Name: Zuha Rizwan

Department: BS – RIT
Section: C
Semester: II
Sap ID: 70150577
Subject: Biochemistry
Submitted to: Dr. Mahrukh Tauqeer
 ASSIGNMENT # 02
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are simple sugars which can be chemically defined as:
“Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones which produce smaller units on hydrolysis”.

Types of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are generally divided into 4 categories:
 Monosaccharides
 Oligosaccharides
 Polysaccharides

1. MONOSACCHARIDES:
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They
are known as the most basic unit of carbohydrates. They are defined as:
“Any carbohydrates (or sugars) that cannot be hydrolyzed any further to give simpler
sugars.”
 Structure:
All monosaccharides consist of a carbon chain backbone, and each carbon
on that chain is bound to an oxygen, with either a single or double bond. On the
monosaccharide, there is only one carbon atom that has a double bond to the oxygen;
the remaining carbon atoms all have single bonds.

 Isomerism in monosaccharides:
Monosaccharides show 2 types of isomerism, that
are:

 Structural isomerism which is defined as isomers having identical molecular

formulas but differing in the order in which the individual atoms are connected.

 Stereoisomerism in which isomers have the same molecular formula and the
same structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of the atoms in
the molecule.
  Examples
 Structural isomerism: Glucose and fructose have the same chemical formula C6H12O6,
but they differ in the organization of their atoms meaning that its atoms are actually bonded
together in a different order as follows:

 Stereoisomerism: Glucose and galactose are stereoisomers of each other: their atoms are
bonded together in the same order, but they have a different 3D organization of atoms
around one of their asymmetric carbons as follows:
 Properties of monosaccharides:

 They can easily dissolve in water.

 They cannot be broken down into simpler sugars.
 They are sweet in taste.
 They are reducing in nature.
 They show the phenomenon of stereo-isomerism.
2. POLYSACCHARIDES:
Polysaccharides are long-chain polymeric carbohydrates
composed of tens to hundreds of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic
linkages. They yield monosaccharide units upon hydrolysis.
 Functions of Polysaccharides:
The three main functions of polysaccharides are:

 Providing structural support (Cellulose is the primary support molecule in plants,

while fungi and insects rely on chitin.)

 Storing energy (Examples of storage polysaccharides are starch in plants and

glycogen in animals)

 Sending cellular communication signals (Polysaccharides used for cellular

communication include glycoproteins, peptidoglycans, glycosides, and
glycolipids)

 Examples:

1. Starch: It is found in fruits, grains, seeds, and tubers. It is the main source of
carbohydrates for animals. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose molecules. Starches are
of two types, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose starches have unbranched chains
of glucose and are soluble in hot water. Amylopectin starches have branched chains
and are insoluble in hot or cold water. Starches give blue color with iodine.

2. Glycogen: It is also called animal starch. It is the chief form of carbohydrate stored
in animal body. It is found abundantly in liver and muscles, though found in all
animal cells. It is insoluble in water, and gives red color with iodine. It also yields
glucose on hydrolysis.

3. Cellulose: It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature. Cotton is the pure form
of cellulose. It is the main constituent of cell walls of plants and is highly insoluble
in water. On hydrolysis it also yields glucose molecules. It is not digested in the
human digestive tract. In the herbivores, it is digested because of micro-organisms
(bacteria, yeasts, protozoa) in their digestive tract. These micro-organisms secrete
an enzyme called cellulase for its digestion. Cellulose gives no color with iodine.