AD-05 General Knowledge-12

CATC/ATM/2021/AD-05
AERODROME CONTROL COURSE
GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE
Trainee’s Handout
March 2021
Version 1.01
Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad

Bamrauli, Prayagraj
Full Member of ICAO Trainair Plus ISO 9001:2015

© 2021 CATC, Allahabad, India
Contents of this document are proprietary of the

Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad, India. No
part of this document shall be reproduced without
prior written permission of the Executive Director,
CATC Allahabad.
Contact Details:
Head of Training & General Manager (ATM)

Airports Authority of India,
Civil Aviation Training College, Allahabad
Bamrauli, Prayagraj-211012 (INDIA)
Phone 0532 - 2580457, Fax-0532 - 2580452,
Email: gmatmcatc@aai.aero
General Knowledge Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad
RECORD OF AMENDMENTS AND CORRIGENDA
AMENDMENTS
No. Section/Page No. Date entered Entered by
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Course Objectives
At the end of this handout, the trainee will be able to:
1. Demonstrate familiarization with terms related to Aircraft.

2. Identify and list the basic components of an Aeroplane.
3. List and describe the working of the control surfaces.
4. Describe Principles of flight for Aerodynes and Aerostats,
Characteristics of an Aerofoil, Lift generation by an Aerofoil and
Critical Angle.
5. Demonstrate familiarization with terms used with Aerofoil
6. List the forces acting on an Aircraft.
7. Describe the basic manoeuvres of Aircraft and their effect on forces
acting on an Aircraft.
8. List the axes and movement across the axes of an Aeroplane.
9. List the factors affecting lift and drag.
10. Explain Aircraft Stability and stability across the three axes of an
Aeroplane.
11. Define the terms such as, Torque effect, Absolute Ceiling, Service
Ceiling, Best rate of climb, Best Angle of climb, Normal Climb and
Gliding Angle.
12. List the factors affecting Aircraft performance.
13. Describe Speed of Aircraft, Speed of sound, Shock waves and shock
stall, Sonic barrier, Mach number and critical Mach number.
14. Explain the basic working of Piston Engines, Jet Engines, Fuel system
and Oil system.
15. List types of Jet Engines based on power usage and factors affecting
thrust in Jet Engines.
16. Explain the working of a propeller, Pitch of propeller, Types of
Propellers, Feathering and Reversing.
17. List the forces and stresses acting on a propeller in flight.
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18. Describe Helicopter’s principle of flight, Helicopter lift, Helicopter

speed and Autorotation.
19. List the controls of Helicopter and describe their working.
20. Explain briefly, the Hydraulic systems, Pneumatic systems and
Electrical systems in an Aeroplane.
21. Explain the effects of Icing, Anti-icing and de-icing methods.
22. Demonstrate general awareness of Aircraft Emergencies.
23. Describe briefly, the term avionics, systems/subsystems/
instruments that are monitored through the Aircraft
Instrumentation, Engine Instruments, Gyroscopic Instruments,
Autopilot, ATC Transponder, Communication gear, Direction finding
Equipments, Navigation devices, Landing Aids, Weather Radar, Radio
Altimeter, TCAS, Flight Recorders, Emergency Locator Transmitter,
Fuel Management system, Hazard warning indications and GPWS.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT
CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
CHAPTER 3. BASIC MANOEUVRES OF AIRCRAFT
CHAPTER 4. AIRCRAFT STABILITY
CHAPTER 5. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
CHAPTER 6. HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
CHAPTER 7. AERO ENGINES
CHAPTER 8. PROPELLER
CHAPTER 9. HELICOPTER
CHAPTER 10. ANCILLARY SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 11. ÀIRCRAFT ICING
CHAPTER 12. AIRCRAFT EMERGENCIES
CHAPTER 13. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
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FOREWORD
Since time immemorial, man has stared out into the clouds and marvelled
at the grace and beauty of soaring bird. The desire to fly in the sky is quite
old and is even found in ancient texts of the epic ‘Ramayana’. Ravana had
his ‘udankhatola’, while Lord Rama did not have such a mode of conveyance
and had to rely on his friends to build a bridge (probably being in exile).
Fascinating is the world of Aircraft and Flight. With all other modes of
passenger transportation explored and exploited by man, it was left to
Wright Brothers in 1903, to bring in a new dimension in passenger
transportation. It was a 12 seconds flight of Orville Wright on December 17,
1903, that entered into the annals of History. Interestingly, 80 to 90 percent
of the basic configuration of Wright Brothers flight holds good for today’s
airliners too
The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The science
of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is
called aeronautics. Passenger, freight and Military aircraft are flown by an
onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or
self-controlled by on board computers.
This handout introduces Aircraft, its terminology and the principles of

flight. It brings a basic amount of knowledge about stability, manoeuvres,
performance, speed and ancillary systems of an Aircraft. The knowledge
about engines, propellers and helicopters will equip an Air Traffic Controller
with enhanced understanding of Aircraft systems and better situational
awareness in case of their malfunctioning. The last chapter on Aircraft
Instruments brings to fore all the basic instruments carried by Aircraft and
also gives an indication of futuristic systems, that are evolving
continuously.
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CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
TO AIRCRAFT
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1.1 DEFINITIONS:
Aircraft: Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from
reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s
surface.
*Note: This includes balloons whether fixed or free, airships, gliders and
other flying machines. Broadly speaking an aircraft is anything that takes
to air, and is divided into following categories as shown in the chart below:
Aerodynes: Aerodynes are all those aircrafts, which derive their lift in flight
chiefly from aerodynamic forces.
Aerostats: Aerostats are all those aircrafts, which are supported chiefly by
their buoyancy in air.
Float seaplane: Float seaplane has floats attached to the fuselage or wings
on which the plane rests when on water.
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Boat Seaplane: Boat seaplane fuselage is built in the shape of boat to

provide support on water.
Airframe: The term is used to describe the complete structure of an

aeroplane including the fuel tanks but without instruments and engines
installed.
Starboard and Port: As per the convention, the left & right side of an
aircraft is always determined by looking from the rear i.e. as the pilot sees
it. The term Port is used to mean Left side, the term Starboard means
located on the Right side. Thus the port-wing means the left wing of the
aircraft and starboard engine refers to right engine.
Engine numbering: Again as per convention the numbering of engine is

done starting from extreme left as viewed from rear (pilot’s view). For
example the engine located on left wing of a twin engine Airbus A-320 is
called as engine no.1 (also in twin engine case as port engine) while right
side engine is called as engine no. 2 (also starboard engine), In the case of
four engine B-747 aircraft the extreme left engine will be numbered as no.
1, followed by no.2, 3 and 4 as moving progressively towards right. In this
case engine no 3 and 4 are on starboard wing. In three engine aircraft like
MD-11, DC-10 or L-1011, the engine mounted on the tail of the aircraft is
called as engine no. 2
1.2. Material of Aircraft Construction:

In aircraft construction, it is imperative to keep the weight of the structure
low, while providing sufficient strength and rigidity. As low weight of the
aircraft is the overriding consideration, any or more of the following
materials may be used.
*Note: - In the early era of aircraft development, wood and fabric

were used as the chief construction material to keep its weight to minimum
as the aircraft engines were heavier and could not generate much power.
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Today, with the advancement in all fields of aviation, aircraft construction

permits the use of various kinds of metals, alloys, plastic and composite
materials.
a) Metal, Light Alloys and Steel: The development of all metal

construction has been greatly facilitated by the introduction of many
diversified kind of materials. Much attention has been devoted during the
recent years to the production of steels and non-ferrous alloys on a
commercial basis in a suitable form for aircraft construction, and these
materials can now be obtained in a variety of forms and conditions which
allow wider choice of material, possessing the required properties and
consequently give a greater freedom in design. Most commonly used metals
for aircraft construction are:-
 Alloy steel
 Aluminium alloys
 Magnesium alloys, and
 Titanium alloys
Alloy steels provide strength and rigidity to the structure, but their utility
on aircraft is limited due to the higher density as compared to the other two
alloys and is used only on highly stressed parts i.e. the structure that has
to carry heavy loads in operation, such as the undercarriage, engine bearers
etc.. Nickel Cadmium, Magnesium steel is used in the construction of
crankshaft or turbine shaft of Jet engines. Chromium Molybdenum,
Stainless Steel, Titanium alloys etc. are also used for such purposes.
Aluminium and Magnesium alloys are used in aircraft construction
chiefly by virtue of their low specific gravity. Their tensile strength is low as
compared to steel and even with the limited utility on aircraft; they greatly
help in reducing weight of an aircraft structure. Most commonly used
aluminium alloy is known as the Duralumin, which consists mainly of
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Aluminum with addition of a little Copper, Magnesium, and Manganese

etc. as additives.
b) Composite materials: These form part of advance development in

aircraft construction material. The basic ingredients of carbon composite
are Kevlar fibre impregnated with carbon particles. This material can be
moulded in any form and shape, very light in weight and possess extremely
high tensile strength. The use of such material results in enhanced safety
and considerable reduction in weight thus making aircraft light and
sturdier. In modern aviation the use of carbon composite, both in civil and
military application is increasing rapidly, particularly in the construction of
fuselage, wing and empennage.
1.3. Components of an Aeroplane:

Aeroplane is a power-driven, heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in
flight chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces, which remain fixed
under given conditions of flight.
The essential components of a conventional aeroplane are:
 Fuselage
 Wings
 Empennage
 Propulsion system
 Under carriage
 Control surfaces
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Figure 1.1 An exploded view of a Beechcraft Skipper
1.3.1 Fuselage:
It is the central body of the aeroplane designed to accommodate the crew,
passenger and cargo. It is the structural body to which the wings, tail
assembly, landing gear and engine(s) are attached. Aircraft fuselage is
streamlined in shape in order to reduce the drag.
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Figure 1.2 Aircraft – Various kinds of Fuselage
1.3.2. Wings and Parts:

The wings provide the Lifting surfaces. Most aeroplanes have one pair of
wings & are called monoplanes. Biplanes, those with two pair of wings are
few and fly as sports plane. During the First World War even Triplanes were
developed. Wings come in variety of shapes such as rectangular, tapered
(from root to tip), elliptical and Delta etc. Wings may be attached to fuselage
in varying position for varying advantages
 High wing – attached at the top of the fuselage.
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 Low wing – attached at the bottom of the fuselage.

 Mid wing – attached in the middle of the fuselage.
WING-POSITIONS
LOW WING
IL-14: Transport
MID WING
Canberra
HIGH WING
AN-32- Military Transport
Leading and trailing edge: The portion of the wing exposed to the direction
of aircraft movement is known as Leading edge while the rear portion is
called as Trailing edge.
Ailerons: These are surfaces, usually of aerofoil section, hinged to the

trailing edge of the wing towards each wing tip for the purpose of lateral
control.
Flap: They are hinged or pivoted aerofoil connected to inboard trailing edge
of the wings used to vary the effective cambers. The flap are symmetrically
designed and provided in pairs and both the flaps move simultaneously in
the downward direction. When extended partially, flaps increase the lift and
when largely extended it reduces the lift generation and aircraft loses
height. Hence they are used in partially extended mode during take-off,
initial climb, approach and landing and fully extended immediately after
landing to effect aerodynamic braking action. At higher speeds (including
that at cruising) they are fully retracted, as sufficient lift is available and
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flaps remain flushed within the wing. Various kinds of flaps are available
for different applications.
Spoilers: Spoilers are mechanical devices that spoils (destroys) the lift
generated by the wing surface, thus increasing the rate of descent without
putting the aircraft nose down. Spoilers are installed on the top surface of
wings and they could be multiple in numbers. When extended fully, it can
also act as airbrakes and reduce the aircraft speed rapidly. Also referred as
Air brake.
Winglets: The vertical surface attached at the extremity of wings, designed

to capture the rushing air of higher speed beneath the wing. This increases
the lift and enhances the aircraft stability.
Slats: Curved strip alike retractable structure on the leading edge of the
wing, when deployed, changes the camber and additional lift is produced at
lower speeds. Normally used while taking off and landing phase of the flight
and when operating at lower speed.
Static dischargers: The sharp edge metallic wire (or rod) attached to the
trailing edge of the wing helps in dissipating the static charge collected by
the aircraft while in flight.
1.3.3. Empennage
This is the Tail section of the aeroplane and consists of the following parts.
Stabilizers: An aerofoil placed at rear-end of the fuselage to balance the

aeroplane. There are two kind of stabilizers provided namely Horizontal
stabilizer and Vertical stabilizer.
Elevators: Surface hinged on the trailing edge of the stabilizer to provide

pitch control.
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Fin: A fixed vertical surface placed ahead of the sternpost to provide

directional stability. Also referred as Vertical stabilizer.
Rudder: The rudder is used to steer the aeroplane right or left. Rudder is
installed on the rear side of the tail hinged to the trailing edge of the vertical
stabilizer (fin). By pressing left rudder pedal, aeroplane turns to the left, and
by pressing the right rudder, the aeroplane turns to right.
Figure 1.3 Empennage Structure
Trim tab: Small auxiliary aerofoils installed on rudder, elevators and

ailerons used for the application of minor adjustments on these control
surfaces. They are also called trimming tabs or simply tabs.
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1.3.4. Propulsion system (engine)

Aeroplane propulsion system can either be a piston engine that drives
propeller(s) or may be a gas turbine (Jet) engine. The different components
are-
Nacelle: The structure in which aircraft engine is installed.
Engine Mount: A reinforced structure used for attaching the engine or

nacelle with the fuselage.
Cowling: A removable metal covering that houses the engine and sometimes
a portion of the fuselage of an aircraft. It stream lines the front of the
aeroplane to reduce drag & facilitates better cooling of the engine.
Propeller: Engine powered, dynamically balanced blades assembly that

provides the thrust. Propellers are installed in piston and turboprop
engines.
Engine: The power-generating device that converts chemical energy of fuel

into mechanical energy to generate thrust required to fly an aircraft.
Gearbox: Large Piston, turboprop and turboshaft engine powered aircraft

are equipped with reduction box (gear box) to handle large output power
efficiently.
Fuel tank: The place for the storage of fuel. The large and hollow structure
of wing is the ideal position for the installation of fuel tanks. Fuel tanks may
also be carried within the fuselage.
Oil tank: The storage place of lubricating fluid (oil). Sufficient amount of
lubricating oil necessary for the functioning of engines is carried by all
engines.
1.3.5. Undercarriage
The function of the undercarriage or the Landing Gear is to absorb the
impact of landing and to support the aircraft weight for the ground
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manoeuvring. The undercarriage may contain number of wheel assemblies

depending on the weight of the aircraft and the kind of surface used for its
movement. On land aeroplane, there are two basic classes of fixed gear
undercarriage namely conventional gear with a tail wheel, and tricycle gear
with a nose wheel. In tail wheel configuration the tail wheel is equipped with
steering mechanism while in tricycle arrangement the nose wheel possesses
steering controls. The landing gear may consist of single, two or more
number of wheels depending on the AUW and landing surface. Very heavy
aircraft may also have tandem gears to support their weight. All the wheels
are equipped with braking devices and additionally modern aircraft possess
ABS (Anti skidding braking system) capabilities for enhanced safety.
Fixed Undercarriage: The landing gears are fixed and exposed all time.
This causes considerable drag and such arrangement is confined to small
aircrafts.
Retractable Gear: They are designed to retract or fold up into the wing or
fuselage in flight to reduce drag. Today almost all aircraft including modern
helicopter possess retractable gears. The gear extension and retraction
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operation is performed through hydraulic and/or pneumatic control

devices.
1.3.6. Control Surfaces

They are the moveable aerofoils designed to be moved by the pilot in order
to change the attitude of the aircraft.
Primary control surfaces: Rudders, Elevators and Ailerons.
Auxiliary control surfaces: Flaps, Slats, Spoilers, Trim tabs (used for
minor corrections).
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CHAPTER 2.
PRINCIPLES OF
FLIGHT
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An Aeroplane is a heavier than air flying machine designed to obtain, when

driven through the air at an angle inclined to the direction of motion, a
reaction from the air approximately at right angles to its surface. All
manmade contrivances, which fly, are called Aircraft. This includes
airships, balloons, kites, which are lighter than air and aeroplane, gliders
etc. that are heavier than air. For a sustained flight, an aircraft must be
provided with sufficient lifting force, which is at least equal to its weight.
The Aerostats (an Airship or Balloon) depend for their lift on the well-known
scientific fact called “Archimedes Principle”, which states when a body is
immersed in a fluid, a force (buoyancy) act upwards upon it, helping to
support its weight and this upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid,
which is displaced by the body. The envelope of the airship or balloon
displaces the air and therefore there is an upward force on the airship,
which is equal to the weight of the displaced air. In order to keep the weight
of the airship itself as small as possible it is made of the lightest materials
available and a very light gas is used to inflate the envelope. Normally
Helium, Hydrogen and Hot air is used in ballooning.
For ‘Aerodynes’ or heavier than air type of aircraft, the principle of flight is
quite different. The aircraft flight is sustained in air through the lift
generated through the reaction of air. The wings provide the lift and thrust
required for generation of lift and speed is provided by the engine(s).
2.1. Terminology
Centre of lift: Centre of lift is the point where the total lifting forces are
deemed to be acting on a body. Different parts (or sections) of suitable
moving body produces different amount of lifting forces. These forces can
be resolved and the resultant force can be computed to be acting at a given
point or centre called as Centre of lift.
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Centre of gravity: Centre of gravity is the point where the total mass is
deemed to be concentrated. The gravitational pull of earth can be deemed
to be acting at the Centre of gravity.
Drag: Whenever a body is moved through fluid or air, a resistance against

its motion is produced. In aeronautics this resistance is usually referred as
Drag. Efforts are made to reduce this resistance for improved efficiency of
the aircraft.
Streamlines: Lines that show the direction of the fluid at any particular
moment are called streamlines. A body so shaped as to produce the least
possible eddy motion is said to be of streamline shape.
Bernoulli’s principle: It states that the internal pressure of a fluid (liquid

or gas) decreases at points where the speed of the fluid increases. In other
words, high-speed flow is associated with low pressure and low speed flow
with high pressure.
Figure 2.1 Venturi Tube
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2.2. Aerofoil
Any surface, which can generate lift, is called aerofoil. Aircraft wings,
fuselage, empennage and controlling surfaces are designed to act as an
aerofoil to produce lift. The generation of lift is always associated with the
production of drag. The drag to lift ratio varies on the aerofoil design.
Figure 2.2 Cross section of an Aerofoil
2.3. Terms used with Aerofoil:

Chord: An imaginary straight line drawn from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of a cross section of an aerofoil.
Angle of Incidence: The acute angle formed by the chord line of the wing
and the longitudinal axis (fore & aft axis) of the aeroplane. It is the angle at
which the wing is attached to the fuselage & is determined during the design
of the aeroplane and is fixed for a given aeroplane.
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Figure 2.3 Angle of Incidence as part of the Design
Relative Wind: The relative wind for an aeroplane in flight flows in a

direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of flight. The actual
flight path (track) of the aeroplane is determined by the prevailing wind.
Wing Area: The plane surface of the wing which includes control surfaces
and may include area, covered by the fuselage.
Angle of Attack: The acute angle between the chord line of the wing and
the direction of the relative wind. Basically it is the difference between where
the wing is pointed and the direction of the air flowing over the wing is the
angle of attack as shown in this schematic.
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Figure 2.4 Angle of Attack
Camber: The camber of an aerofoil is the characteristic curve of its upper

or lower surface. It determines the aerofoil’s thickness; but more
importantly, the camber determines the amount of lift that a wing produces
as air flows around it. A high-speed, low-lift aerofoil has very little camber.
A low-speed, high-lift aerofoil, like that on the Cessna 150, has a very
pronounced camber. The curvature of the aerofoil from the leading edge to
the trailing edge:
“Upper camber” refers to the curvature of the upper surface & “Lower
camber” refers to the curvature of the lower surface.
Wingspan: The maximum distance from wing tip to wing tip.
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Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the overall wingspan (length) to the average chord
(width) is known as aspect ratio.
2.4. Characteristics of an aerofoil

Endeavors are made to increase the lift component as much as possible and
to reduce the drag component to the lowest minimum for optimum results.
Experiments are carried out in the wind tunnel using bodies of various
shapes with varying angle of inclination to the airflow to measure the lift
and drag components before designing any aircraft. It has been established
that much greater lift especially compared with the drag could be produced
by a curved surface as against the flat plate. We know that, such curved
surface is called ‘Aerofoil’. The upward force ‘lift’ is perpendicular to the
‘Chord line’ and depends upon the angle of incidence, total surface area and
the speed of airflow. The ‘thickness of the aerofoil’ also governs the lift
generation. In practice the direction of motion of aeroplane is not always
horizontal and so we split up the total reaction into its two components
relative to the airflow as follows:
The component at right angles to the direction of the airflow is called ‘Lift’.
The component parallel and in the direction of the airflow is called ‘Drag’.
2.5. Lift generation by an aerofoil

The airflow above the wing travels a greater distance in the same period of
time than the airflow along the lower wing surface and as such attains
greater velocity. Since the total energy contained in a mass remains
constant, the increased velocity (i.e. kinetic energy) results in the decrease
in pressure (potential energy). This decreased pressure is more pronounced
at leading edge of the wing. At the bottom surface the reaction of the airflow
is just the reverse i.e. decrease in velocity and increase in pressure. The net
result of decreased pressure at the top surface and increased pressure at
the bottom surface is that the wing has a tendency to move upward when
airflow passes over it. There is another factor that contributes towards the
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lift. It is the effect of the downwash at the trailing edge. It is a known fact
that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. From the
diagram (figure-2.4) it can be seen that the air leaving an aerofoil is not in
the same direction in which it strikes the aerofoil at the leading edge. This
change in the direction of the airflow at the trailing edge is called the
downwash and the change entails an equal and opposite reaction. Thus an
aerofoil or the wing attains lift due to ‘three factors’ namely decreased
pressure at the top, increased pressure at the bottom and reaction due to
the down wash (dynamic lift).
Figure 2.5 Relative Winds and Thickness of Camber
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2.6. Critical angle

It is observed that as the Angle of Attack increases there is a steady increase
in the lift. At some angle, the lift reaches a definite maximum. Any further
increase of angle of attack results in less Lift instead of more Lift. This angle
of attack is called ‘Critical angle or stalling angle’. The aerofoil stalls when
the angle of attack is increased beyond Stalling Angle where the steady
streamlined flow of air is unable to follow the upper camber of the aerofoil.
The airflow separates from the wing or burbles (Figure 2.6) with the result
that, enough lift is not produced to sustain flight. This is called the Stall
Condition. An aeroplane properly loaded will stall at Indicated Air speed
somewhere near the Stalling Speed published in the Aeroplane Flight
Manual. Aeroplane will however, stall at any air speed if the critical angle of
attack is exceeded.
Figure 2.6 Burbling
The graph below shows, how lift and drag change with the angle of attack
for a typical wing design.
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Figure 2.7 Angle of Attack VS Lift
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CHAPTER 3.
BASIC
MANOEUVRES
OF AIRCRAFT
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3.1. Different phases of flight

The flight of an aeroplane consists of various phases or stages. First the
take-off, during which the aeroplane is transferred from one medium, to
another, then the climb during which the pilot gains sufficient height to
make sure that his flight will take place entirely in this new medium, then
a period of steady flight at a constant height, interrupted in certain cases
by periods of certain maneuvers and then the glide back towards the earth
and finally the landing. To control the aircraft flight in such varying
situations, a pilot need to make certain control inputs and change
configurations for successfully operating the flight.
3.1.1 Take-off:
During take-off, aircraft apply maximum available thrust to achieve the
take-off speed at the quickest. Flaps are configured for maximum lift setting
and slats (if available) are deployed. When on ground the thrust works
against the runway friction and aircraft weight. During the take-off roll,
initially the acceleration is gentle but as aircraft gathers speed, engines
efficiency increases and aircraft accelerates rapidly. At higher groundspeeds
wings start to share the load as aircraft rapidly accelerates through V-1
(take-off decision speed) and V-2 (minimum safe speed). Aircraft normally
breaks the ground between V-1 and V-2 speed.
3.1.2. Climb:
Immediately after take-off, pilot retracts the landing gear and concentrate
on gaining safe altitude and speed before making any turn manoeuver.
When arrived at a safe altitude and speed, pilot reduces the thrust to
maximum continuous thrust level (about 90-94% of maximum thrust level),
and flaps and slats are retrieved after achieving appropriated height and
speed. This clean configuration helps in better climb and speed performance
of aircraft. Subsequent climb to cruising level is made in clean
configuration.
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3.1.3. Cruising:
At higher cruising levels atmosphere is rarefied and presents very less drag,
and engine performs best at such levels. The reduced drag at higher level
results in higher aircraft speed. A modern jetliner may record ground speed
of 600 kts (1080 km/h) or even more. The piston engine aircraft cruise at
lower level, though with turbocharger aircraft higher performances are
achieved. The turboprop aircraft normally cruise at around FL-220, more
powerful turboprop can even reach up to FL-290 or more. Modern jet
airliners can operate up to FL-410 to 450. Supersonic Concorde used to
operate at FL-530 to FL-580.
3.1.4. Descent:
Aircraft prefer to make descent on idle power for economic reasons. High
energy (kinetic and potential) is conveniently converted in to distance.
Slightly nose down attitude is maintained during this phase till aircraft
reaches the lower altitudes to make an approach for landing.
3.1.5. Approach:
Aircraft speed is reduced and appropriate flap and thrust level setting is
made to keep the flight under approach mode. Approach can be made on
instruments or in visual reference to terrain.
3.1.6. Landing:
When close to aerodrome, landing gears are extended, flaps are
appropriately deployed and pilot keep sharp eye on air speed, rate of descent
and keep the aircraft aligned with the runway. Appropriate corrections are
applied to compensate the drift. At appropriate moment aircraft flares out
just before touchdown to reduce the aircraft’s vertical speed so that the
impact with runway surface would be softer and aircraft lands on main
under carriage. Similar to take-off speed, the landing speed is also
computed prior to each landing. Immediately after landing full flaps,
spoilers to increase the drag and thrust reversers are used to enhance
braking action, so that aircraft can safely be brought to stop within the
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available length of runway. The pilot also has to maintain the directional
control during the landing run.
3.2. Forces on aircraft:

The four basic forces acting on an aeroplane in flight are:
Lift: Vertically upward force acting through the centre of pressure to

sustain the aircraft in flight.
Weight: Vertically downward force due to gravity and acting through the
centre of gravity.
Thrust: Horizontally forward force exerted by the engine of the aircraft.
Drag: Horizontally backward force acting as resistance to the forward

motion.
Figure 3.1 Forces on aircraft
3.3. Basic manoeuvres of an aircraft

The basic manoeuvres of any aircraft could be flying straight and Level,
Climb, Descent, Glide and Turns. Other complex manoeuvres could be
combinations such as ‘climbing turn’ etc.
3.3.1. Straight, steady and Level flight:

Flying of an aeroplane at a steady height at uniform velocity in a steady
direction is known as equilibrium. It signifies that the forces acting on an
aeroplane are balanced. For equilibrium the lift must be equal to weight (to
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keep the aeroplane at a constant height) and the thrust must be equal to
the drag (to fly at the same steady velocity).
Note: Prevention of rotation: There still remains a third condition of

equilibrium. In order to maintain straight and level flight we must prevent
the aeroplane from rotating and this depends not only on the magnitude of
the four forces but also on the position (centre) at which they act. If the
centre of pressures through which the lift acts is behind the centre of gravity
then the nose of the aeroplane will tend to nose drop and tail rise and vice
versa. Consideration is also made for the line of action of the thrust and
Drag. If the line of thrust is high and the line of Drag is low, these two forces
will also tend to make the nose drop. Such tendencies of rotation can be
prevented by the pilot using his controls to some extent, but it is the aim of
the designer to make an aeroplane that is stable and can fly by itself in an
equilibrium state without pilot’s intervention in a level flight. There is an
advantage, when the lift is acting slightly behind the weight. This will give
these two forces a tendency to turn the aeroplane nose downwards, which
in the case of engine failure will automatically put it in a position ready for
a glide, whereas if the lift were in front of the weight there would be a
tendency to stall. To neutralize this ‘nose downwards’ tendency while the
engine is running and the aircraft is in normal horizontal flight, the line of
Drag is arranged above the line of thrust so that these two forces will cause
a ‘tail downwards’ tendency. These two forces neutralize each other to a
large extent; while minor adjustments (trim) can be made through control
surfaces.
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Figure 3.2 Forces on aircraft in action
3.3.2. Climb:
For a climb, thrust works against the combined force of Drag and Weight
component. If the engine power is increased and the angle of attack is not
changed, the aeroplane will begin to climb since the increased speed of
relative wind over the aerofoil will produce more lift.
Figure 3.3 Forces on aircraft during Climb
3.3.3. Descent:
During idle power descent, there is less thrust available and the required
speed is maintained by pitch down attitude. Speed is kept under control by
adjusting the pitch angle. Powered descent increases the speed rapidly and
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thus avoided unless situation warrants. Higher rate of descent without

increase in speed can be achieved by the use of spoilers.
3.3.4. Glide:
In gliding, there is no power from the engine and the aeroplane is under the
influence of gravity. The required speed is maintained through pitch down
attitude.
Figure 3.4 Forces on aircraft during Glide
3.3.5. Turn:
In turns, the lift force has two components: one acting vertically and one
acting horizontally. The vertical component opposes weight while the
horizontal component makes the aeroplane turn. Simultaneously,
appropriate amount of rudder input is made for a coordinated turn. Hence
the following deductions can be made:
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Figure 3.5 Forces on aircraft during Turns
(a) The steeper the angle of bank (for any given air speed);
 the greater the rate of turn
 the lesser the radius of turn
 the higher the stalling speed.
(b) And higher the air speed (for any given angle of bank);
 the slower the rate of turn
 the larger the radius of turn.
(c) Rate one turn: A turn made by an aircraft with the bank angle of 25
degrees and turning at the rate of 3 degrees per second, whichever
requires lesser banking.
(d) Coordinated turn: A smooth turn accomplished by using the proper
amount of aileron and rudder to prevent the aeroplane from either
slipping or skidding. In a coordinated turn the ball in the turn and
bank indicator remains centered.
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Figure 3.6 Typical Turn and Bank Indicator
3.4. Axes of an aeroplane:

There are three axes around which the aeroplane moves. All these axes pass
through the aeroplanes centre of gravity. These axes are:
3.4.1. Longitudinal Axis:

This extends lengthwise through the fuselage of the aeroplane from the nose
to the tail. Movement of the aeroplane around the longitudinal Axis is
known as ‘Roll’ and is controlled by movement of the ‘Ailerons’. An aileron
always works in opposite direction and input from cockpit lowers the
aileron on one wing and raises the aileron on the other wing. The down
going aileron increases the camber of its wing, producing more lift and the
wing rises. The up going aileron spoils the airflow on its wing, decreasing
the lift, and the wing drops and the aeroplane rolls into a turn.
3.4.2. Lateral Axis:

This extends crosswise from wing tip to wing tip. Movement of the aeroplane
around the Lateral Axis is known as “Pitch” and is controlled by movement
of the ‘Elevators’. With appropriate input in cockpit, to affect a nose down
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attitude, the elevator deflects downward, increasing the camber of the

horizontal tail surface and thereby increasing the lift on the tail. While
effecting a nose up attitude of the aeroplane, the elevators are deflected
upwards decreasing the lift on the tail, with a resultant downward
movement of the tail.
3.4.3. Vertical or Normal Axis:

This passes vertically through the centre of gravity of the aeroplane.
Movement of the aeroplane around the vertical axis is known as ‘YAW’ and
is controlled by movement of the ‘Rudder’. Pressure applied to the left
rudder pedal, for example, deflects the rudder to the left into the airflow.
The pressure of the airflow against the rudder pushes the tail to the right.
The nose of the aeroplane yaws to the left.
Figure 3.7 Axes of an Aeroplane
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Figure 3.8 Movement around Axes of an Aeroplane
3.5. Factors affecting the lift and drag

The factors influencing the lift and drag include.
 Shape of the aerofoil

 Angle of attack
 Wing area
 Speed of the air passing over the wing (air speed) and
 Density of the air moving over the wing
The lift and drag acting on a wing are proportional to the wing area.
Generally, larger the curvature on the upper surface of an aerofoil greater
the lift produced (up to a point). As the angle of attack is increased, lift and
drag are increased up to the ‘Critical angle of attack’ and, thereafter the lift
drops sharply and drag overcomes the lift and the wing stalls. The lift and
the drag are proportional to square of true air speed and vary directly with
the density of the air. Thus, although it is desirable to obtain as much lift
as possible from a wing, this cannot be done without increasing the drag. It
is therefore necessary to find the best compromise.
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CHAPTER 4.
AIRCRAFT
STABILITY
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4.1. Stability
The stability of an aircraft means its inherent ability to return to same
particular condition of flight (after having been slightly disturbed from that
condition) without any efforts on the part of the pilot. For instance an
aeroplane, which is stable during straight and level flight, will tend to return
to the original condition of flight if disturbed by a force such as turbulent
air. The stability is due to features incorporated in the design of the aircraft.
Stability can be classified into three types:
Positive Stability: The body after slight disturbance will return to its
original position.
Neutral Stability: The body will come to rest at some new, neutral position
& will show no tendency to return to its original position.
Negative Stability: It is in fact instability. (An aeroplane should never

display negative stability).
An aeroplane should possess positive stability. Stability of an aeroplane is

indeed the combination of forces that act around its three axes to keep the
pitch attitude of the aeroplane in a normal level, flight attitude with respect
to the horizon, the wings leveled and the nose of the aeroplane directionally
straight along the desired path of flight.
4.2. Longitudinal stability

It is the stability of the aircraft displayed longitudinally over the lateral axis
(Pitch). In order to obtain this stability in pitching, we must ensure that if
the angle of attack is temporarily increased, forces will act on the aeroplane
in such a way as to depress the nose and thus decreases the angle of attack
once again to regain its original value. In general the longitudinal stability
of the aeroplane is dependent on:
 The position of Centre of Gravity of the aeroplane which must not be

too far back.
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 The area of the tail plane, the angle at which it is set and its aspect
ratio and its distance from the centre of gravity.
4.3. Lateral stability

It is stability displayed around the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. An
aeroplane that tends to return to a wings level attitude after being displaced
from a level attitude by some force is considered to be laterally stable. Three
factors affect lateral stability:
 Dihedral: Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are slanted

upward from the root to the tip. If one wing is forced down (say in
turbulent air), the angle of attack on this wing becomes more as
compared to that on the other wing. This produces increased lift on
the lower wing, a tendency to return the aeroplane to wing level flight.
This is the best and usually employed method to obtain lateral
stability.
 Sweepback: Sweepback is the angle at which the wings are slanted
rearward from the root to the tip. The effect of sweepback in
producing lateral stability is similar to that of dihedral, but not as
pronounced.
 Keel affect: The high wing aircraft are laterally more stable as centre
of gravity is acting at lower part of the aircraft, when one wing dips,
the weight acts as pendulum, retrieving the aeroplane to its original
attitude, this affect is known as keel affect. Keel effect depends upon
the action of the relative wind on the side area of the fuselage. This is
sometimes also called as pendulum stability.
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SWEPTBACKWINGS
Swept backwing Deltawing

Alpha Jet-Trainer Mirage-2000Interceptor
DIHEDRAL WINGS
Caribou- STOL Medium transport aircraft
Canberra – Long range Bomber
Page 48
ANHEDRAL WINGS
AN-124- Heavy lift transport aircraft
IL-76 Heavy lift transport aircraft
4.4. Directional stability:

It is the stability displayed around the vertical axis (Yaw). In order to
establish directional stability we must ensure that if the aeroplane is
temporarily deflected from its course, it will of its own accord tend to return
to that course again. When the aeroplane is flying in the normal way
(straight) the airflow will approach it directly from the front i.e. parallel to
its longitudinal axis. Now imagine the aeroplane to be deflected from its
course, owing to its natural momentum. It will for a short time tend to
continue moving in its old direction.
Therefore the longitudinal axis will be in the direction of the airflow and a
pressure will be created on the side surfaces of one side of the aeroplane
mostly on the fin. If the turning effect of the pressure behind the centre of
Gravity is greater than the turning effect in front of the Centre of Gravity,
then the aeroplane will tend to return to its original course.
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A small fin at the end of a long fuselage may be just as effective in producing
directional stability as a large fin at the end of a short fuselage. There is a
close resemblance between the directional stability of an aeroplane and the
action of a weathercock that turns into the wind.
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CHAPTER 5.
AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE
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Aircraft performance is the capability of the aircraft, if operated within its

limitations, to accomplish manoeuvres, which serve a specific purpose.
Some of the factors that represent good performance are short take-off and
landing distance, increased climb capability and greater speeds using less
fuel. However, the aircraft may be designed specifically to exhibit good
performance for the specific purpose they are designed for,
5.1. Torque effect (Turning tendency):

An aeroplane propeller spinning clockwise, as seen from the pilot’s seat,
produces forces that tend to twist the aeroplane in the opposite direction,
thus turning the aeroplane to the left. Aeroplane are so designed that the
torque effect is not noticeable during straight & level flight. On other
occasions pilot has to take appropriate action.
5.2. Absolute Ceiling:

The ability of an aeroplane to climb is dependent on the power available
from its engine. As the altitude increases, the density of the air decreases
and gradually the engine efficiency reduces. The climb therefore becomes
increasingly shallower as higher altitude are reached to a height at which
further climb is not possible. Such altitude for an aeroplane where there is
only one possible speed for level flight and the rate of climb is nil is called
Absolute Ceiling.
5.3. Service Ceiling:

For practical purpose the idea of Service Ceiling has been introduced. It is
defined as the altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a
given aeroplane is unable to climb higher than a small-specified rate of 100
ft/min.
5.4. Best Rate of Climb:

This is the rate of climb, which will gain the most altitude in the least time.
This is normally used on take-off (after any obstacles are cleared) and is
maintained until the aeroplane climbs above the safe level.
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5.5. Best Angle of Climb:

It is the angle that will gain the most altitude in a given distance. The air
speed here is somewhat lower than the speed at which the best rate of climb
is obtained. The rate of climb is not affected by the wind whereas the angle
of climb is appreciably affected by the wind.
5.6. Normal Climb:

The rate of climb that should be used in any prolonged cruise climb.
5.7. Gliding Angle:

An aeroplane will glide the farthest distance at the air speed, which gives
the best lift drag ratio. This air speed for the maximum distance glide is
usually given in the Aeroplane Flight Manual.
5.8. Factors affecting aircraft performance

There are number of external factors affecting the performance of any
aircraft as mentioned below:
5.8.1. Weight:
Heavily loaded aircraft exhibit poor performance at all time. Each aeroplane
has MTOW limits set by the manufacturer that shall not be exceeded at any
time. The most important performance deficiencies of the overloaded
aeroplane are:
 Increased take-off and landing speed.

 Longer take off and landing roll.
 Reduced climb performance.
 Lower maximum altitude and lower cruising speed.
 Increased fuel consumption.
 Reduced manoeuvrability and higher stalling speed.
During flight, fuel burn is normally the only weight change that takes place.
As fuel is consumed, the aeroplane becomes lighter and its performance is
improved, although pilot has to keep aircraft balanced (with reference to the
Centre of Gravity).
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5.8.2. Air-density:
Air density directly affects the power output of the engine, efficiency of the
propeller and the lift generation. Lower air density signifies generally
reduced engine output; reduced propeller efficiency hence reduced thrust,
reduced lift generation, hence longer take off and landing run; higher
stalling speed and poor climb performance.
5.8.3. Pressure:
Any change in atmospheric pressure directly affects the air density and the
aircraft performance.
5.8.4. Temperature:
The temperature affects the air density; higher ambient air temperature
would result in adverse aircraft performance.
5.8.5. Humidity:
The density of moist air is less than that of dry air. High humidity decreases
aircraft performance, which among other things, results in longer take off
distances and decreased rate of climb.
5.8.6. Altitude:
At higher altitude air density decreases, which results in, inferior aircraft
performance.
5.8.7. Wind:
Surface winds during take-offs and landings have direct bearing on the
aeroplane performance. During take-off, a headwind will shorten the take-
off run and increase the angle of climb, while headwind during flight,
however, has an opposite effect on performance because it decreases
groundspeed, and consequently increases the total amount of fuel
consumed for that flight. During take-off, a tailwind will increase the take-
off run and decrease the angle of climb, but during flight this would increase
the ground speed, and conserves fuel. Similarly during landing, a headwind
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will steepen the approach angle and shorten the landing roll, while a
tailwind will decrease the approach angle and increase the landing roll.
5.8.8. Runway surface condition and gradient:

If the runway is muddy, wet, soft, rough, or covered with tall grass, these
conditions will act as a retarding force and increase the take-off distance.
Some of these surface conditions may decrease landing roll, but there are
certain conditions such as ice or snow covering the surface, that will affect
braking action and increase the landing roll considerably. Upslope of the
runway provides a retarding force, which impedes acceleration, resulting in
a longer ground run on take-off. Landing uphill usually results in a shorter
landing roll. Downhill operations will usually have the reverse effect of
shortening the take-off distance and increasing the landing roll.
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Page 56
CHAPTER 6.
HIGH SPEED
FLIGHT
Page 57
6.1. Speed of an aircraft:

The speed of any aircraft can be expressed in many terms, namely IAS
(Indicated air speed), TAS (True air speed), GS (Ground air speed), M (Mach
Number) etc. The IAS is the speed at which aircraft is moving relative to
ambient atmospheric conditions. The IAS is displayed by Air speed indicator
(ASI) in cockpit; the flying characteristic (response of control surfaces
manipulation, stalling etc.) of any aircraft depends on the IAS. True air
speed (TAS) is the speed of aircraft under standard atmospheric conditions
(ISA), it indicates the speed capability of any aircraft. Ground speed (GS)
indicates the speed of the aircraft relative to the earth’s surface.
For illustration: An aircraft flying at FL290 at IAS 300 kts may report TAS
as 400 kts (compensated for height and temperature) and Ground speed at
500 kts. (compensated for wind direction and speed). The difference in IAS
and TAS increases with the increase in height and vice versa, while
difference in TAS and GS is governed by the prevailing wind conditions.
When a body moves through the air at lower speeds, it pushes the air mass
which exerts the pressure around the body. The areas of increased
pressures set up a wave motion in the air. The propagation of this wave is
similar to that of sound. This can be interpreted as a message being sent
ahead of the body to indicate its imminent arrival and when this message
is received, the air streams begin to divide to make way for the body. There
is minor change in the density of the air as it flows past the body. But as
the speed of moving body increases in comparison with that of sound, the
air mass ahead gets lesser time to dissipate the increased pressure and the
body would encounter turbulent air mass of greater density and experience
it as a ‘shock’. At high transonic speed the aircraft experiences considerable
resistance against the movement. These conditions present difficulty in
aircraft control for any high speed flight.
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6.2. Speed of sound:

The speed of sound depends on the temperature of ambient atmosphere. At
150C the speed of sound is 341m/sec (662 knots) in still air, In the lower
stratosphere the air temperature is constant (-56.50C), therefore the speed
of sound is constant and equal to 295 m/sec or 573 knots.
 Subsonic speed (All associated airflow is below the speed of sound).

 Transonic speed (Some part of associated airflow is supersonic).
 Sonic speed (Aircraft travels at the speed of sound).
 Supersonic speed (Aircraft speed exceeds the speed of sound).
 Hypersonic speed (Aircraft speed is five times or more than the speed
of sound).
6.3. Shock waves and shock stall:

As the speed of the aeroplane increases in subsonic region; breakaway of
the air-flow (boundary layer) from the surface of the body starts taking
place. With further increase in speed, the point of breakaway tends to creep
forward resulting in turbulent airflow over a larger portion of the surface
and a thicker turbulent wake is produced. At high transonic speed a new
phenomenon appears in the form of a Shock wave. It can be represented by
a line approximately at right to the surface of the body. It signifies a sudden
rise in pressure and density of the air, further holding up the airflow and
causing a decrease of speed of flow. At the speed at which the shock waves
begin to appear there is quite a sudden rise in drag and the results of the
turbulent flow and pressure changes are known as a Shock Stall. The effects
of shock-stall are considerable increase in drag, loss of lift, buffeting and an
upset of balance of the aeroplane due to change of the position of the centre
of Pressure.
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6.4. Mach number and critical Mach number:

Mach number is the ratio of the speed of a body (aircraft) to the speed of
sound (TAS) in the air surrounding the body. Aircraft flying at a Mach .85
(pronounced as Maakh decimal eight five) would be travelling at 85% of the
speed of the sound at that level. It may be recalled that the onset of
compressibility is a gradual effect and things begin to happen at speeds
considerably lower than the speed of sound. Although the aeroplane itself
may be travelling at well below the speed of sound, the airflow relative to
some parts of the aeroplane may attain that value. The speed at which air
flow reaches the speed of sound at any point is called ‘Critical Mach number’
Critical Mach number is different for different types of aircraft and is
denoted by Mcr.
6.5. The sonic barrier:

The term is used to describe difficulties in approaching and exceeding the
speed of sound in flight. The Critical Mach Number represents the near side
of the barrier.
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Figure 6.1 A fighter approaching the sound barrier. The white cloud
forms as a result of the supersonic expansion fans dropping the air
temperature below the dew point.
Page 61
Page 62
CHAPTER 7.
AERO ENGINES
Page 63
Engine or power plants used in aircraft for the purpose of propulsion are
referred as Aero-engines. The basic characteristics of an aero engine are;
i) Lower specific weight

ii) Smaller in dimension,
iii) Higher reliability and
iv) Low specific fuel consumption.
7.1. Types of Engines

There are three basic types of engines that are used in aviation application:
 Piston engines
 Jet engines and
 Rocket engines
Note: In aviation the piston and jet engines are widely used and the use of
rocket engine is confined in military to propel the missiles and occasionally
in JATO (Jet assisted take off) applications.
7.2. Difference between engines

The piston engines are reciprocating engines which operate on normal four-
stroke cycle to produce mechanical energy. The jet engine works on ‘third
law of Newton’ and depends on the atmospheric air to produce a high-
energy blast through the combustion of air and fuel mixture and when this
high energy gaseous product is passed through a nozzle, a push is produced
in opposite direction and thus the thrust is generated. Rocket engine also
produces thrust in a fashion similar to the jet engine but they do not depend
upon the atmospheric air for combustion and carry own oxygen in various
forms.
7.3. Piston engines:

The piston engines are heavier and maximum output power is limited;
hence they are used to power light to medium weight aircraft. The piston
engine is also known as internal combustion engine of the reciprocation
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type that operates on the same principle as automobile engines. They are
called reciprocating engines because certain parts move back and forth. It
is a four strokes and five events engine consisting of cylinder, piston,
inlet valve, outlet valve (exhaust valve), connecting rod, crankshaft & spark
plug. The power in the engine is obtained by admitting a mixture of
vaporized gasoline and air into a cylinder, compressing this mixture, and
burning it in cylinders. As the gases burn, it expands, exerting an enormous
pressure on the piston head. The piston is driven down, pushing the
connecting rod down, which in turn forces the crankshaft to turn at high
speed.
7.4. Jet engines
7.4.1. Jet engine operation:

The jet engines are essentially a machine designed for the purpose of
producing high velocity gases at the jet nozzle. The engine is started by
rotating the compressors with the starter, and the outside air enters into
the engine. The compressor compresses the incoming air and force deliver
it to the combustion or burner section with as much as 12 times or more
pressure the air had at the front. At the burner or combustion section, the
ignition is igniting the mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber
with one or more igniters which is somewhat like automobiles spark plugs.
When the engine has started and its compressor is rotating at sufficient
speed, the starter and igniters are turned off. The engine will then run
without further assistance as long as fuel and air in the proper proportions
continue to enter the combustion chamber. Only 25% of the air is taking
part in the actual combustion process. The rest of the air is mixed with the
products of combustion for cooling before the gases enter the turbine wheel.
The turbine extracts a major portion of energy in the gas stream and uses
this energy to turn the compressor and accessories. The engine’s thrust
comes from taking a large mass of air in at the front and expelling it at a
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much higher speed than it had when it entered the compressor. Thrust,
then, is equal to the ‘mass flow rate’ times of change in velocity.
F = ma = m (V1 –V0 )
F = Thrust
m = Mass flow rate of air
V0 = Incoming air velocity
V1 = Exchange gas velocity
The larger the air mass that an engine can compress and use, the greater
is the power or thrust that it can produce. Roughly 75% of the power
generated inside a jet engine is used to drive the compressor. Only what is
left over is available to produce the thrust needed to propel the aeroplane.
Figure 7.1Typical Jet Engine Configuration
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7.4.2. Factors affecting thrust:

The Jet engine is much more sensitive to operating variables such as
 Engine rotational speed (rpm)

 Size of nozzle area
 Weight of fuel flow
 Amount of air bled from the compressor
 Turbine inlet temperature
 Speed of aircraft (ram pressure)
 Temperature of the ambient air
 Pressure of air (air density)
 Amount of humidity (air density)
7.5. Jet engine types and application

Most of the modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas
turbine engine, which are also called jet engines. There are several types of
jet engines available for varying application. Aircraft gas turbine engine can
be classified according to (1) the types of compressor used and (2) power
usages.
Compressor Types:
 Centrifugal flow
 Axial flow
 Centrifugal-Axial flow.
Power usage Types:

 Turbojet engine- The turbojet engine (gas turbine) is a device in which
freestream air is taken in through a designed inlet, compressed in a rotating
compressor, heated in a combustion chamber and expanded through a
turbine. The gas the exits through a nozzle at a velocity greater than
freestream.
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 Turboprop engine – The turboprops are mainly used for cargo planes
that fly at speeds typically between 300-500 mph. Its arrangement is
derived from that of turbojet engine system. The only difference is that
turboprops have a propeller blade and a gear box in front of engine followed
by similar arrangement as that of a turbojet engine. The turboprop differs
from turbojet in that the gas turbine drives a propeller which generates the
thrust for propulsion.
 Turboshaft engines- The turboshaft is in principle also a turboprop.
Figure 7.2 Turboprop Engine
 Turbofan engines- The turbofan is an engine system similar to the

turboprop but with a smaller multiple blade fan encased in a cowling
without the gear box. The turbofan is a turbojet with a fan to generate a
bypass flow along the core turbojet in order to increase the mass flow. The
increased mass flow enhances the efficiency of the engine. The fan is driven
by gas turbine either by gear or direct. The engine system is used for
multiple types of aircrafts such as cargo planes, passengers planes, fighter
aircrafts etc.
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Figure 7.3 Turbofan Engine

 Ram Jet engine- The turbojet is the general configuration for mostly
all aircraft-related propulsion systems. But as flight speed increases beyond
Mach 3.5 the turbojet configuration becomes highly inefficient. In the
vicinity of Mach 3, the inlet pressure rise is sufficient to permit the
compressor to be omitted. This would imply that there would be no need for
a turbine either since the sole purpose of turbine is to drive the compressor.
The resulting engine is a ramjet. A ramjet is basically a duct with the front
end shaped in the form of an inlet, the aft end designed as a nozzle, and the
combustion chamber in the middle.
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Figure 7.3 Ramjet Engine
7.6. Fuel system:

The function of the fuel system is to store and to furnish proper amount of
fuel to the engine at proper pressure reliably throughout all phases of flight,
including violent & sudden acceleration/retardation and it should be free
from foreign matter under all operating conditions. The system consists of
tank equipped with suitable vent, provisions for draining, fuel quantity
gauge and selector valve to supply fuel to engine from different tanks. The
size of the tank and the size of the connecting tubing depend upon the fuel
requirement of the engines and the purpose for which the aeroplane is
designed. Provision is also made for furnishing fuel to start the engine. A
suitable means of straining the fuel to prevent any foreign matter is also
incorporated in the system. The two classifications of the system are the
“gravity feed system” and the “fuel pump system”. Two fuel pumps are
mounted on the engine and a cross feed valve incorporated in the system,
so that both engines can be supplied fuel from one pump in the event of
failure of either of the fuel pump. The correct fuel pressure at the engine is
also maintained. Fuel pressure gauge or fuel pressure warning lights are
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provided to give an indication of the proper functioning of fuel pumps. Most

aeroplane are designed to use space in the wings to mount fuel tanks.
7.6.1. Aviation fuel:

The fuel for a modern high compression engine must burn slowly & expand
evenly rather than “explode” quickly. Fuels are classified according to the
type of power plant in which they are used.
a. Fuel for Piston Engine: Gasoline (aviation gasoline or avgas), a

refined product of petroleum, is the principal fuel used in piston
engines. There are four properties, which determine the quality of an
aviation gasoline.
 Volatility
 Purity
 Anti-knock rating
 Heating value or calorific value
Fuel of Piston Engines is classified according to their octane rating. Octane

is a substance which posses minimum detonating qualities. Heptanes are
substances that possess maximum detonating qualities. The proportion of
Octane to Heptane in a fuel is expressed as percentage. Hence 72 Octane
means 72% Octane and 28% Heptane characteristics in the fuel. Octane
numbers go only as high as 100. Beyond this number, the anti knock value
of the fuel is expressed as a Performance Number.
Fuel grades are usually indicated by two numbers, e.g. Grade 80/87. The
first number (80) indicates the octane rating at lean mixture conditions, and
the second (87) at rich mixture. Grade 100/130 indicates a fuel with a lean
mixture Performance Number (or Octane Rating) of 100, and a rich mixture
Performance Number of 130.
b. Fuel for Jet engines: Jet engines consume kerosene (aviation

turbine fuel or ATF) as principal fuel. It is less volatile but high in
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calorific values and generates more energy during the burn, when
compared to gasoline or petrol. Unlike reciprocating or piston
engines, in jet engines combustion is a continuous process. Lighter
fuel than kerosene under the trade name of wide-cut (JP-1 or JP-4) is
used to meet the requirements for a -600C freezing point encountered
at very high altitude. Synthetic fuels, which are compounds of Boron
and hydrogen known as barons are also in use, because these release
more energy per unit of weight than kerosene.
7.7. Oil system

The oil system provides a means of storing and circulating oil throughout
internal components of an engine. The primary purpose of lubricating oil is
to reduce friction between moving parts, carrying away foreign particles if
any (flushing), help in cooling and to provide seal between piston rings and
cylinder walls. Usually the engine oil is stored in a sump at the bottom of
the engine crankcase. An opening to the oil sump is provided through which
oil can be added and a dipstick is provided to measure the oil level in the
sump. A pump forces oil and then drains back to the sump for re-
circulation. These oils are usually graded according to viscosity number i.e.
80,100,120 etc. The number indicates the time taken in seconds by a given
quantity of oil heated to standard temperature, through a specified passage.
Other grading designations are SAE number & U.S. Grade. For piston
engines normally mineral oils are used and for turbines, synthetic oils are
used. The oil system in a jet engine requires lesser quantity of lubricating
oil compared to piston engines.
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CHAPTER 8.
PROPELLER
Page 73
Figure 8.1 Propeller
A propeller is a rotating aerofoil. It is attached to the crankshaft of the

engine either directly or in more powerful engines through reduction
gearbox. The function of the propeller is to convert the turning moment of
the crankshaft into thrust or the forward speed. It can be said that the power
of the engine available, after friction and other losses, is transformed into
thrust by the propeller. A propeller is designed in such a way that as it
rotates, it moves forward along a corkscrew path. In doing so, it pushes air
backward causing a reaction in the form of thrust in the forward direction.
As the propeller rotates, it meets the air at an angle of attack and thus
produces lift and drag in the same way that the aerofoil section of a wing
does. However, in the case of the propeller these forces are designated as
Thrust and Torque. Propellers which are attached forward of the engine and
which pull from the front of the engine are called ‘tractors’. Those which are
attached aft of the engine & push from behind are called ‘pushers’.
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8.1. Parts of the Propeller:
Figure 8.2 Parts of the Propeller
8.1.1. Propeller hub:

The part where blades are attached. The hub could be equipped with pitch
adjustment device through which the pitch of blades can be changed when
on ground and in modern aircraft while in flight for optimum economy.
8.1.2. Blades:
The blades are made in the shape of an aerofoil like wing of an aircraft.
When the engine rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift. This
lift is called thrust and moves the aircraft forward.
8.1.3. Leading Edge:

Leading edge of the aerofoil is the cutting edge that slices into the air. As
the leading edge cuts the air, air flows over the blade face and the camber
side.
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8.1.4. Blade Face:

It is the surface of the propeller blade that corresponds to the lower surface
of an aerofoil.
8.1.5. Thrust Face:

It is the curved surface of the aerofoil.
8.1.6. Blade Angle:

It is formed between the face of an element and the plane of rotation. The
blade angle throughout the length of the blade is not the same. The reason
for placing the blade element sections at different angles is because the
various sections of the blade travel at different speeds. Each element must
be designed as part of the blade to operate at its own best angle of attack to
create thrust when revolving at its best design speed.
8.1.7. Relative Wind:

It is the air that strikes and passes over the aerofoil as the aerofoil is driven
through the air.
8.1.8. Angle of Attack:

It is the angle between the chord of the element and the relative wind. The
best efficiency of the propeller is obtained at an angle of attack around 2 to
4 degrees.
8.1.9. Path:
It is the path of the direction of the blade element moves.
Figure 8.3 End View of Propeller Elements
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8.2. Propeller blade construction

Blades are made up of wood, Aluminium-Magnesium alloy, Steel or Carbon.
A wooden propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a number
of separate layers of carefully selected wood. Many types of wood have been
used in making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch, suger
maple, black cherry, and black walnut. The use of lamination of wood will
reduce the tendency for propeller to warp. Modern propellers are fabricated
from high-strength, heat-treated aluminum alloy by forging a single bar of
aluminum alloy of the required shape. Metal propellers are now extensively
used in the construction of propellers for all types of aircraft. The general
appearance of the metal propeller is similar to the wood propeller, except
that the sections are generally thinner
8.2.1. Blade Elements:

Blade element is the aerofoil sections joined side by side to form the blade
aerofoil. These elements are placed at different angles in the plane of
rotation. The reason for placing the blade element sections at different
angles is because the various sections of the blade travel at different speeds.
The inner part of the blade section travels slower than the outer part near
the tip of the blade. If all the elements along a blade are at the same blade
angle, the relative wind will not strike the elements at the same angle of
attack. This is because of the difference in velocity of the (due to different
angle in each section) in it for a very important reason. When the propeller
is spinning around, each section of the blade travels at different speed. The
twist in the propeller blade means that each section advances forward at
the same rate, so stopping the propeller from bending. The propeller
attached to the engine drive shaft produces thrust. While the propeller is
rotating in flight, each section of the blade has a motion that combines the
forward motion of the aircraft with circular movement of the propeller. The
slower the speed, the steeper the angle of attack must be to generate lift.
Therefore, the shape of the propeller’s aerofoil (cross section) must change
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from the center to the tips. The changing shape of the aerofoil (cross section)
across the blade results in the twisting shape of the propeller.
8.2.2. Pitch of propeller:

The distance in inches a propeller travels forward in one revolution is called
pitch. The angle at which the blade is set governs the pitch. Actually the
pitch is proportional to the blade angle, which is the angle between the
chord line of the blade and the propeller’s plane of rotation. The terms
Course Pitch, means that the blade is set at a large angle and Fine Pitch
means that the blade is set at a small angle. A propeller blade is twisted.
The blade angle changes from the hub to the tip with the greatest angle of
incidence or highest pitch at the hub & the smallest at the tip. The reason
for the twist is to produce uniform lift (thrust) from the hub to the tip. The
tip of the blade travels faster than that part near the hub.
a. Geometric Pitch: is the distance in inches that the propeller would

move forward in one revolution if it were rotated in a perfect fluid (or
a solid medium) so as not to be affected by any slippage. It is also
called Theoretical Pitch and would be dependent on the blade angle
and diameter of the propeller.
b. Effective Pitch: is the actual distance the propeller moves forward
through the air in one revolution. It is also called the Practical Pitch
and is somewhat less than the theoretical pitch because in a medium
such as air, the propeller encounters loss of motion or the slippage.
The difference between the theoretical pitch and practical pitch is
known as propeller slip.
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Figure 8.4 Propeller Slip or Slippage
8.3. Types of propeller

The propellers are of various types namely fixed pitch propeller and variable
pitch propeller. Fixed pitch propellers are the propellers whose pitch angle
cannot be changed and as such, are used in basic and least expensive
aircraft. Variable pitch propellers are those propellers, whose pitch can be
adjusted on ground or in advanced derivative, the pitch can even be altered
in flight to meet the changing demands. Constant speed propeller rotates at
a constant speed and different power requirement is derived through the
change in pitch.
8.3.1. Fixed Pitch Propellers:

The propeller is made in one piece. It is usually two blades propeller with
only one pitch setting possible and is often made of wood or metal. The
blade angle is fixed and cannot be adjusted. The manufacturer chooses this
angle for optimum performance.
Figure 8.5 Fixed Pitch Propeller
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8.3.2. Variable Pitch Propellers:

In these propellers their blade angle and consequent pitch may be altered
to meet varying requirements of flight.
Adjustable Pitch Propellers: The pitch setting can be adjusted only with
tools on the ground before the engine is running. This type of propeller
usually has a split hub. The blade angle is specified by the aircraft
specifications. The adjustable pitch feature permits compensation for the
location of the flying field at various altitudes and also for variations in the
characteristics of aeroplanes using the same engine.
Figure 8.6 Adjustable Pitch Propeller (Ground)
Controllable Pitch Propeller: The pilot can change the pitch of the
propeller in flight or while operating the engine by means of a pitch changing
mechanism that may be operated hydraulically, electrically or even
mechanically.
Figure 8.7 Controllable Pitch Propeller (Air)
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8.4. Constant Speed Propellers

The constant speed propeller utilizes a hydraulically or electrically operated
pitch changing mechanism, which is controlled by governor. The pilot
adjusts the setting of the governor with the rpm lever in the cockpit. During
operation, the constant speed propellers will automatically change its blade
angle to maintain a constant engine speed. If engine power is increased, the
blade angle is increased to make the propeller absorb the additional power
while the rpm remains constant. Whereas, if the engine power is decreased,
the blade angle will decrease to make the blade take less bite of air to keep
engine rpm constant. The pilot selects the engine speed required for any
particular type of operation.
8.5. Feathering
Some types of Controllable Pitch Propellers incorporate a feathering feature.
Feathering means turning the blades to the extreme course pitch possible,
where they are streamlined and cease to turn. In multiple-engine
aeroplanes, when one engine is stopped, it is desirable to feather the
propeller on the dead engine. Feathering reduces the drag on the blades. It
stops the propeller from wind milling and possibly causing damage to the
defective engine. It also stops excessive vibrations.
8.6. Reversing
Some controllable type propellers can be placed in a reverse blade angle
position. This makes possible the production of a powerful breaking force
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for reducing landing rolls and reduces brake wear. In some cases aeroplane
actually can be ‘reversed’ by using prop-reversing.
8.7. Forces and stresses acting on a propeller in flight

The forces acting on a propeller in flight are:
 Thrust: The force of the air on the propeller, which is parallel to the
direction of advance and induces bending stress in the propeller.
 Centrifugal force: Caused by rotation of the propeller and tends to
throw the blade out from the center.
 Torsion or Twisting forces: In the blade itself, caused by the
resultant of the forces which tend to twist the blades towards a lower
blade angle.
8.8. Propeller control

For flight operation, an engine is demanded to deliver power within a
relatively narrow band of operating rotation speeds. During flight, the
speed-sensitive governor of the propeller automatically controls the blade
angle as required to maintain a constant rpm of the engine. Three factors
tend to affect the engine performance during the flight. These factors are
power, air speed, and air density. If the rpm is to remain constant, the blade
angle must vary directly with power, directly with air speed, and inversely
with air density. The speed-sensitive governor provides the means by which
the propeller can adjust itself automatically to varying power and flight
conditions while converting the power to thrust.
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CHAPTER 9.
HELICOPTER
Page 83
Figure 9.1 Helicopter
9.1. Introduction:
Helicopter is an aircraft that derives its lift chiefly from the rotor. The wings
of the aeroplane create a lift force when they move through the air. The four
forces acting on any aircraft, including helicopter are lift, weight, drag and
thrust. A helicopter works by having its wings move through the air while
the body stays still. The helicopter’s wings may be called as Main Rotor
Blades. The speed, shape and the angle of the blade moving through the air
determine the lifting force and its direction. The tail rotor behaves similar
to the stabilizer and provides directional control for the helicopter. The
helicopter pilot manipulates the control to achieve flight in literally all
directions such as forward, backward, up, down, and even sideways.
9.2. Principle of flight:

In Helicopters, lift is obtained by means of one or more power driven
horizontal propeller, which is called Main Rotor. When the main rotor of
helicopter turns, it produces lift and reaction torque. Reaction torque tends
to make helicopter spin in a direction opposite to that of main rotor. Most
helicopters have, a small rotor near the tail, which is called Tail rotor, which
compensates for this torque, making the flight of helicopter possible.
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9.2.1. Main Rotor:

The main rotor produces the lifting force. The rotors force the air downward
at a great speed and as a result an equal but opposite direction force is
produced called as Lift. Each blade produces an equal share of the lifting
force. The weight of a helicopter is divided evenly between the rotor blades
on the main rotor system. If a helicopter weighs 4,000 kg and it has two
blades, then each blade must be able to support 2,000 Kg. In addition to
the static weight of helicopter, each blade must accept dynamic load as well.
For example, if a helicopter pulls up in a 1.5 g manoeuvre (1.5 times the
gravity force), then the effective weight of helicopter will be 1.5 times of static
helicopter weight or 6,000 Kg due to gravitational pull.
9.2.2. Tail rotor:

The tail rotor is very important. The main rotor spin will cause the engine
and helicopter body to rotate in opposite direction to the rotor. This is called
Torque reaction in accordance with the Newton’s third law of motion (to
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction). The tail rotor is used
to compensate for this torque and hold the helicopter straight. On twin-
rotors helicopter, the rotor spins in opposite directions, so their reactions
cancel each other. The tail rotor is normally linked to the main rotor via a
system of drive shafts and gearboxes, that means if the main rotor turns,
the tail rotor is also turned in a predicted manner. Most helicopters have a
ratio of 3:1 or 6:1, which implies that if main rotor turns one rotation; the
tail rotor will turn 3 revolutions (for 3:1) or 6 revolutions (for 6:1). In most
helicopters the engine turns a shaft that is connected to an input quill in
the transmission gearbox. The main rotor mast out to the top and the tail
rotor drive shafts out to the tail, operate from the transmission gearbox.
9.2.3. Blades:
The blades of the helicopter are aerofoils with very high aspect ratios (length
to chord). The angle of incidence is adjusted by means of the control from
pilot. The main rotor of the helicopter may have two to eight blades
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depending upon the design. The main rotor blades are hinged to the rotor
head in such a manner that they have limited movement up and down and
also they can change the pitch (angle of incidence). The controls for the
main rotor are called Collective and Cyclic and mounted. It rotates in the
vertical plane. The rudder pedals control the tail rotor. Its pitch can be
changed as required to turn the helicopter in the direction desired.
9.3. Other Terminology
9.3.1. Blade Root:

The inner end of the blade where the rotors connect to the blade grips.
9.3.2. Blade Grips:

Large attaching points where the rotor blade connects to the hub.
9.3.3. Rotor Hub:

Sit on top of the mast, and connects the rotor blades to the control tubes.
9.3.4. Main Rotor Mast:

Rotating shaft from the transmission, which connects the main rotor blades
to helicopter fuselage.
9.3.5. Pitch Change Horn:

Converts control tube movement to blade pitch. Control tube is a push-pull
tubes that change the pitch of the rotor blades through the pitch changing
horn.
9.3.6. Swash Plate Assembly:

The swash plate assembly consists of two primary elements through which
the rotor mast passes. One element is a disc, linked to the cyclic pitch
control. This disc is capable of tilting in any direction but does not rotate as
the rotor rotates. This non-rotating disc, often referred to as the Stationary
Star is attached by a bearing surface to a second disc, often referred to as
the Rotating Star, which turns with rotor and linked to the rotor blades
pitch horns.
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Figure 9.2 Main Rotor Assembly
9.3.7. Relative Wind:

It is the direction of the airflow with respect to an aerofoil or to the rotor
blades.
9.3.8. Pitch Angle:

The rotor blade pitch angle is the acute angle between the blade chord line
and the rotor plane of rotation (akin to the angle of incidence). This pitch
angle can be varied by the pilot through the use of cockpit controls
(collective and cyclic pitch control).
9.4. Helicopter Lift

The lifting force on a Helicopter is produced by a lower pressure created on
the upper surface of an aeroplane’s wings compared to the pressure on the
wing’s lower surface, causing the wing to be lifted upward. The special
shape of the aeroplane wing (aerofoil) is designed so that air flowing over it
will have to travel a greater distance and faster resulting in a lower pressure
area lifting the wing upward. Since the helicopter is attached to the rotor
and if the lifting force is greater than that of its weight, the helicopter rises
up in the air. Lift is that force which opposes the force of gravity (or weight).
Lift depends upon the following factors:
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 Shape of the aerofoil

 Angle of attack
 Area of the surface exposed to the air stream and
 Square of the air speed
The air density reduces with the increase in height; also the engine
efficiency reduces at greater height, hence the lifting force generated by the
helicopter gradually reduces with height. Though helicopter is usually
designed to operate in lower height band (up to 5000 feet), but modern
pressurized helicopter can reach up to 15-18,000 feet above mean sea level.
9.5. Helicopter Speed

The drag coefficient factor in helicopter is very high and the fastest
helicopter can only achieve speeds of up to 200 kts. The speed of the rotor
is limited by the fact that the linear speed of the tip of the blade must not
exceed the speed of sound. When the velocity of rotor blade tip approaches
that of sound, shock wave formation takes place and this reduces the
efficiency of aerofoil to large extent. The shock wave can also damage the
blades and even the entire rotor assembly. Hence the rotor is designed
accordingly, which results in lower rpm in case of larger size of blades.
9.6. Helicopter controls

There are three major controls in the helicopter that the pilot must use
during flight.
9.6.1. Collective Control:

When pilot raises the collective control or pull collective control up, the
collective control will raise the entire swash plate assembly as a unit. This
affects the blade by changing the pitch of all the blades simultaneously.
This causes an increase in the angle of attack and provides more lift. The
collective pitch lever or stick is located by the left side of the pilot’s seat and
is operated with the left hand. The collective is used to increase main rotor
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pitch at all points of the rotor blade rotation. It increases or decreases total
rotor thrust. The collective lever is connected to the swash plate by a series
of push pull tubes. Raising the collective lever increases the pitch on the
main rotor blade and lowering the collective lever decreases the main rotor
blade pitch. The amount of movement of the lever determines the amount
of blade pitch change. As the angle of attack increases, drag increases and
Rotor RPM and Engine RPM tend to decrease. As the angle of attack
decreases, drag decreases and the RPM tend to increase. Since it is essential
that the RPM remain constant, there must be some means of making a
proportionate change in power to compensate for the change in drag. This
coordination of power change with blade pitch angle change is controlled
through a collective pitch lever throttle control cam linkage, which
automatically increases power when the collective pitch lever is raised and
decreases power when the lever is lowered.
9.6.2. Cyclic Control:

The cyclic control will push one side of the swash plate assembly up or
down. This affects the rotor head system because the cyclic control or cyclic
stick controls the angle of the main rotor by angling the rotor head to which
all the blades are attached. This causes the helicopter to move left or right,
forward or backward. As mentioned earlier, the total lift force is always
perpendicular to the tip-path plane of the main rotor. When the tip path
plane is tilted away from the horizontal, the lift-thrust force is divided into
two components of forces that are, the horizontal acting force; thrust and
the upward acting force; lift. The purpose of the cyclic pitch control is to tilt
the tip path plane in the direction that horizontal movement is desired. The
thrust component of force then pulls the helicopter in the direction of rotor
tilt. The cyclic control changes the direction of this force, thus controlling
the attitude and air speed of helicopter. The rotor disc tilts in the same
direction as the cyclic stick was moved.
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If the cyclic stick is moved forward, the rotor disc tilts forward: if the cyclic
is moved aft, the rotor disc tilts aft, and so on. The rotor disc will always tilt
in the same direction that the cyclic stick is moved.
Note: - A number of additional control and switches such as communication
transmission, landing light switches, trim etc are also installed on cyclic
control.
9.6.3. Anti torque pedals:

The thrust produced by the auxiliary (tail) rotor is governed by the position
of anti torque pedals. These are not rudder pedals, although they are in the
same place as rudder pedals on an aeroplane. They are linked to a pitch
change mechanism in the tail rotor gearbox to permit the pilot to increase
the pitch of the tail rotor blades. The thrust of the tail rotor depends upon
the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades. The tail rotor may have a positive
pitch angle or it may have a negative pitch angle which pushes the tail to
the right or pulls the tail to the left. The primary purpose of the tail rotor
and its controls is to counteract the torque effect of the main rotor to make
flight possible. In addition to counteracted torque, the tail rotor and its
control linkage also permit control of the helicopter heading during flight.
Application of more control than is necessary to counteract torque will
cause the nose of helicopter to turn in the direction of pedal movement.
(Note: - The pedals are not used to control the heading of the helicopter
(except during portions of crosswind take-off and approach). They are used
to compensate for torque to put the helicopter in longitudinal trim so that
coordinated flight can be maintained).
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Figure 9.3 Helicopter Controls
9.7. Autorotation
When the rotor of helicopter is driven by the action of the air on the blades
(Instead of being driven by engine), the rotor is said to be in autorotation. It
is defined as “The process of producing lift with freely rotating aerofoil by
means of the aerodynamic forces resulting from an upward flow of air”. In
a helicopter the rotor is in autorotation only when the aircraft is descending
with the blades at a low pitch angle with engine disconnected. The
procedure of autorotation is an important means to prevent the helicopter
from falling down on ground (dropping like dead stone) in case of an engine
failure during flight. Following the failure of engine in mid flight, pilot
immediately disconnect the rotor from engine and select low pitch on main
rotor. The helicopter loses height rapidly but the rotor keeps moving with
the help of rushing wind and sufficient torque is stored. Just before
touching down pilot increases the rotor pitch to generate lift force that
would reduce the vertical rate of descent to an acceptable level and safe
touchdown can be accomplished. All helicopter pilots practice this
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manoeuvre. Sometime a limited autorotation manoeuvre is also used to

achieve a faster descent rate.
For illustration: The Indian air force Chetak (HN-32) helicopter, the
collective pitch can be varied between (6.2 to 16.5) degrees, while Main rotor
maintains 350 rpm and tail rotor at 2000 rpm (at constant speed).
Page 92
CHAPTER 10.
ANCILLARY
SYSTEMS
Page 93
10.1. Hydraulic system

The science of liquids in motion or the transmission of power by means of
fluid under pressure is known as hydraulics.
10.1.1. Principles of Hydraulics:

The following analysis of the behavior of liquids under motion are
generally accepted principles of hydraulics.
 Liquids are practically incompressible.

 Pressure on any portion of the body or liquid or of two or more
connected bodies is transmitted uniformly through-out the entire
quantity.
 Pressure on a given level of liquid is the same regardless of the shape
of the container.
Properties of hydraulic fluids:
 Non-corrosive.
 Chemically stable.
 Non-evaporative.
 Less viscosity.
 Fire resistant
Liquids under pressure thus provide convenient method for remote control
and operation of components such as retractable under carriage, wing flaps,
brakes, wind shield wipers, nose wheel steering etc. The synthetic fluid
under brand name SKYDROL-500, that is a phosphate based Ester or some
other such liquid is used.
10.2. Various Components Used in Hydraulic

System
10.2.1. Reservoir:
Contains the hydraulic fluid necessary to operate the various systems.
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10.2.2. Filter:
The purpose of the filter is to remove the foreign materials from the
hydraulic fluid.
10.2.3. Engine Driven Pump:

The hydraulic pressure is normally supplied and maintained by the
engine drivers pump.
10.2.4. Hand Pump:

Provides an alternate source of power for the operation of the various
circuits. In the event of the failure of the engine driven pump the
undercarriage and flaps can be lowered and raised by means of the
hand pump.
10.2.5. Pressure Regulator or Automatic Cut Out:

The function of the automatic cutout valve is to by-pass fluid from the pump
back to the reservoir when no operation is required.
10.2.6. Control Valve:

Operation of the undercarriage and flap jack is governed by the control valve
incorporated in each circuit which directs the fluid to and from the jacks.
10.2.7. Non-return valve:

It allows the fluid flow only in one direction.
10.2.8. Hydraulic Jack:

It converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The piston moves up
or down in the jack cylinder according to the selection of the circuit and
raises or lowers the undercarriage flap.
10.2.9. Hydraulic Accumulator:

It accumulates hydraulic fluid pressure and thus helps emergency
operations.
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10.3. Retractable under-carriage

The undercarriage is locked down hydraulically and mechanically, and also
locked when retracted in the up position hydraulically and mechanically.
Suitable warning devices are provided for the purpose of indicating the
position of the undercarriage. Standard undercarriage position indicator is
mounted on the instrument panel. Two green lamplight when the
undercarriage is locked down and two red lamps are illuminated when the
undercarriage knocked.
10.4. Pneumatic system

Compressed air may be used to carry out certain operations pneumatically.
Air bleed is taken out from the engine for the following purposes:
a. For operation of control surfaces.
b. Starting of engines.
c. Cabin pressurization.
d. Air conditioning.
e. Cooling and heating of certain parts of the aircraft (e.g. internal
cooling of engines, generators, various valves operated by electricity,
igniter plugs, hot air valves, exciter boxes and heating of fuel heater
etc.
f. Anti icing.
Cabin pressurization may not be required when operating up to 8,000 to
10,000 ft. When flying above this height, the cabin is pressurized at
comfortable level.
10.5. Aircraft electrical system

An aircraft electrical system includes everything that operates electrically
with the exception of the engine-ignition system. In many modern aircraft
the electrical system supplies electric power, not only to start the aircraft,
but also to operate a multitude of controls, such as the flaps, under-
carriage, all radios, lights, heater fans, anti-icing & de-icing equipment,
windshield wipers etc. The electrical power on an aircraft is obtained
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through the aircraft batteries or through the generators fitted on engines.

Aircraft battery is an essential item for an aircraft to fly. They can be Lead
Acid or nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries. The rating is either 12 volt DC or
24 volt DC. The aircraft generators are run by the help of engines at
normally 400 c/s. Single wire system is used (aircraft structure is used as
return path).
10.6. Auxiliary Power Unit

All modern aircraft posses onboard Power generator to provide electrical
power required while on ground to run air-conditioning and other
communication system when engines are not running. APU is usually
mounted in the tail section of aircraft and is powered by a small turbojet
engine and runs on ATF. In some aircraft APU runs even during the flight.
10.7. Ground Power Unit

Ground power unit or GPU is external power cart which provides necessary
power supply to aircraft through the power cord, when engines are not
running. GPU runs on commercial diesel fuel.
Page 97
Page 98
CHAPTER 11.
AIRCRAFT ICING
Page 99
11.1. Effect of icing on aircraft operations

Icing of aeroplanes in flight, when operated under low temperature
conditions presents a serious problem in flight operation. The deposition of
ice on the aircraft surface if allowed to continue unchecked destroys the
aerofoil characteristics and adds weight to the aircraft. Ice deposition on
certain parts may cause excessive vibration or dangerous changes in the
trim of the aircraft. Ice deposit on the propeller blades reduces the efficiency
and may cause violent vibrations, and under certain conditions may result
in the tearing of the engine from the mount. The formation of ice is not
restricted to the leading edge of aerofoil but may build up in the slots
between the wing and control surfaces or stabilizers and control surfaces,
which would result in the blocking of controls. In extreme conditions it may
form a complete covering over the whole exterior surface of the aircraft
including windshield and windows, a potentially dangerous situation
condition when making a landing approach. Ice deposits on the pitot-tube
results in the malfunctioning of the vital aircraft instruments to a very
serious condition especially when flights are made under instrument
meteorological conditions. The icing affects the performance of piston
engine quite adversely, which may result even in the loss of engine. The
affects of icing accumulation can be stated as follows:
11.1.1. Wings and Fuselage:

Reduced lift, increased drag and added weight.
11.1.2. Leading edge:

Greater reduction in lift, asymmetric aerofoil behavior.
11.1.3. Control surfaces:

Heavy controls or even loss of control mechanism.
11.1.4. Pitot tube and Static ports:

Incorrect data for air data computers resulting in the misleading readings
on air speed indicator, vertical speed indicator, altimeter and Mach meter.
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11.1.5. Windshield:
Loss of forward visibility, crucial during approach and landing phases.
11.1.6. Propeller blades:

Reduced efficiency, severe vibrations and even propeller breakdown.
11.1.7. Carburetor:
Reduced piston engine performance, loss of engine.
11.1.8. Anti-icing
The accretion of Ice on aircraft surface may be prevented by following
means:
 Avoid operating at or above freezing level and in adverse weather

conditions.
 Keep the vital aircraft surfaces, propeller blades, pitot and static port
openings heated.
 Application of anti-freeze chemicals such as glycol, mixture of sodium
chloride, glue etc. on the aircraft surface, leading edges of the wing,
propellers etc so that ice does not adhere to the surface.
11.3. De-icing
Following are some of the ways of removing Ice from various surfaces of the
aircraft.
11.3.1. Pneumatically:
Hot air from engine compressors is used to melt the ice formed on the
leading edges e.g. wing leading edge, cowls. This is the most commonly used
method employed for ice removal. For this purpose Anti-icing valves are
installed that can be operated from the cockpit.
11.3.2. Electrical Heating:

Certain parts of the aircraft are heated electrically for ice removal, such as
cockpit windshield, pitot tube, static ports, propeller blades etc.
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11.3.3. Removing the Ice Mechanically:

A sheath of specially constructed rubber containing ducts that run
lengthwise of the leading edge covers the surface to be protected.
Compressed air supplied by the compressors and distributing valves
inflates the different ducts by alternate pulsation. The deformation of the
leading edge breaks the ice adhering to it and the wind carries off the pieces.
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CHAPTER 12.
AIRCRAFT
EMERGENCIES
Page 103
12.1. Abandoned take off:

The term abandoned take off is normally used to describe the situation
where the pilot himself initiates the action of cancelling or rejecting the take
off process after the take off roll has commenced. Technically the pilot can
safely abandon take off in case of problem experienced during take-off roll,
provided the aircraft has not crossed the decision speed or V1 speed. Such
decision is very crucial and has to be taken in a very short time and with
utmost care. Once decided, heavy brakes, flaps, spoilers and thrust
reversers (if available) are applied to stop the aircraft within the available
length of runway. Some of the situations where take off may be required to
be abandoned are failure of engine during take-off roll, runway obstructed
etc. The resulting experience is awesome even to the passengers on board.
12.2. Engine failure on take-off:

In a single engine aircraft, the failure of engine immediately after take-off,
will lead the pilot to try to land straight ahead & will not normally attempt
to turn back into the air-field. He may however attempt to veer somehow
and sideslip in case there is absolute risk of a head-on collision with some
obstruction in the straight path.
12.3. Precautionary landing:

A precautionary landing is one made with the engine and aircraft
functioning normally but when landing is made compulsory due to some
problem like shortage of fuel, minor instrument failure, bad weather or
some minor snag.
12.4. Priority landing:

Following are some of the circumstances when the pilot will like to land as
soon as possible i.e. to make a priority landing. Under these circumstances
the pilot needs a priority over other air traffic at the aerodrome. Some of the
situations requiring priority are.
 Engine failure
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 Suspected Fire on board

 Suspected smoke on board
 Fuel shortage
 Electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic system malfunction
 Structural damage
 Sick person on board
 Suspected bomb on board etc.
12.5. Engine failure:

Aircraft may face engine shut down due to number of reasons such as
 Engine flame out

 Severe vibrations
 Loss of oil quantity or pressure
 Bird hit affecting engine
 Foreign body ingestion (FOD)
 Fuel shortage/leakage
 Fire warning light ON
 Minor snag etc.
12.6. Emergency landing:

Emergency landing is one, where the pilot is compelled to land immediately
due to some serious trouble like fire on the aircraft, major snag in controls,
aircraft loosing height due to malfunctioning of engine(s) or aircraft in
distress. The aircraft, obviously, gets top priority for its landing. Aircraft in
distress may make approach on any available runway to expedite its arrival.
12.7. Pressurization failure:

Pressurization is needed in the cabin/cockpit of an aircraft flying at an
altitude higher than about 8,000 feet. In a high flying aircraft, cabin and
cockpit conditions are simulated by means of pressurization such that the
passengers experience the environment equivalent to that of around 8,000
feet. In case of pressurization failure aircraft must descend immediately to
lower altitude and emergency descent would be resorted (4-6,000
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feet/minute). The kind of sickness that may be experienced by the aircraft

occupants may be nausea, bleeding of eardrums, breathlessness, hypoxia,
heart pulsations etc. The aircraft at higher altitude in such circumstances
will ask for immediate descent to lower altitude of 8 to 10,000 ft. If no other
complications are associated an aircraft can continue his flight at lower
altitude though at the cost of higher fuel combustion.
12.8. Hydraulic failure:

A number of controls of an aircraft like elevator, spoiler, flap, rudder,
undercarriage, brakes are mainly operated hydraulically. In case of
hydraulic failure, the pilot would face the problem in controlling the aircraft
and some of the controls may not be available at all. Under such
circumstances, he will prefer to land and should be given a priority landing.
The aircraft on landing may require longer length of the runway for
stopping. It may block the runway after landing as it will not be able to taxi
on its own and may have to be towed out.
12.9. Landing gear problems:

Retractable landing gear normally retracts into the wing or fuselage through
an opening, which is covered by doors after the gear, is retracted in flight.
The retraction or extension of the landing gear is accomplished by landing
gear controls from within the cockpit. Warning indicators are usually
provided in the cockpit to indicate whether the wheels are extended and
locked or retracted. In nearly all retractable landing gear installations, a
system is provided for emergency extension in the event landing gear
mechanism fails to lower the gear. In case the pilot of a landing aircraft gets
a warning indication that the wheels are not extended and locked there can
be two possibilities. First the wheels might be extended but the warning
may be false due to some reason. In such cases the pilot flies the aircraft
low across the control tower for visual Inspection of the under carriage.
However if landing gear of the aircraft is not extended and all efforts on the
part of the pilot fail to extend it, the pilot prepares for a belly-landing which
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is obviously a case of full emergency. There may also be a case when the
pilot is unable to continue with the flight and instead would return for
landing since the extended landing gear will increase the drag thereby
reducing the air speed considerably.
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CHAPTER 13.
AIRCRAFT
INSTRUMENTS
Page 109
Figure 13.1 Aircraft Instruments
13.1. Introduction:
The cockpit of a modern aircraft can be found clustered with large arrays of
various control devices, switches, indicators, gauges, lights and other
gadgets, each assigned with a specific task ranging from activating the
aircraft control surfaces to communication, navigation, monitoring of
engine performance and vital flight parameters, flight planning, air traffic
control, sensing and issuing warning to the pilot about any unusual
situation well in advance so that the appropriate safety measures can be
taken in order to maintain the safety of the highest order. These devices
form an integral part of any aircraft operations. The type of instruments
carried on board varies with the requirements; some of these instruments
are essential for a basic aircraft operation, while others are required to play
a specific role or further enhance the safety. These instruments are
ergonomically placed in cockpit, within easy reach of pilot for monitoring
and smooth and efficient manipulation of control. An identical set of similar
display of instruments and control devices are also available to the co-pilot;
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moreover almost all the essential instrument/equipment are duplicated for

redundancy.
13.2. Avionics:
The term avionics originates from Aviation electronics, the technology of
electronics used in aircraft communications, navigation and flight
management. In military aircraft it also covers electronically controlled
weapons, reconnaissance and detection systems. In its broadest sense,
avionics includes the ground equipment used with aircraft, such as radar,
test and training equipment. The rapid intervention of electronics in this
field has largely altered the cockpit scenario from large size mechanical
gauges, switches and devices in to sophisticated environment where
modern CRT or LCD monitors display all the vital information at one place,
thus eliminating the need of large array of dials and gauges. The space,
weight and power consumption are a fraction of that required for earlier
equipment’s. As a result, today’s equipment is far more complex and
reliable, and more can be carried in the aircraft, thus making aviation far
safer and reliable. Today, the choice of vast ranges of aircraft instruments
is available to meet all kinds of requirements. The selection of equipment
for any aircraft depends on the type of operation involved, the desired level
of safety requirement and the economics.
13.3. Systems/subsystems/instruments that are

monitored through the aircraft instrumentation.
13.3.1. Chronometer:
Chronometer is an accurate time keeping device (a kind of clock) that
displays time in hours, minutes and second. The chronometer could be
analog type or a digital device. Chronometer is an essential piece of
equipment for the aircraft operation.
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Figure 13.2 Chronometer
13.3.2. Pitot-static system:

A pitot-static system supplies air pressure data directly to differential
pressure flight instruments for the measurement of aircraft speed and
altitude. The major external parts of this system are Pitot tube and Static
vent. The data collected through pitot-static system is used in following
aircraft instruments; Altimeter, Air speed indicator (ASI), Vertical speed
indicator (VSI), Mach number indicator etc.
Figure 13.3 Typical Pitot-static configuration
13.3.3. Altimeter (Pressure):

One of the primary and most important instruments in the aircraft. It gives
information on the vertical distance of the aeroplane above the selected
reference.
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Figure 13.4 Altimeter
13.3.4. Air speed indicator (ASI):

It measures the speed at which aircraft is travelling through the air at that
moment. This speed is called as Indicated air speed or IAS and expressed
as nautical miles per hour or knots. The flying characteristics of any aircraft
depend on IAS. The true air speed (TAS), ground speed (GS) and Mach
number (M) is derived subsequently from indicated air speed.
Figure 13.5 Air speed indicator
13.3.5. Vertical speed indicator (VSI):

The vertical speed indicator indicates the pilot if the aircraft is climbing or
descending and at what rate. The instrument readout is in feet/minute.
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Figure 13.6 Vertical speed indicator
13.4. Engine instruments

The basic engine instrumentation of a piston-engine aircraft comprises
gauges showing the Cylinder head temperature, Oil pressure and
temperature, manifold pressure and Engine speeds in RPM. The Jet engine
instrumentation covers Jet pipe temperature (JPT) and engine pressure
ratio EPR (Usually in % value).
13.4.1. Tachometer:
The tachometer or RPM Indicator shows the speed at which the engine
crankshaft is turning in revolutions per minute. It also usually incorporates
a recording mechanism that keeps on accurate record of the engine hours.
13.4.2. Fuel gauge:

Fuel gauge(s) displays the amount of fuel available in associated tank(s).
13.4.3. Oil pressure gauge:

This Instrument indicates the oil pressure supplied by the oil pumps to
lubricate the engine.
13.4.4. Fuel pressure gauge:

This indicates the pressure in the fuel lines. Drop in pressure is indicative
of fuel leakage or failure of fuel pump.
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13.4.5. Manifold pressure gauge:

This instrument indicates the pressure of the fuel-air mixture in the engine
intake manifold at a point between the carburetor and the cylinder.
13.4.6. Oil temperature gauge:

This gauge gives a reading of the temperature of the oil. There is an intimate
relationship between the oil temperature and oil pressure due to changes
in the viscosity of oil, which is affected by temperature changes.
13.4.7. Cylinder head temperature (CHT) gauge:

This gauge records the temperature of the engine cylinder head(s). It gives
a reasonably good indication of the effectiveness of the engine cooling
system.
13.4.8. Carburetor air temperature gauge:

Indicates the temperature of the charge (fuel-air mixture) entering the
manifold or it may record the temperature of the intake air entering the
carburetor to ensure maximum operating efficiency and warn the Pilot of
icing condition in the carburetor.
13.4.9. Outside air temperature (OAT) gauge:

Indicate outside or ambient air temperature.
13.4.10. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge:

Indicates the temperature of the exhaust gases at the exhaust manifold,
required to regulate the fuel/air mixture for efficiency.
13.5. Gyroscopic instruments

The following instruments are based on the principles of a Gyroscope:
13.5.1. The Directional Gyro:

The Directional Gyro or the Direction Indicator indicates the direction (also
the heading) of the aeroplane, unaffected by the earth’s magnetic field.
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13.5.2. Turn and bank indicators:

It combines two instruments in one display. The needle is gyro operated and
indicates the banking, and the ball of inclinometer indicates the direction
of gravitational pull. Both these parameters are required to make a
coordinated turn, especially when visual reference is limited. Instrument is
also referred as Turn and Slip Indicator, Needle and Ball or Inclinometer.
Figure 13.7 Turn and bank indicator
13.5.3. Artificial Horizon:

The artificial horizon presents the indication of aircraft attitude in both
pitch and roll. The heart of the instrument is a vertical free gyroscope acting
as a fixed reference about which the aircraft in the shape of ‘gull’s wing’
moves to indicate the pitch and roll movement on a calibrated scale.
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Figure 13.8 Artificial Horizon
13.5.4. Flight Director System:

A system in which number of navigational and flight control readings are
combined into a common display. These systems consist of two basic
instruments, the Horizon Flight Director, and the Course Flight Director.
The Horizon Flight Director is based on an artificial horizon display
represented by a moving sphere, and to this may be added a rate of turn
indicator, radio altimeter and inclinometer and command bars indicating
speed and altitude. The Course Flight Director is principally a Gyro compass
indicator, with the addition of course director bars and pointers which
correlate magnetic compass headings with the relationship to radio
beacons. The system may also include distance measuring equipment
(DME) and flight path indication. This equipment is also referred as an
Integrated Instrument System, Flight Control System, or Pictorial
Navigation System.
13.6. Autopilot
The autopilot permits ‘hands-off’ flight. The autopilot senses any deviation
from an aircraft’s flight pattern and automatically adjusts the ailerons,
elevators, rudder and trim tabs to compensate for the deviation. The basis
of the system is a gyrocompass, which controls the aircraft’s direction and
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a vertical gyro that controls pitch and roll. Autopilot can be instructed to fly
a specified heading, level or even speed.
13.7. ATC transponder:

Aircraft carry transponder on board to mark their position on the
radarscope of the Air traffic controller in secondary surveillance radar
environment. Each aircraft is allotted a unique code and it can be instantly
identified and appropriately guided through the traffic congestion. Exact
position and distance of the Aircraft can be accurately monitored from as
far as 250 NM from the radar station.
13.8. Communication gear

Short distance air to ground communication is usually on VHF channels in
the aviation frequency band. The signals travel only in the line of sight, so
the range depends on the aircraft’s altitude. For long-range communication
HF channels are used. To relieve the crews from listening constantly to the
radio system for incoming calls, a selective calling system is used. In the
SELCAL mode, the calling station sends out a two-tone signal, coded for the
particular aircraft being called. The airborne receiver is left tuned to the
calling frequency, and can be heard all the time. When the aircraft code is
received and decoded, the flight crews are alerted by a visual and/or audible
signal, and only then give their attention to the radio. A crew
intercommunication system is also linked to a passenger address system
on passenger aircraft so that the flight crew can communicate with
passengers.
13.9. Direction finding equipments:
13.9.1. Magnetic compass:

It works on the principle of magnetism and provides direction. It contains
magnetized steel needle fastened to a float around which is mounted a
compass card. The needle’s end points in the North direction. The compass
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card has letters for cardinal headings (N, NNE, NE, etc). A line mounted
behind the glass of the instrument is used for a reference line when aligning
the headings on the compass card.
13.9.2. Gyro-Sync compass:

If the Directional Gyro is aligned with magnetic direction (Geo), the system
would act as Gyro-sync compass. It provides stable compass heading in
rough air. It is north-seeking like a magnetic compass but is free from
northerly turning error and oscillation and combines the functions of both
the directional Gyro and the Magnetic Compass.
13.9.3. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF):

ADF is the oldest radio navigation system still in use. ADF uses Non-
Directional Beacons (NDBs) that are simply AM-radio transmitters
operating in the Low and Middle Frequency (LF/MF) Band. All ADFs can
also home in on AM broadcast (Radio) stations. Pilots can listen to the radio
and navigate also. The ADF indicator has a compass rose and an indicating
needle. The needle automatically points to the station. “Homing” means
following the needle. ADFs have a “HDG” knob where the pilot can dial in
the aircraft heading. An improvement on this very simple system is the VOR
or VHF Omni directional Range cockpit displays.
13.9.4. Distance measuring equipment (DME):

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a transponder based radio
navigational technology that measures Distance by timing the propagation
delay of UHF radio signals. The system consists of airborne equipment and
ground equipment (usually co-located with navigational aid). One important
thing to understand is that DME provides the physical distance from the
aircraft to the DME transponder. This Distance is often referred to as slant
range. For example, if an aircraft were directly over the DME station at
6,100 ft AGL, the distance indicator would read one mile.
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13.10. Navigation devices

The navigation equipment on an aircraft may be entirely self-contained,
operating entirely without external aid, or it may work in conjunction with
ground-based aids such as radio beacons and area radio navigation
systems. Most navigation equipment can be coupled to the autopilot to fly
the plane, the flight crew watching the overall system and taking manual
control only during take-off and landing, or in an emergency.
13.10.1. Ground based navigation system:

When an aircraft is flying between airports, it may use a number of systems;
each of these employs its own network of fixed ground stations, which
radiate pattern of radio signals. From these signals, position can be
determined by measuring time or phase differences between the radio
stations.
a. Loran:
Loran (Long Range Air Navigation) is widely used by aircraft on long-

distance routes. The most refined version can give positions accurate to
within a few hundred yards or meters even in mid-Atlantic.
b. Decca navigator:
The Decca navigator can give a higher accuracy but has a shorter range.
Planes on short haul flights and helicopters tend to use Decca Navigator
rather than Loran. Both Loran and Decca navigator systems use
frequencies of around 100 kHz.
c. Omega:
Omega uses a much lower frequency, 10 to 14 kHz, and is being brought

into use mainly because its signals will penetrate underwater, so even the
submarines can use this system. Very few aircraft are equipped to make
use of this system.
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d. VOR:
VOR transmitter radiates a VHF radio beam for navigation. When

appropriate frequency is selected into a navigation radio, the vertical needle
called a Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) on the VOR indicator shows
whether the aircraft is right or left of the chosen course. A ‘To/From/Off’
indicator indicates whether the aircraft is on the ‘to’ or ‘from’ side. If the
aircraft is abeam the station, an ‘off’ indication is given. By coupling this
direction information to the autopilot, the plane would fly automatically to
the beacon. VOR beacons are located at suitable intervals along established
air corridors.
13.10.2. Self-contained navigational system:

(a) Doppler navigators:
In Doppler navigator, a microwave radio signal of known frequency is sent

downwards from an aircraft to the earth’s surface. The signal is reflected
back at a slightly different frequency, since the ground is moving relative to
the aircraft, and this difference is measured to give the displacement.
Typical systems have four fan-shaped radio beams which are transmitted
in sequence forward, aft and on each side of the aircraft to provide
measurement of ground speed, drift angle and total miles travelled. Doppler
system can be programmed to provide information on the distance and time,
to go to pre-selected points on the route to show latitude and longitude, to
operate the pilot’s steering indicator, or to drive moving map displays.
(b) Global positioning system:
GPS is a U.S. developed satellite-based high-precision navigation system

that allows a receiver to locate itself within a few meters. It is an example of
the global navigation satellite system or GNSS. Devised primarily for
military use as a simple and accurate means of navigation and weapon
delivery, GPS is also in widespread use by commercial and private
operators, though with reduced accuracy compared with military versions.
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(c) Inertial navigation system (INS):
An INS is very simple in theory, but complicated in practice. It is a self-

contained dead reckoning system. Given its starting position, INS keeps
track of all movements in all directions to calculate the aircraft’s new
position in relation to that point. To detect these movements, the INS uses
three accelerometers N-S, E-W, and U-D mounted on a stable platform
based on gyroscopic principles. Modern Inertial Navigation System use ring
laser gyros that are made up of a series of lasers aligned in the same plane
and forming a ring. Interference patterns are generated as the aircraft
accelerates indicating changes in the aeroplane’s movement. These changes
in movement are measured to provide new position. The INS must be
initialized on the ramp prior to take-off, the pilot enters the aircraft’s ramp
coordinates and the system performs the rest of calculations. INS is
accurate up to 1.7 NM per hour of flight. Some applications of inertial
guidance employ position and speed references from external navigation
aids to correct the guidance errors, whenever aircraft comes within the
range of such navigation system. Such system is termed as IRS.
13.11. Landing aid

Landing aircraft use Instrument Landing System (ILS) beams when near
the airport for precise navigational guidance in azimuth and vertical plane.
Associated equipments for ILS are ground-based localizer, marker and glide
path transmitters to guide the pilot to the airport and help in the landing
procedure.
13.12. Weather radar

Almost all the commercial aircraft are fitted with weather radar, which
provides the flight crew with a picture of cloud formations and other
atmospheric disturbances ahead. The equipment consists of forward-
looking radar mounted in the nose of the aircraft and a display unit in the
flight deck. The radar antenna can be tilted downwards to get the vertical
extent of weather. Some of the airborne weather radar are capable of ground
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mapping and can register prominent geographical features such as

coastlines, estuaries etc. For weather radar, ranges of up to 300 NM are
possible.
13.13. Radio altimeter

The Radio Altimeter indicates the actual height of the aeroplane above the
earth or above any object on the earth over which the aircraft is passing. A
radio transmitter in the aeroplane sends a signal towards the earth whose
frequency changes at a definite rate with respect to time. The signal is
reflected by the earth and returns as an Echo, and when compared with
original signal frequency, the shift in frequency is measured and translated
to indicate the height in feet. It is also called as Absolute Altimeter or Radar
altimeter.
13.14. TCAS
Traffic collision avoidance system identifies the location and tracks the
progress of aircraft equipped with radar beacon transponders. Today almost
all kind of commercial aircraft possess appropriate TCAS capability.
13.15. Flight Recorders

The flight data recorder records and protect vital information about the
flight for the purpose of investigation. This includes voice conversation with
ATC, mutual conversation and other sound heard in cockpit and the aircraft
flight data such as aircraft speed, rate of climb/descent, bank angle, flaps
position and engine performance etc. The flight recorders are housed in
orange coloured highly protective crash proof airtight casing and installed
in the rear part of the aircraft for better survivability following an aircraft
accident. These recorders are also known as Black Boxes. These boxes also
contain emergency locating transmitter (ELT),which is automatically
activated following the crash, emitting a locating signal for search and
salvage purposes. The ELT also gets activated when it comes in contact with
water. Earlier recorder used magnetic tapes or aluminium foils for recording
the data, while modern equipment use electronic memory chips for
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recording data in digital form (DFDR), this permits recording of enormous

data both in terms of time and parameters.
13.15.1. Flight Data Recorder (FDR):

Monitors parameters such as altitude, air speed and heading etc. By
regulation, newly manufactured aircraft must monitor at least 28
parameters such as time, altitude, air speed, heading, and aircraft
attitude. In addition, some FDRs can record the status of more than 300
other in-flight characteristics including items ranging from flap position to
autopilot mode to smoke alarms. Investigators can use the data to generate
a computer animated video reconstruction of the flight.
Specifications-:
 Time recorded: up to 25 hours continuous

 Number of parameters: 5 to 300 plus
 Impact tolerance: 3,400 Gs/6.5 milliseconds
 Fire resistance: 1,100 degrees Celsius/30 minutes
 Water pressure resistance: submerged 20,000 feet
 Underwater locater beacon: 37.5 kilohertz
 Battery: 6 years shelf life
 30-day operation
13.15.2. Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR):

CVR records radio transmissions and sounds in the cockpit, such as the
pilot’s voices and engine noises. The recorder’s “cockpit area microphone”
usually is located on the overhead instrument panel between the two pilots.
Communications with Air Traffic Control towers and conversation between
the pilots and ground or cabin crew are also recorded. Normally voice
recording is done on four different channels.
 Channel I - Flight Engineer Panel

 Channel II - Co Pilots Panel
 Channel III - Pilot Panel
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 Channel IV - Area mike
Specifications-:
 Time recorded: 30 continuous minutes, 2 hours for solid state digital
units
 Number of channels: 4
 Impact tolerance: 3,400 Gs/6.5 milliseconds
 Fire resistance: 1,100 degrees Celsius/30 minutes
 Water pressure resistance: submerged 20,000 feet
 Underwater locater beacon: 37.5 kilohertz
 Battery: 6 years shelf life
 30-day operation
13.16. Emergency locator transmitter (ELT)

An Emergency Locator Transmitter is a battery operated radio transmitter
that sends out a distinctive distress signal on the international emergency
frequency 121.5 MHz. The force of impact experienced during a crash
activates the transmitting mechanism. The transmitter is constructed to
survive a crash and to transmit a signal for a period of at least 100 hrs. The
transmitter has three-position switch – ON, OFF and ARMED. The ELT will
only do its job, if it has been, “Armed”. Arming the ELT is usually a part of
the pre-flight checks and turning it off a part of post flight shut down
procedure for the pilot. There are several systems in use, with beacons of
varying expense, different types of satellites and varying performance.
13.16.1. Two Frequency Beacons:

Once units have been activated either by the force of a crash or by cockpit
remote switch the beacon transmit on two frequencies, which are the
civilian band 121.5 MHz and the military band 243.0 MHz. The signal is
then relayed by a satellite to a ground receiving station where by using the
Doppler Effect, the location of the aircraft is determined. Due to the
instability of the frequency, accuracy can only be determined within 20
miles of the crash site. One major disadvantage to this technology is that
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there is no specific information in regard to the owner or the aircraft. This

is where 406 MHz technologies become valuable.
13.16.2. 406 MHz Beacons:

The 406 MHz transmitters send out a 5 watt signal every 50 seconds for
520 milliseconds. In that transmission the serial numbers of the beacon,
the manufacturer code of the beacon and the country code are transmitted.
This information is decoded by ground computers and from that the owner’s
name, address, telephone numbers and type of aircraft are known to the
search and rescue team. The two frequency beacons do not have this
capability, and the signals are often false activations. The location of the
crash site is calculated by using the Doppler effect, which narrows the
position of the aircraft to within two miles. The main advantages of the 406
transmitter system are as follows:
 Position Accuracy
 The transmitter is identified by serial number and craft I.D.
 The capability of uploading the “position fix” in the long message
format
 Total worldwide coverage
 Immediate search and rescue response
13.16.3. ELT (Personal):

A portable Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) designed to be carried by
the pilot for either automatic or manual usage. If a crash does occur, the
transmitter automatically transmits a distress signal simultaneously on
both the civilian and military international emergency frequencies.
Operating the toggle switch at the top of the unit allows for manual
operation or pre-flight testing of power output, modulation and battery
strength. The ELT is capable of transmitting a signal to search and rescue
satellite or rescue aircraft for up to eight days.
Page 126
13.17. Fuel management system

Small aircraft generally require only a simple instrument set for their fuel
systems, comprising a float type fuel contents gauge and perhaps a fuel
pressure indicator. In a large aircraft, however, the fuel load is much greater
and it is stored in a number of irregularly shaped tanks throughout the
structure, hence it is important to control the fuel level in each tank to
maintain the aircraft’s correct centre of gravity. The associated instruments
are; Fuel gauge (one for each tank), Fuel pressure gauge, fuel temperature,
Fuel flow gauge and Cross feed valves.
13.18. Hazard warning indications:

Hazard warning usually take the form of colour decoded lamp and/or
audible warning rather than instruments. For e.g. Stall warning is
frequently presented by an obvious warning light plus a mechanism, which
shakes the pilot’s control column. Light and an audible warning usually
indicate undercarriage faults and fire warnings. These warnings include
stall warning, Landing gear malfunction, Engine overheating, Hydraulic,
Electrical and Pneumatic failure, Fire in Engine, cabin and cargo holds, oil
pressure, fuel pressure and quantity, Terrain, Traffic alert, Navigational
aids failure etc.
13.19. GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System)

ICAO introduced Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) carriage
requirements in 1978 to alleviate the Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
problem. A significant decline in the number of incidents was observed after
installation of GPWS.
Definition of GPWS:
An equipment installed in an aeroplane for the purpose of providing

automatically a timely and distinctive warning to the flight crew when the
aeroplane is in potentially hazardous proximity to the earth's surface.
Page 127
A ground proximity warning system shall provide, warnings under the

following circumstances:
a. Excessive descent rate;

b. Excessive terrain closure rate;
c. Excessive altitude loss after take-off or go-around;
d. Unsafe terrain clearance while not in landing configuration
i. Gear not locked down;
ii. Flap not in landing position; and
e. Excessive descent below the instrument glide path.
13.20. Other instruments

The list of aircraft instruments is enormous, however below mentioned are
some of the other systems/subsystems for which aircraft instruments are
provided:
 Satellite communication (SATCOM)

 Controller to pilot data link communication (CPDLC)
 Automatic dependent surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B)
 Air conditioning system
 Cabin pressurization system
 Oxygen regulating system
 Engine fire control system
 Portable fire extinguishers for cockpit and cabin fire control etc.
Page 128
APPENDIX I
RPAS (Remotely Piloted Aircraft System)
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA), autonomous aircraft and model aircraft are
various sub-sets of unmanned aircraft. Unmanned aircraft system (UAS) is
an aircraft and its associated elements, which are operated with no pilot on
board.
Remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) is an unmanned aircraft, which is piloted

from a remote pilot station. A remotely piloted aircraft, its associated remote
pilot station(s), command and control links and any other components
forms a Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS).
Definitions:
Payload: All components of equipment on board the unmanned aircraft that

are not needed for the flight or its control. Its transport aims exclusively to
fulfill a specific mission.
Remote Pilot: A person charged by the operator with duties essential to
the operation of a remotely piloted aircraft and who manipulates the flight
controls, as appropriate, during flight time.
Remote Pilot Station (RPS): The component of remotely piloted aircraft
system containing the equipment used to pilot the remotely piloted aircraft.
Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA): An unmanned aircraft, which is piloted
from a remote pilot station.
Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS): A remotely piloted aircraft, its
associated remote pilot station(s), the required command and control links
and any other components, as specified in the type design.
RPA observer: A trained and competent person designated by the operator
who, by visual observation of the remotely piloted aircraft, assists the
remote pilot in the safe conduct of the flight.
Unmanned Aircraft (UA): An aircraft, which is intended to operate with no
pilot on board.
Page 129
Visual line-of-sight (VLOS) operation: Operation in which the remote pilot

or RPA observer maintains direct unaided visual contact with the remotely
piloted aircraft.
CATEGORIES OF RPA
Civil RPA is categorized in accordance with Maximum All-Up-Weight
(including payload) as indicated below:
i) Nano : ≥ 250 grams. ii) Micro : 250 g > and ≥ 2 kg.
iii) Small : 2 kg > and ≥ 25 kg. iv) Medium : 25 kg > and ≥ 150 kg.
v) Large : Greater than 150 kg.
Civil RPA except those indicated as below*, shall require Unique

Identification Number (UIN) from DGCA.
*RPA in Nano category intended to fly upto 50 feet (15 m) AGL in
uncontrolled airspace/ enclosed premises for commercial / recreational /
R&D purposes are exempted from obtaining UIN.
*RPAs owned / operated by NTRO, ARC and Central Intelligence Agencies
are also exempted from obtaining UIN.
Civil RPA operators shall require Unmanned Aircraft Operator Permit
(UAOP) from DGCA.
The operator shall be responsible for the safe custody, security and access
control of the RPAS. In case of loss of RPA, the operator shall report
immediately to the local police office, BCAS and DGCA.
Page 130

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CATC/ATM/2021/AD-05

AERODROME CONTROL COURSE

Civil Aviation Training College Allahabad

Full Member of ICAO Trainair Plus ISO 9001:2015

Contents of this document are proprietary of the

Head of Training & General Manager (ATM)

RECORD OF AMENDMENTS AND CORRIGENDA

No. Section/Page No. Date entered Entered by

1. Demonstrate familiarization with terms related to Aircraft.

18. Describe Helicopter’s principle of flight, Helicopter lift, Helicopter

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT

CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

CHAPTER 3. BASIC MANOEUVRES OF AIRCRAFT

CHAPTER 4. AIRCRAFT STABILITY

CHAPTER 5. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

CHAPTER 6. HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

CHAPTER 7. AERO ENGINES

CHAPTER 10. ANCILLARY SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 11. ÀIRCRAFT ICING

CHAPTER 12. AIRCRAFT EMERGENCIES

CHAPTER 13. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS

This handout introduces Aircraft, its terminology and the principles of

Boat Seaplane: Boat seaplane fuselage is built in the shape of boat to

Airframe: The term is used to describe the complete structure of an

Engine numbering: Again as per convention the numbering of engine is

1.2. Material of Aircraft Construction:

*Note: - In the early era of aircraft development, wood and fabric

Today, with the advancement in all fields of aviation, aircraft construction

a) Metal, Light Alloys and Steel: The development of all metal

Aluminum with addition of a little Copper, Magnesium, and Manganese

b) Composite materials: These form part of advance development in

1.3. Components of an Aeroplane:

The essential components of a conventional aeroplane are:

Figure 1.1 An exploded view of a Beechcraft Skipper

Figure 1.2 Aircraft – Various kinds of Fuselage

1.3.2. Wings and Parts:

 High wing – attached at the top of the fuselage.

 Low wing – attached at the bottom of the fuselage.

Ailerons: These are surfaces, usually of aerofoil section, hinged to the

Winglets: The vertical surface attached at the extremity of wings, designed

Stabilizers: An aerofoil placed at rear-end of the fuselage to balance the

Elevators: Surface hinged on the trailing edge of the stabilizer to provide

Fin: A fixed vertical surface placed ahead of the sternpost to provide

Figure 1.3 Empennage Structure

Trim tab: Small auxiliary aerofoils installed on rudder, elevators and

1.3.4. Propulsion system (engine)

Nacelle: The structure in which aircraft engine is installed.

Engine Mount: A reinforced structure used for attaching the engine or

Propeller: Engine powered, dynamically balanced blades assembly that

Engine: The power-generating device that converts chemical energy of fuel

Gearbox: Large Piston, turboprop and turboshaft engine powered aircraft

manoeuvring. The undercarriage may contain number of wheel assemblies

operation is performed through hydraulic and/or pneumatic control

1.3.6. Control Surfaces

Primary control surfaces: Rudders, Elevators and Ailerons.

An Aeroplane is a heavier than air flying machine designed to obtain, when

Drag: Whenever a body is moved through fluid or air, a resistance against

Bernoulli’s principle: It states that the internal pressure of a fluid (liquid