(PSY 304) Chapter 3 - Anatomy and Research Methods

(PSY 304) Chapter 3 - Anatomy and Research Methods
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dl0o6j
1. central nervous is the brain and the spinal cord.

system (CNS)
2. peripheral ner- connects the brain and spinal

vous system
(PNS)
3. somatic (volun- which consists of the axons conveying messages from

tary) nervous the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the
system muscles
4. autonomic ner- controls the heart, intestines, and other organs.

vous system
has some of its cell bodies within the brain or spinal cord
and some in clusters along the sides of the spinal cord.
5. dorsal means toward the back
away from the ventral (stomach) side.
ex: TOP OF HUMAN BRAIN because it has that position

in four-legged animals (on the same side as the animal's
back)
6. ventral means toward the stomach
Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side
ex: view of the BRAIN FROM BELOW
7. anterior Toward the front end
8. posterior Toward the rear end
9. superior Above another part
10. inferior Below another part
11. lateral Toward the side, away from the midline
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12. medial Toward the midline, away from the side
13. proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or at-

tachment
14. distal Located more distant from the point of origin or attach-
ment
15. ipsilateral On the same side of the body (e.g., two parts on the left
or two on the right)
16. contralateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one
on the right)
17. Coronal plane (or A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front
frontal plane)
18. Sagittal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side
19. Horizontal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above
(or transverse
plane)
20. Lamina A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell
bodies by a layer of axons and dendrite
21. column A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex,

with similar properties
22. tract A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection.
If axons extend from cell bodies in structure A to synapses
onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from A onto B.
23. nerve A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a
muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS
24. nucleus A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS
25. ganglion A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS
(as in the sympathetic nervous system)
2 / 17
26. gyrus (pl. gyri) A protuberance (a thing that protrudes) on the surface of
the brain
27. sulcus (pl. sulci) A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another
28. fissure A long, deep sulcus
29. spinal cord is the part of the CNS within the spinal column.
communicates with all the sense organs and muscles

except those of the head.
It is a segmented structure, and each segment has on

both the left and right sides a sensory nerve and a motor
nerve
30. dorsal root gan- The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of
glia neurons outside the spinal cord
31. entering dorsal carry sensory information

roots
They receive sensory input.
32. exiting ventral carry motor information

roots
33. gray matter the h-shaped in the center of the cord is densely packed
with cell bodies and dendrites.
34. white matter Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord
send axons to the brain or to other parts of the spinal cord
through this which contains MYELINATED AXONS
35. sympathetic ner- a network of nerves that PREPARE the organs for a burst
vous system of vigorous activity, consists of chains of ganglia just to
the left and right of the spinal cord's central regions
axons prepare the organs for "FIGHT OR FLIGHT," such

as by increasing breathing and heart rate and decreasing
digestive activity.
3 / 17
they often act as a single system "in sympathy" with

one another, although certain events activate some parts
more than others.
axons release norepinephrine, although a few, such as

those onto the sweat glands, use acetylcholine.
ex: over-the-counter COLD REMEDIES exert most of

their effects by blocking parasympathetic activity or IN-
CREASING sympathetic activity. They increase heart
rate, blood pressure, and arousal. They inhibit salivation
and digestion.
sweat glands, the adrenal glands, the muscles that con-

strict blood vessels, and the muscles that erect the hairs
of the skin have sympathetic input
36. parasympathet- "REST AND DIGEST" system, facilitates vegetative, non-

ic nervous emergency responses. The term para means "beside" or
system "related to," and parasympathetic activities are related to,
and generally the opposite of, sympathetic activities.
decreases heart rate
increases digestive activity, whereas the sympathetic ner-

vous system decreases it.
also promotes sexual arousal, including erection in males.
release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto the or-

gans
craniosacral system because it consists of the cranial

nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord
37. preganglionic extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia

axons close to each internal organ.
4 / 17
38. postganglionic then extend from the parasympathetic ganglia into the
fibers organs themselves.
39. hindbrain the posterior part of the brain, consists of the medulla, the
pons, and the cerebellum
40. brainstem The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central
structures of the forebrain constitute this
41. medulla or can be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal

medulla oblon- cord.
gata
42. cranial nerves connect to the spinal cord via sensory and motor nerves,
the head and the organs connect to the medulla and
adjacent areas by 12 pairs
vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, sali-

vation, coughing, and sneezing.
43. pons lies anterior and ventral to the medulla. Like the medulla,
it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves.
axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite

side of the spinal cord so that the left hemisphere controls
the muscles of the right side of the body and the right
hemisphere controls the left side
44. cerebellum is a large hindbrain structure with many deep folds.
It has long been known for its contributions to the CON-

TROL OF MOVEMENT, and many older textbooks de-
scribe the cerebellum as important for "BALANCE AND
COORDINATION"
ex: people with cerebellar DAMAGE are CLUMSY and

LOSE BALANCE, but the functions of the cerebellum
extend far beyond balance and coordination.
a. Have trouble shifting their ATTENTION back and forth
between auditory and visual stimuli
5 / 17
b. Have difficulty with TIMING, such as judging whether
one rhythm is faster than another.
45. midbrain in adult mammals it is dwarfed and surrounded by the

forebrain.
more prominent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish
Mesencephalon ("middle-brain")
46. tectum The roof of the midbrain
47. superior collicu- The swellings on each side of the tectum

lus and the inferi-
or colliculus
48. inferior collicu- important for hearing

lus
49. superior collicu- important for vision

lus
50. tegmentum under the tectum, the intermediate level of the midbrain
a "covering"
the tegmentum covers several other midbrain structures.)
51. substantia nigra gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that FACIL-

ITATES READINESS for movement.
52. forebrain the most prominent part of the mammalian brain, consists
of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on
the right
Each hemisphere is organized to receive sensory in-

formation, mostly from the contralateral (opposite) side of
the body.
It controls muscles, mostly on the contralateral side, by

6 / 17
way of axons to the spinal cord and the cranial nerve
nuclei.
consists of hippocampus
53. cerebrum is a Latin word for "brain"
54. cortex is a Latin word for "bark" or "shell."
55. limbic system Several interlinked structures
form a border (or limbus, the Latin word for "border")

around the brainstem.
includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus,

amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
56. amygdala is part of the circuit that is most central for evaluating
emotional information, especially with regard to FEAR.
57. hypothalamus is essential for control of eating, drinking, temperature

control, and reproductive behaviors.
crucial for PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
a small area near the base of the brain just ventral to the
thalamus, has widespread connections with the rest of the
brain
contains distinct nuclei
conveys messages to the pituitary gland, altering its re-

lease of hormones. Damage to any hypothalamic nucleus
leads to abnormalities in motivated behaviors, such as
feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behav-
ior, fighting, or activity level.
58. thalamus is a pair of structures (left and right) in the center of the
forebrain.
7 / 17
Greek word meaning "anteroom," "inner chamber," or
"bridal bed."
It resembles two small avocados joined side by side, one

in the left hemisphere and one in the right.
Most SENSORY INFORMATION (except olfactory) goes

first to the thalamus, which processes it and sends output
to the cerebral cortex.
59. pituitary gland is an endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to

the base of the hypothalamus
synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs

throughout the body
60. basal ganglia a group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus,

include three major structures:
1. caudate nucleus
2. putamen
3. globus pallidus
damage IMPAIRS MOVEMENT, as in conditions such as

Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.
integrate motivational and emotional behavior to increase

the vigor of selected actions.
the role extends beyond movement.
critical for learned skills and habits, as well as other types

of learning that develop gradually with extended experi-
ence.
61. nucleus basalis receives input from the hypothalamus and basal gan-
glia and sends axons that release acetylcholine to wide-
spread areas in the cerebral cortex
8 / 17
is a key part of the brain's system for AROUSAL, WAKE-
FULNESS and ATTENTION
Patients with Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's dis-

ease have impairments of attention and intellect because
of its inactivity or deterioration
62. hippocampus (from the Latin word meaning "sea horse")
is a large structure between the thalamus and the cere-

bral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain
is critical for certain types of MEMORIES, especially

memories for INDIVIDUAL EVENTS.
essential for monitoring where you are and where you are
going
63. ventricles four fluid-filled cavities within the brain.
contains cerebrospinal fluid
64. choroid plexus along the walls of the four ventricles produce cere-
brospinal fluid (CSF), a clear fluid similar to blood plasma
65. cerebrospinal a clear fluid similar to blood plasma

fluid (CSF)
fills the ventricles, flowing from the lateral ventricles to the
third and fourth ventricles.
66. meninges membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord
67. cerebral cortex The most prominent part of the mammalian brain
68. corpus callosum two bundles of axons
connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
two bundles of axons.
9 / 17
69. anterior commis- is a white matter fiber bundle that also connects the two
sure hemispheres of the brain.
70. primates —monkeys, apes, and humans—have a larger cerebral

cortex, more folding, and more neurons per unit of volume
.
71. laminae are LAYERS OF CELL BODIES that are parallel to the
surface of the cortex and separated from each other by
layers of fibers.
vary in thickness and prominence from one part of the

cortex to another, and a given lamina may be absent from
certain areas.
72. laminae v SENDS long axons to the spinal cord and other distant ar-
eas, is thickest in the motor cortex, which has the greatest
control of the muscles.
73. laminae iv RECEIVES axons from the sensory nuclei of the thal-
amus, is prominent in the sensory areas of the cortex
(visual, auditory, and somatosensory) but absent from the
motor cortex.
74. occipital lobe located at the posterior (caudal) end of the cortex, is the
main target for VISUAL INFORMATION
a tumor in the occipital lobe ordinarily evokes only simple

sensations, such as flashes of light.
75. primary visual is the posterior pole of this lobe that is STRIPED in
cortex or striate appearance in cross section
cortex
destruction may cause CORTICAL BLINDNESS (has
normal eyes and pupillary reflexes, but no conscious visu-
al perception and no visual imagery (not even in dreams,
but if they have an intact occipital cortex and previous
visual experience, they can still imagine visual scenes
and can still have visual dreams).
10 / 17
eyes provide the STIMULUS, and the visual cortex pro-
vides the EXPERIENCE
76. parietal lobe lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus, a
deep groove in the surface of the cortex.
where PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY VISUAL CORTEX

is located
77. postcentral area just posterior to the central sulcus, receives sen-
gyrus sations from TOUCH receptors, MUSCLE-STRETCH re-
ceptors, and JOINT receptors.
includes four bands of cells parallel to the central sulcus.
separate areas along each band receive simultaneous

information from different parts of the body.
two of the bands receive mostly LIGHT-TOUCH informa-

tion, one receives DEEP-PRESSURE information, and
one receives a COMBINATION of both.
represents the body four times.
*a tumor in the temporal lobe may give rise to elaborate

auditory or visual hallucinations
*damage can lead to a set of behaviors known as the

Klüver-Bucy syndrome (ex. monkey is not afraid to snake)
78. temporal lobe is the lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the tem-
ples.
is the primary cortical target for AUDITORY INFORMA-

TION.
—in most cases, the left temporal lobe—is essential for

understanding spoken language.
11 / 17
- contributes to complex aspects of vision, including
PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT and RECOGNITION OF
FACES.
- are also important for EMOTIONAL and MOTIVATION-

AL behaviors.
79. frontal lobe contains the primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cor-
tex, and extends from the central sulcus to the anterior
limit of the brain.
80. precentral gyrus is specialized for the CONTROL OF FINE MOVEMENTS,

such as moving a finger.
- separate areas are responsible for different parts of the

body, mostly on the contralateral (opposite) side but also
with slight control of the ipsilateral (same) side.
81. prefrontal cortex part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and
language
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING
most anterior portion of the frontal lobe
species with a larger cerebral cortex devote a larger per-

centage of it to the prefrontal cortex.
82. prefrontal lobot- SURGICAL DISCONNECTION of the prefrontal cortex

omy from the rest of the brain.
The surgery consisted of damaging the prefrontal cortex

or cutting its connections to the rest of the cortex.
83. posterior portion is associated mostly with movement.
84. middle zone pertains to working memory, cognitive control, and emo-
tional reactions.
85. working memory

12 / 17
is the ability to remember recent events, such as where
you parked your car or what you were talking about before
an interruption.
86. delayed-re- happens when the prefrontal cortex is damaged.

sponse task
individuals see or hear something, and then have to re-
spond to it after a delay.
87. anterior zone is important in making decisions.
88. prefrontal corti- when damaged, one can often make decisions that seem
cal impulsive, because they failed to weigh all the likely pros
and cons.
89. binding problem also known as the large-scale integration, explains how
various brain areas produce a perception of a single
object.
It occurs if you perceive two sensations as happening at

the same time and in approximately the same place.
90. ablation is the removal of a brain area, generally with a surgical

knife
91. lesion Because surgical removal is difficult for tiny structures

below the surface of the brain, researchers sometimes
make this
DAMAGE by means of STEREOTAXIC INSTRUMENT
92. stereotaxic in- a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the
strument brain
aims an electrode at the desired position relative to land-

marks on the skull
anesthetizes an animal, drills a small hole in the skull, in-

serts the electrode (insulated except at the tip), lowers it to
the target, and passes an electrical current just sufficient
13 / 17
to damage that area.
ex: researchers have made lesions in parts of the hy-

pothalamus to explore their contributions to eating and
drinking. After the death of the animal, someone takes
slices of its brain, applies stains, and verifies the actual
location of the damage.
93. sham lesion in a control group, performing all the same procedures
except for passing the electrical current
Any behavioral difference between the two groups must

result from the lesion and not the other procedures.
94. gene-knockout directs a mutation to a gene that regulates one type of

approach cell, transmitter, or receptor.
95. Transcranial the application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of

magnetic the scalp, can stimulate neurons in the area below the
stimulation magnet, if the stimulation is sufficiently brief and mild.
(TMS)
With stronger stimulation it inactivates the neurons, pro-
ducing a "virtual lesion" that out- lasts the magnetic stim-
ulation itself
study behavior with some brain area active, then inactive,

and then active again.
specify the exact behavioral deficit.
INACTIVATE brain area TEMPORARILY
96. optogenetics using light to control a limited population of neurons.
1. discover or invent a protein that responds to light by

producing an electrical current.
2. develop viruses that insert one of these proteins into
a certain type of neuron, or even to just one part of the
neuron, such as the axon or the dendrites
3. develop very thin optical fibers that can shine just the
14 / 17
right amount of light onto neurons in a narrowly targeted
brain area.
the functions of a particular type of neuron
97. electroen- records electrical activity of the brain through elec-

cephalograph trodes— ranging from just a few to more than a hun-
(EEG) dred—attached to the scalp
Records from scalp; measures changes by milliseconds,

but with low resolution of location of the signal
BRAIN ACTIVITY
short periods of time
98. evoked potential The same device used for an EEG can also record brain
or evoked re- activity in response to a stimulus, in which case we call
sponses the results with this
Similar to EEG but in response to STIMULI
99. magnetoen- is similar, but instead of measuring electrical activity, it

cephalograph measures the faint magnetic fields generated by brain
(MEG) activity
Similar to EEG but measures MAGNETIC FIELDS
short periods of time
100. Positron-emis- provides a high resolution image of activity in a living brain

sion by recording the emission of radioactivity from INJECTED
tomography RADIOACTIVE CHEMICALS
(PET)
Measures CHANGES OVER TIME AND LOCATION but
requires exposing brain to radiation
101. functional mag- which is less expensive and less risky.

netic resonance
imaging (fMRI) based on hemoglobin (the blood protein that binds oxy-
15 / 17
gen) instead of water
detect the amount of hemoglobin with oxygen
method produces spectacular pictures, but difficulties

arise when we interpret the results
Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies loca-

tion within 1 to 2 mm
shows which brain areas are MOST ACTIVE AT THE

MOMENT
102. phrenology Franz Gall`s process of relating skull anatomy to behavior

is known as
was invalid for many reasons.

1. skull is thicker in some places than others and thicker
in some people than others.
2. they based many conclusions on small numbers of
people who apparently shared some personality aspect
and a similar bump on the skull.
small samples
103. computerized researchers examine detailed brain anatomy in living peo-

axial ple
tomography CT
or CAT scan A physician injects a dye into the blood to increase con-
trast in the image, and then places the person's head into
a CT scanner
Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays
help detect tumors and other structural abnormalities.
104. magnetic reso- based on the fact that any atom with an odd-numbered
nance imaging atomic weight, such as hydrogen, has an axis of rotation.
(MRI)
16 / 17
applies a powerful magnetic field
Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields
17 / 17

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(PSY 304) Chapter 3 - Anatomy and Research Methods

Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dl0o6j

1. central nervous is the brain and the spinal cord.

2. peripheral ner- connects the brain and spinal

3. somatic (volun- which consists of the axons conveying messages from

4. autonomic ner- controls the heart, intestines, and other organs.

5. dorsal means toward the back

away from the ventral (stomach) side.

ex: TOP OF HUMAN BRAIN because it has that position

6. ventral means toward the stomach

Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side

ex: view of the BRAIN FROM BELOW

7. anterior Toward the front end

8. posterior Toward the rear end

9. superior Above another part

10. inferior Below another part

11. lateral Toward the side, away from the midline

13. proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or at-

21. column A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex,

24. nucleus A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS

28. fissure A long, deep sulcus

communicates with all the sense organs and muscles

It is a segmented structure, and each segment has on

31. entering dorsal carry sensory information

32. exiting ventral carry motor information

axons prepare the organs for "FIGHT OR FLIGHT," such

they often act as a single system "in sympathy" with

axons release norepinephrine, although a few, such as

ex: over-the-counter COLD REMEDIES exert most of

sweat glands, the adrenal glands, the muscles that con-

36. parasympathet- "REST AND DIGEST" system, facilitates vegetative, non-

decreases heart rate

increases digestive activity, whereas the sympathetic ner-

also promotes sexual arousal, including erection in males.

release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto the or-

craniosacral system because it consists of the cranial

37. preganglionic extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia

41. medulla or can be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal

vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, sali-

axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite

44. cerebellum is a large hindbrain structure with many deep folds.

It has long been known for its contributions to the CON-

ex: people with cerebellar DAMAGE are CLUMSY and

45. midbrain in adult mammals it is dwarfed and surrounded by the

more prominent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish

46. tectum The roof of the midbrain

47. superior collicu- The swellings on each side of the tectum

48. inferior collicu- important for hearing

49. superior collicu- important for vision

the tegmentum covers several other midbrain structures.)

51. substantia nigra gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that FACIL-

Each hemisphere is organized to receive sensory in-

It controls muscles, mostly on the contralateral side, by

53. cerebrum is a Latin word for "brain"

54. cortex is a Latin word for "bark" or "shell."

55. limbic system Several interlinked structures

form a border (or limbus, the Latin word for "border")

includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus,

57. hypothalamus is essential for control of eating, drinking, temperature

crucial for PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

contains distinct nuclei

conveys messages to the pituitary gland, altering its re-

It resembles two small avocados joined side by side, one