LAWS AND THEORIES

1.ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Q. State (1 mark) and prove the principle (or law) of conservation of angular momentum.(3 marks)
OR
State and prove the principle of conservation of angular momentum. (2 marks)
Ans. Principle (or law) of conservation of angular momentum : The angular momentum of a body is conserved if
the resultant external torque on the body is zero.

Proof : Consider a moving particle of mass 𝑚 whose position vector with respect to the origin at any instant is 𝑟Ԧ

𝑑𝑟
Then, at this instant, the linear velocity of this particle is 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑑𝑡
, its linear momentum is 𝑝Ԧ = 𝑚𝑣Ԧ and its angular

momentum about an axis through the origin is 𝑙Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝.

Ԧ

Suppose its angular momentum 𝑙Ԧ changes with time due to a torque 𝜏Ԧ exerted on the particle.
The time rate of change of its angular momentum,

𝑑 𝑙Ԧ 𝑑 𝑑𝑟Ԧ 𝑑𝑝
= (𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝)
Ԧ = × 𝑝Ԧ + 𝑟Ԧ ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ + 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ
= 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ
= 𝜏Ԧ
(∵ 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑣Ԧ = 0)

𝑑𝑝
where Ԧ the net force on the particle.
= 𝐹,
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑙
Hence, if 𝜏Ԧ = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0

∴ 𝑙Ԧ = constant, i.e., 𝑙Ԧ is conserved. This proves the principle (or law) of conservation of angular
momentum.

𝑑𝐿
For a rigid body or a system of particles, 𝜏Ԧ = Σ𝜏Ԧ𝑖 and 𝐿 = Σ𝐿𝑖 , giving 𝜏 ′ = . Again for 𝜏Ԧ = 0, 𝐿 = constant
𝑑𝑡
2.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Q. 1. Explain the phenomenon of surface tension on the basis of molecular theory. (3 marks)
Ans. The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the cohesive forces between the molecules of a liquid. The
net cohesive force on the liquid molecules within the surface film differs from that on molecules deep in the
interior of the liquid.

Consider three molecules of a liquid : A molecule A well inside the liquid, and molecules B and C lying within the
surface film, as shown in the figure. The figure also shows their spheres of influence of radius 𝑅
(1) The sphere of influence of molecule A is entirely inside the liquid and the molecule is surrounded by its nearest
neighbours on all sides. Hence, molecule A is equally attracted from all sides, so that the resultant cohesive
force acting on it is zero. Hence, it is free to move anywhere within the liquid.

(2) For molecule B, a part of its sphere of influence is outside the liquid surface. This part contains air molecules
whose number is negligible compared to the number of molecules in an equal volume of the liquid. Therefore,
molecule B experiences a net cohesive force downward.

(3) For molecule C, the upper half of its sphere of influence is outside the liquid surface. Therefore, the resultant
cohesive force on molecule C in the downward direction is maximum.
(4) Thus, all molecules lying within a surface film of thickness equal to 𝑅 experience a net cohesive force directed
into the liquid.
(5) The surface area is proportional to the number of molecules on the surface. To increase the surface area,
molecules must be brought to the surface from within the liquid. For this, work must be done against the cohesive
forces. This work is stored in the liquid surface in the form of potential energy. With a tendency to have minimum
potential energy, the liquid tries to reduce the number of molecules on the surface so as to have minimum surface
area. This is why the surface of a liquid behaves like a stressed elastic membrane.
Q. 2. State Pascal's law.
(1 mark)

Ans. Pascal's law : A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to every
point of the fluid and to the walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity can be ignored.
Q. 3. State Laplace's law for a spherical membrane.
(1 mark)
Ans. Laplace's law for a spherical membrane : The excess pressure inside a small spherical liquid drop of radius 𝑅, is
2𝑇
𝑝 − 𝑝0 = , where 𝑝 is the pressure inside the drop, 𝑝0 is the pressure outside the drop and 𝑇 is the surface tension
𝑅

of the liquid.
Q. 4. State and explain Newton's law of viscosity.
(2 marks)
Ans. Newton's law of viscosity : In a steady flow of a fluid past a solid surface, a velocity profile is set up such that
the viscous drag per unit area on a layer is directly proportional to the velocity gradient.

Explanation : When a fluid flows past a solid surface in a streamline flow or when a solid body moves through a
fluid, the force of fluid friction opposing the motion is called the viscous drag. The magnitude of the viscous drag
of a fluid is given by Newton's law of viscosity.
𝑑𝑣
If 𝑑𝑦 is the velocity gradient, the viscous drag per unit area on a layer,

𝐹 𝑑𝑣
∝
𝐴 𝑑𝑦
𝐹 𝑑𝑣
∴ =𝜂
𝐴 𝑑𝑦
where the constant of proportionality, 𝜂, is called the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
Q. 5. State Stokes' law.
(1 mark)

Ans. Stokes' law : If a fluid flows past a sphere or a sphere moves . through a fluid, for small enough relative speed
𝑣0 for which the flow is streamline, the viscous force on the sphere is directly proportional to the coefficient of
viscosity of the fluid 𝜂, the radius 𝑟 of the sphere and the free-stream velocity 𝑣Ԧ0 .
Q. 6. State Bernoulli's principle.
(1 mark)
Ans. Bernoulli's principle : Where the velocity of an ideal fluid in streamline flow is high, the pressure is low, and
where the velocity of a fluid is low, the pressure is high.
𝑂𝑅
At every point in the streamline flow of an ideal (i.e., nonviscous and incompressible) fluid, the sum of the
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy of a given mass of the fluid is constant at every point.
3. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND RADIATION
Q. 1. State Wien's displacement law.

What is its significance?

(1 mark)
Ans. Wien's displacement law : For a blackbody at an absolute temperature 𝑇, the product of 𝑇 and the wavelength
𝜆m corresponding to the maximum radiation of energy is a constant.
OR
As the temperature of a blackbody rises, the maximum of the spectral energy distribution curve is displaced
towards the short-wavelength end of the spectrum such that 𝜆m 𝑇 = constant, where 𝜆m is the wavelength
corresponding to the maximum radiation of energy and 𝑇 is the absolute temperature.

Significance :
(1) It can be used to estimate the surface temperature of stars.
(2) It explains the common observation of the change of colour of a solid on heating-from dull red (longer
wavelengths) to yellow (smaller wavelengths) to white (all wavelengths in the visible region).
Q. 2. State and explain the Stefan Boltzmann law. (1 mark)

Ans. The Stefan-Boltzmann law : The rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area or the power radiated per unit
area of a perfect blackbody is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. 𝑂𝑅

The quantity of radiant energy emitted by a perfect blackbody per unit time per unit surface area of the body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Explanation :
The power per unit area radiated from the surface of a blackbody at an absolute temperature 𝑇 is its emissive power
or radiant power 𝑅b at that temperature. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law,

𝑅b ∝ 𝑇 4 ∴ 𝑅b = 𝜎𝑇 4

where the constant 𝜎 is called Stefan's constant.

If 𝐴 is the surface area of the body, its radiant power, i.e., energy radiated per unit time, is 𝐴𝜎𝑇 4 .
Q. 3. State the law of equipartition of energy.
(1 mark)

Ans. Law of equipartition of energy : For a gas in thermal equilibrium at absolute temperature 𝑇, the average
1
energy of a molecule, associated with each quadratic term (each degree of freedom), is 𝑘B 𝑇, where 𝑘B is the
2

Boltzmann constant.
OR
The energy of the molecules of a gas, in thermal equilibrium at a thermodynamic temperature 𝑇 and containing
large number of molecules, is equally divided among their available degrees of freedom, with the energy per
1
molecule for each degree of freedom equal to 2 𝑘B 𝑇, where 𝑘B is the Boltzmann constant.
Q. 4. State and prove Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation. (3 marks)

Ans. Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation : At a given temperature, the ratio of the emissive power to the coefficient of
absorption of a body is equal to the emissive power of a perfect blackbody at the same temperature for all
wavelengths.
OR
For a body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermal equilibrium, the emissivity is equal to its
absorptivity.

Theoretical proof : Consider the following thought experiment : An ordinary body A and a perfect blackbody B are
enclosed in an athermanous enclosure.

According to Prevost's theory of heat exchanges, there is a continuous exchange of radiant energy between each
body and its surroundings. Hence, the two bodies, after some time, will attain the same temperature as that of the
enclosure.

Let 𝑎 and 𝑒 be the coefficients of absorption and emission respectively, of body A. Let 𝑅 and 𝑅b be the emissive
powers of bodies A and B, respectively.
Suppose that 𝑄 is the quantity of radiant energy incident on each body per unit time per unit surface area of the
body.

Body A will absorb the quantity 𝑎𝑄 per unit time per unit surface area and radiate the quantity 𝑅 per unit time per
unit surface area. Since there is no change in its temperature, we must have

𝑎𝑄 = 𝑅

As body B is a perfect blackbody, it will absorb the quantity 𝑄 per unit time per unit surface area and radiate the
quantity 𝑅b per unit time per unit surface area.
Since there is no change in its temperature, we must have

𝑄 = 𝑅b

From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

𝑅 𝑅
𝑎= =
𝑄 𝑅b
 𝑅
From Eq. (3), we get, = 𝑅b
𝑎

This is Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation.

By definition of coefficient of emission,

𝑅
𝑒=
𝑅b

From Eqs. (3) and (4), we get 𝑎 = 𝑒.

This is another form of Kirchhoff's law of heat radiation.
4. THERMODYNAMICS
Q. 1. State the zeroth law of thermodynamics.(1 mark)

Ans. Zeroth law of thermodynamics : If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Q. 2. State the first law of thermodynamics. (1 mark)
Ans. First law of thermodynamics: The change in the internal energy of a system (Δ𝑈) is the difference
between the heat supplied to the system (𝑄) and the work done by the system on its surroundings (𝑊).

Mathematically, Δ𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊, where all quantities are expressed in the same units.

Q. 3. State the two forms of the second law of thermodynamics.
(2 marks)
Ans. Second law of thermodynamics :
(1) Kelvin-Planck statement : It is impossible to extract an amount of heat 𝑄H from a hot reservoir and use it
all to do work 𝑊. Some amount of heat 𝑄C must be exhausted (given out) to a cold reservoir. This prohibits the
possibility of a perfect heat engine.

This statement is also called the first form or the engine law or the engine statement of the second law of
thermodynamics.
(2) Clausius statement : It is not possible for heat to flow from a colder body to a warmer body without any
work having been done to accomplish this, i.e., there is no perfect refrigerator.

This statement is called the second form of the second law of thermodynamics.
5. OSCILLATION
Q. State the laws of a simple pendulum.
(1 mark each)

𝐿
Ans. The period of a simple pendulum at a given place is 𝑇 = 2𝜋 where 𝐿 is the length of the simple
𝑔

pendulum and 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity at that place. From the above expression, the laws of simple
pendulum are as follows :
(1) Law of length : The period of a simple pendulum at a given place ( 𝑔 constant) is directly proportional to
the square root of its length.
∴𝑇∝ 𝐿
(2) Law of acceleration due to gravity: The period of a simple pendulum of a given length ( 𝐿 constant) is
inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
 1
∴𝑇∝
𝑔
(3) Law of mass : The period of a simple pendulum does not depend on the mass or material of
the bob of the pendulum.
(4) Law of isochronism : The period of a simple pendulum does not depend on the amplitude of
oscillations, provided that the amplitude is small.
6. SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
Q. State the laws of vibrating strings. (3 marks)

OR
State the law of length and the law of linear density for a vibrating string.
(2 marks)
Ans. The fundamental frequency of vibration of a stretched string or wire is given by

1 𝑇
𝑛=
2𝐿 𝑚

where 𝐿 is the vibrating length, 𝑚 the mass per unit length of the string and 𝑇 the tension in the string. From the
above expression, we can state the following three laws of vibrating strings :
(1) Law of length : The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a stretched string is inversely proportional to its
vibrating length, if the tension and mass per unit length are kept constant.
(2) Law of tension : The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a stretched string is directly proportional to
the square root of the applied tension, if the length and mass per unit length are kept constant.
(3) Law of linear density (mass): The fundamental frequency of vibrations of a stretched string is inversely
proportional to the square root of its mass per unit length, if the length and tension are kept constant.
7. WAVE OPTICS
Q. 1. State Huygens' principle. (1 mark)
Ans. Huygens' principle : Every point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of light and sends out secondary
wavelets in all directions. The secondary wavelets travel with the speed of light in the medium and are effective
only in the forward direction. At any instant, the forward-going envelope or the surface of tangency to these
wavelets gives the position of the new wavefront at that instant.
Q. 2. Give a brief account of Huygens' wave theory of light. (2 marks)
Ans. Huygens' wave theory of light (1678) :
(1) Light emitted by a source propagates in the form of waves. Huygens' original theory assumed them to be
longitudinal waves.
(2) In a homogeneous isotropic medium, light from a point source spreads by spherical waves.
(3) It was thought that a wave motion needed a medium for its propagation. Hence, the theory postulated a
medium called luminiferous ether that exists everywhere, in vacuum as well as in transparent bodies. Ether had
to be assigned some extraordinary properties : a high modulus of elasticity to account for the high speed of light,
zero density so that it offers no resistance to planetary motions, and perfect transparency.
(4) The different colours of light are due to the different wavelengths.
Q. 3. State the merits and demerits of Huygens' theory.
(2 marks)
Ans. Merits of Huygens' theory :
(1) Huygens' wave theory satisfactorily explains reflection and refraction as well as their simultaneity.

(2) In explaining refraction, the theory concludes that the speed of light in a denser medium is less than that in a
rarer medium, which agreed with later experimental findings.
(3) The theory was later used by Young (1800-04), Fraunhofer and Fresnel (1814) to satisfactorily explain
interference, diffraction and rectilinear propagation of light. The phenomenon of polarization could also be
explained by considering the light waves to be transverse.
Demerits of the theory :
(1) It was found much later that the hypothetical medium, luminiferous ether, has no experimental basis. In
1905, Einstcin discarded the idea of ether completely.
(2) Phenomena like absorption and emission of light by atoms and molecules, photoelectric effect, Raman effect,
Compton effect, etc., cannot be explained on the basis of the wave theory.
Q. 4. State Brewster's law.
(1 mark)

Ans. Brewster's law : The tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the reflecting

medium with respect to the surrounding ( 𝑛2 ൯. If 𝜃B is the polarizing angle,

𝑛2
tan 𝜃B = 1 𝑛2 =
𝑛1
Here 𝑛1 is the absolute refractive index of the surrounding and 𝑛2 is that of the reflecting medium.
The angle 𝜃B is also called the Brewster angle.
8. ELECTROSTATIC
Q. State Gauss's law in electrostatics.
(1 mark)
Ans. Gauss's law : The net flux through a closed surface in free space is related to the net charge 𝑞encl that is
enclosed by that surface and is given by

𝑞encl
Φ = ∮ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ =
𝜀0

where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space and the electric flux 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 s is integrated over the entire area of the
surface.
9. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Q. State Kirchhoff's laws for electrical circuit.(2 marks)
State the sign conventions used in these laws.
1
(1 2 marks)
1
Are the laws applicable to both AC and DC networks? ( 2 mark)

Ans. Kirchhoff's circuital laws when steady currents are passing in an electrical network are as follows :

Kirchhoff's first law (or current law or junction law): The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction is zero.

෍ 𝐼𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1

where 𝐼𝑖 is the current in the 𝑖 th conductor meeting at the junction.

Sign convention : A current entering the junction is taken as positive while a current leaving the junction is taken
as negative.

Kirchhoff's second law (or voltage law or loop law): Around a closed loop of an electrical network, the algebraic
sum of the emfs and the potential differences across all the circuit elements in that loop is zero.
 Σ𝐸 + Σ𝐼𝑅 = 0

Sign convention : (a) In going round a loop, if we traverse a resistor in the direction of the current through
it, the potential difference (p.d.) across the resistor is taken as negative. The p.d. is taken as positive if the
direction in which we traverse the resistance is opposite to the current through it. (b) The emf of a cell is
taken as positive when we traverse the cell from its negative terminal to the positive terminal while it is
taken as negative when traversed in the opposite direction.

Kirchhoff's laws are applicable to both AC and DC circuits (networks). For AC circuits, instantaneous
currents and voltages are taken in the summations.
10. MAGNETIC FIELDS DUE TO ELECTRIC
CURRENT
Q. 1. State the Biot-Savart law (Laplace law) for the magnetic induction produced by a current element. Express it
in vector form.
(2 marks)
Ans. Consider a very short segment of length 𝑑𝑙 of a wire carrying a current 𝐼. The product 𝐼𝑑𝑙 is called a current

element; the direction of the vector 𝑑𝑙 is along the wire in the direction of the current.

Biot-Savart law (Laplace law): The magnitude of the incremental magnetic induction 𝑑𝐵 produced by a current

element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 at a distance 𝑟 from it is directly proportional to the magnitude 𝐼𝑑𝑙 of the current element, the sine of

the angle between the current element 𝐼 𝑑Ԧ𝑙Ԧ and the unit vector rƶ directed from the current element toward the
point in question, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the current element;

the magnetic induction is directed perpendicular to both 𝐼 𝑑Ԧ𝑙Ԧ and rƶ as per the cross product rule.
 𝐼𝑑𝑙sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 ∝
𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙sin 𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙×ƶr 𝑟Ԧ
In vector form, 𝑑𝐵 = where rƶ = 𝑟 and the constant 𝜇0 is the permeability of free space. Equations (1)
4𝜋 𝑟2

and (2) are called the Biot-Savart law.

Q. 2. State Ampère's circuital law.
(1 mark)
Ans. Ampère's circuital law : In free space, the line integral of magnetic induction around a closed path in a
magnetic field is equal to 𝜇0 times the net steady current enclosed by the path, where 𝜇0 is the permeability of
free space.
11. MAGNETIC MATERIAL
Q. 1. Discuss Curie's law of paramagnetism.
(2 marks)
Ans. Curie's law : The magnetization of a paramagnetic material is directly proportional to the external
magnetic field and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the material.

If a paramagnetic material at an absolute temperature 𝑇 is placed in an external magnetic field of induction

𝐵ext , the magnitude of its magnetization

𝐵ext 𝐵ext
𝑀z ∝ ∴ 𝑀𝑧 = 𝐶
𝑇 𝑇

where the proportionality constant 𝐶 is called the Curie constant.

Q. 2. Explain ferromagnetism on the basis of the domain theory.
(3 marks)

Ans. Atoms of a ferromagnetic material have a permanent non-zero magnetic dipole moment, arising mainly
from spin magnetic moments of the electrons.
Domains in a single crystal of iron
According to the domain theory, a ferromagnetic material is composed of small regions called domains.

A domain is an extremely small region (e.g., a size of about 10−6 cm3 ) containing a large number of atoms
(something like 1015 atoms as in common iron). Within each domain, the atomic magnetic moments of nearest-
neighbour atoms interact strongly through exchange interaction (a quantum mechanical phenomenon) and align
themselves parallel to each other even in the absence of an external magnetic field. A domain is, therefore,
spontaneously magnetized to saturation.

In an unmagnetized material, however, the directions of magnetization of the different domains are so oriented that
the net magnetization is zero.

When an external magnetic field is applied, the resultant magnetization of the specimen increases. This is
achieved in either of two ways : Either a domain that is favourably oriented grows in size at the expenses of a less
favourably oriented domain, or the direction of magnetization of an entire domain changes and tends to align
along the external magnetic field.
When a weak magnetic field is applied, favourably oriented domains grow in size by domain boundary
displacement, Fig. (b). In strong fields, the domains change their magnetization by rotation, Figs. (c) and (d).

After the external field is removed, it may be energetically favourable for a domain's direction of magnetization to
persist. Then, the specimen has a permanent magnetic dipole moment. This phenomenon, called magnetic
remanence, i.e., magnetic retentivity, is the basis of the existence of permanent magnets.
12. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Q. 1. State Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. (1 mark)
OR
State Faraday's laws of induction. (2 marks)
Ans. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction :
First law : Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux associated with a circuit, an emf is induced in the
circuit.

Second law : The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the circuit.
Q. 2. State the causes of induced current and explain them on the basis of Lenz's law.
(2 marks)
Ans. According to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced emf or current is such as to oppose the change that
produces it. The change that induces a current may be
(i) the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field or
(ii) the change of the magnetic flux through a stationary circuit.
In the first case, the direction of induced emf in the moving conductor is such that the direction of the side-thrust
exerted on the conductor by the magnetic field is opposite in direction to its motion. The motion of the conductor
is, therefore, opposed.

In the second case, the induced current sets up a magnetic field of its own which within the area bounded by the
circuit is (a) opposite to the original magnetic field if this field is increasing, but (b) is in the same direction as the
original field, if the field is decreasing. Thus, it is the change in magnetic flux through the circuit (not the flux
itself) which is opposed by the induced current.
14. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
Q. State the de Broglie hypothesis (July '22) (1 mark) and the corresponding equation.
(2 marks)
Ans. De Broglie hypothesis : In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that the wave-particle duality may not be unique
to light but a universal characteristic of nature, so that a particle of matter in motion also has a wave or periodicity
associated with it which becomes evident when the magnitude of Planck's constant ℎ cannot be ignored.

De Broglie equation : A particle of mass 𝑚 moving with a speed 𝑣 will, under suitable experimental conditions,
exhibit the characteristics of a wave of wavelength 𝜆 given by

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑝

where 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ≡ magnitude of the momentum of the particle.

This relation is called the de Broglie equation, and the wavelength 𝜆 associated with a particle momentum is called
its de Broglie wavelength. The corresponding waves are termed as matter waves.
15. STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND NUCLEI
Q. 1. State the postulates of Bohr's atomic model. (3 marks)
State the first and second postulates of Bohr's atomic model. (2 marks)

Ans. The postulates of Bohr's atomic model (for the hydrogen atom) :
(1) The electron revolves with a constant speed in a circular orbit around the nucleus. The necessary centripetal
force is the Coulomb force of attraction of the positive nuclear charge on the negatively charged electron.
(2) The electron can revolve without radiating energy only in certain orbits, called allowed or stable orbits, in
which the angular momentum of the electron is equal to an integral multiple of ℎ/2𝜋, where ℎ is Planck's
constant.
(3) Energy is radiated by the electron only when it jumps from one of its orbits to another orbit having lower
energy. The energy of the quantum of electromagnetic radiation, i.e., the photon, emitted is equal to the energy
difference of the two states.
Q. 2. State the equations corresponding to Bohr's atomic model.
(3 marks)

Ans. Let 𝑚e be the mass and −𝑒 the charge on an atomic electron in the 𝑛th circular orbit of radius 𝑟𝑛 of the
atom and Ze the charge on the nucleus, where 𝑛 and 𝑍 are positive integers. Let the orbital speed of the
electron in the 𝑛th orbit be 𝑣𝑛 . Then,

centripetal force
ൠ = ቊ Coulomb force
on the electron on the electron

𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑛2 𝑍𝑒 2
∴ =
𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛2
where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space. For hydrogen atom, 𝑍 = 1. By Bohr's postulate of quantization of
angular momentum of the electron,

ℎ
𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝜋
where ℎ is Planck's constant and 𝑛 = 1,2,3. By Bohr's radiation postulate, the atom radiates energy in the form
of a photon of frequency 𝑣 and energy ℎ𝑣, only when the electron makes a transition from a higher orbit
(energy state) to a lower orbit (energy state). If 𝐸i and 𝐸f are the energies of the electron in the initial (higher)
energy state and final (lower) energy state,

𝐸i − 𝐸f = ℎ𝑣
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