CHAPTER 2: TABULAR AND GRAOHICAL METHODS

2.1 METHODS TO VISUALIZE A CATEGORICAL VARIABLE

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION FOR A CATEGORICAL VARIABLE- A table that groups the
observations of a variable into categories or intervals and records the number of
observations that fall into each category or interval.
BAR CHART- A graph that depicts the frequency or relative frequency of each
category of a categorical variable as a series of horizontal or vertical bars,
the lengths of which are proportional to the values that are to be depicted.
PIE CHART- A segmented circle portraying the categories and relative sizes
for a categorical variable.

2.2 METHODS TO VISUALIZE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO CATEGORICAL VARIABLES

CONTIGENCY TABLE- A table that shows frequencies for two categorical
variables, x and y, where each cell represents a mutually exclusive combination
of the pair of x and y observations.
STACKED COLUMN CHART- Graph of a contingency table; depicts more than one
categorical variable and allows for the comparison of composition within each
category.

2.3 METHODS TO VISUALIZE A NUMERICAL VARIABLE

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION FOR A NUMERICAL VARIABLE- The frequency of a class
interval is the number of observations that occur in a particular predefined
interval.
GUIDELINES:
1. Intervals are mutually exclusive. Intervals do not overlap and
each observation falls into one, and only one interval
2. The total number of intervals in a frequency distribution
usually ranges from 5 to 20.
3. The intervals are exhaustive. The total number covers the
entire sample (or population)
4. Interval limits are easy to recognize and interpret.
FORMULA TO FIND THE WIDTH OF EACH INTERVAL:
(Maximum-Minimum)/Number of Intervals
HISTOGRAM- A graphical depiction of a frequency or a relative frequency
distribution for a numerical variable; series of rectangles where the width and
height of each rectangle represent the interval width and frequency (or relative
frequency) of the respective interval.
POLYGON- For a numerical variable, a graph of a frequency or relative
frequency distribution in which lines connect a series of neighboring points,
where each point represents the midpoint of a particular interval and its
associated frequency or relative frequency.
OGIVE- For a numerical variable, a graph of the cumulative frequency or
cumulative relative frequency distribution in which lines connect a series of
neighboring points, where each point represents the upper limit of each interval
and its corresponding cumulative frequency or cumulative relative frequency.

2.4 MORE DATA VISUALIZATION METHODS

SCATTERPLOT- A graphical tool that helps in determining whether or not two
numerical variables are related in some systematic way. Each point in the diagram
represents a pair of observations of the two variables.
- is a type of graph that allows researchers to examine the
relationship between two variables.
SCATTERPLOT WITH CATEGORICAL VARIABLE- A modification of a basic scatterplot
that incorporates a categorical variable.
LINE CHART- A graph that connects the consecutive observations of a
numerical variable with a line.

2.5 STEM AND LEAF DIAGRAM- A visual method of displaying a numerical variable
where each observation is separated into two parts: a stem, which consists of the
leftmost digits, and a leaf, which consists of the last digit.

Cumulative relative frequency

A line chart tends to be used to track changes of the variable over time.

A scatterplot with a categorical variable needs how many variables? 3