms per carbon atom to Alkenes have at least
satisfy carbon’s valency. one carbon-carbon
Cyclopentane double bond.

For example,
IUPAC NAMING AND BOND LINE If we have 2 carbons
Use the prefix for then we have:
the corresponding
number of carbon C2H4
atoms and insert ETHENE
“cyclo-“ and “-
ane”

For example:
C5H10

Since we have 5
carbon atoms, we
will use “pent”
and add “cyclo” (Ethene)
and “ane”

Cyclopentane
For 3 carbons:
Tip: Whenever
you have
multiple carbon
bonds, Imagine
the molecule as
an alkane first
and remove two
hydrogen atoms
and make a
double bond for
the carbons.

ALKENES
Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing IUPAC NAMING
only carbon and hydrogen) unsaturated compounds with Step 1: Based on the
at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. number of carbon
atoms, fixate an
Another term used to describe alkenes is OLEFINS. appropriate prefix.
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the Step 2: Add “ene” as
presence of the double bond. a suffix.

For example,
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES If we have 3 carbon
1. Physical state –The members containing two or atoms:
four carbon atoms are gases, five to seventeen,
liquids, eighteen onwards, solids at room Use “prop” and add
temperature and they burn in air with a luminous the suffix “ene:
smoky flame.
2. Density – Alkenes are lighter than water. Propene
3. Solubility – Alkenes are insoluble in water and
soluble in organic solvents such as benzene etc.
4. Boiling point – The boiling points of alkenes
show a gradual increase with an increase in the

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
IUPAC NAMING
Step 1: Determine
the number of
carbons and fixate
the appropriate
prefix.

Step 2: Then, add

“yne” to the end.

Step 3: For any

alkynes with
substituents,
determine the
location of the
substituent and
name it.

In this case, methyl is the

BOND LINE STRUCTURE substituent, and 4 is
To signify a double bond, add another line on top of an number of the carbon
“alkane” bond line structure to make it into alkene. atom in which it is
attached
For example:
For Pentene, add another
line on top of the structure BOND LINE STRUCTURE
to where the double bond For alkynes, triple bonds
has been placed. are represented by three
lines in the bond line
Double bond structure.

For example, for

Hexyne

ALKYNES
An alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at
least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Alkynes are nonpolar, unsaturated hydrocarbons
with physical properties similar to alkanes and
alkenes.
• Alkynes dissolve in organic solvents, have slight
solubility in polar solvents, and are insoluble in
water.
• Compared to alkanes and alkenes, alkynes have
slightly higher boiling points.
• An alkyne shows acidic nature only if it contains
terminal hydrogen.
• The existence of two π-bonds in alkynes allows
them to undergo addition reactions twice,
making them more reactive compared to
alkenes.
• The triple bond in alkynes is relatively stronger.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Originally named because of their fragrant properties,
are unsaturated hydrocarbon ring structures that exhibit
special properties, including unusual stability, due to
their aromaticity.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• have high melting and boiling points
compared to other organic compounds. This is
due to the strong intermolecular forces between
the molecules.
• The term "aromatic" in organic chemistry now
means that the molecule contains benzene, or
its structural relatives.
• Benzene itself is a clear, colorless, highly
flammable liquid, which melts at 5.5°C.
• stable unsaturated compounds.
• nonpolar and immiscible with water

FORMULA AND STRUCTURE

FORMULA AND STRUCTURE 1. Draw the Benzene
General Formula: CnH2n-2 structure.
2. Decide where to
Alkynes like propyne are connect the other
represented by ≡ to show compound.
the triple bond between 3. Connect the structure
carbon atoms, omitting without the letters.
hydrogen atoms for
simplicity. Benzene

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Second Quarter

ALCOHOL
Alcohols are organic molecules containing the
“hydroxyl” functional group. (OH directly bonded to
carbon)

BOND LINE STRUCTURE

Alcohols are characterized by the presences of “OH” or
the hydroxyl group. Thus to make the bond line
structure, just attach OH to another carbon molecule.

The carbon directly attached to OH is technically called

the “carbinol” carbon, although this nomenclature is
often not introduced in introductory classes.

CARBOXYLIC ACID
IUPAC NAMING Carboxylic acids are a class of organic compounds that
contain a carboxyl functional group, which consists of a
carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH)
attached to the same carbon atom.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Acidic Nature:
Carboxylic acids are weak acids. They can donate a
proton (H+) from the hydroxyl group, making them acidic
in nature.

• Reaction with Bases:

Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salts
(carboxylate salts) and water in a neutralization reaction.

• Esterification:
Example: Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of
an acid catalyst to form esters and water.

• Decarboxylation:
Some carboxylic acids undergo decarboxylation,
especially under high-temperature conditions, leading to
the loss of a carbon dioxide molecule.

• Physical State
Carboxylic acids are generally found in the liquid state at
room temperature. The smaller carboxylic acids (up to
about C5) are soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding,

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
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but solubility decreases with increasing molecular size.
IUPAC NAMING
• Hydrogen Bonding:
Carboxylic acids can form hydrogen bonds with
themselves and with other molecules, contributing to
their higher boiling points and solubility in water.

• Polarity:
Carboxylic acids are polar molecules due to the
electronegativity difference between oxygen and carbon.
The presence of the carbonyl group enhances this
polarity.

FORMULA AND STRUCTURE

General Formula: CnH2n+1COOH

Step 1: Determine the number of carbon atoms and ESTER

draw it in a chain. An ester is a chemical compound derived from an acid
Step 2: Add the Carboxyl group at any point of the (organic or inorganic) in which at least one –OH hydroxyl
chain. group is replaced by an –O– alkyl (alkoxy) group.
Step 3: Add the corresponding Hydrogen atoms that can
satisfy the valency of the carbon atom. Esters are also usually derived from carboxylic acids.
When a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol it removes
For example: H2O forming an ester (see image below).
C2H5CO2H (Propanoic Acid)

FORMULA AND GENERAL STRUCTURE

• where R can be a
hydrogen atom, an
alkyl group, or an
aryl group
• and R′ can be an
alkyl group or an
aryl group but not a
hydrogen atom.

IUPAC NAMING
The names of the esters are based on the names of both
the alcohol and the carboxylic acid.

• The first part of the ester’s name comes from the

alcohol, with the suffix -anol being changed to -
yl.

Created by Jorel Donald A. Varon

GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
• The second part of the ester’s name comes from For example,
the carboxylic acid, with the suffix -oic acid
replaced by -oate. in formaldehyde (HCHO), the alkyl
group (R) is hydrogen.
For example:
To name the ester in the diagram below we must firstly
count the number of carbon atoms in each of the
carboxylic acid and alcohol chains:

In acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), the

alkyl group is methyl (CH3). The
specific identity of the alkyl or aryl
group determines the particular
aldehyde compound.

There are three carbon atoms on the left of the ester

meaning that the carboxylic acid contained three carbon IUPAC NAMING
atoms. The carboxylic acid must therefore be propanoic The IUPAC system of nomenclature assigns a
acid. characteristic suffix -al to aldehydes.

There is one carbon atom on the right of the ester For example, H2C=O is methanal, more commonly
meaning that the alcohol called formaldehyde.
only contained one carbon
atom. The alcohol used Note:
must therefore have been The stems for the common names of the first four
methanol. aldehydes are as follows:
• 1 carbon atom: form-
The name of this ester is • 2 carbon atoms: acet-
therefore methyl • 3 carbon atoms: propion-
propanoate.
• 4 carbon atoms: butyr-

ALDEHYDE
Aldehydes refer to any of a class of organic compounds
in which a carbon atom shares:
• a double bond with an
oxygen atom
• a single bond with a
hydrogen atom, and;
• a single bond with
another atom or group
of atoms (designated KETONE
R in general chemical An organic compound with the structure R−C(=O)−R',
formulas and structure where R and R' can be a variety of carbon-containing
diagrams); the R group. substituents. Ketones contain a carbonyl group −C(=O)−
(which contains a carbon-oxygen double bond C=O)
Electrophiles – electron-loving molecules attract the
electrons from molecules called nucleophiles.

FORMULA AND STRCUTURE

The general molecular formula for an aldehyde is
RCHO, where "R" represents an alkyl or aryl group. In
more specific terms:

• R: Represents an alkyl group (a group IUPAC NAMING

composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms)
or an aryl group (a group containing a benzene
ring).
• CHO: The functional group of the aldehyde,
consisting of a carbon atom doubly bonded to an
oxygen atom and singly bonded to a hydrogen
atom.
1. Name the parent compound by finding the
longest continuous chain that contains the
carbonyl group. Change the -e at the end of the
name of the alkane to -one.
2. Number the carbon atoms in the chain in a way
so that the carbonyl group has the lowest
possible number.

Created by Jorel Donald A. Varon

GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
Second Quarter
3. Add the numerical prefix into the name before are located using “N” as the position number. More
the name of the ketone. complex primary amines are named with —NH2 as the
4. Use a hyphen between the number and the amino substituent.
name of the ketone.
Aromatic amines: named as derivatives of the parent
Example: compound aniline. Substituents attached to the nitrogen
are indicated by using “N-” as the location number.

AMINE
Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia, NH3, in
which one or more of the three H’s is replaced by a
carbon group.

Amines are classified according to the number of carbon

atoms bonded directly to the nitrogen atom.

A primary (1°) amine has one alkyl (or aryl) group on the
nitrogen atom, a secondary (2°) amine has two, and a
tertiary (3°) amine has three.

IUPAC NAMING

Simple 1°, 2°, and 3° amines: common (trivial) names

are obtained by alphabetically arranging the names of
the alkyl substituents on the nitrogen and adding the
suffix -amine (e.g., ethylmethylamine).

Amines in the IUPAC system: the “e” ending of the

alkane name for the longest chain is replaced with –
amine. The amine group is located by the position
number. Groups that are attached to the nitrogen atom

Created by Jorel Donald A. Varon