History - III

What is History?
03 January 2019 13:01
• Book: 'What is History?' by E.H. Carr.

• Traditionally, 'history' has been understood as being synonymous to 'past'.
• History comes in through a filtration of the past, and history has been defined as 'an unending
dialogue between past and present'. This is because history is a selective study of the past.
PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY
• 'Past' is infinite. The observer has observed a limited portion of this past, and a selected part of
this observed past is ingrain ed in one's memory. Only part of this is remembered and recorded,
and even then, it is filtered into history that has temporal value, and history which sur vives the
test of time. Out of this, the part that comes to the historians' notice is grasped. Whatever is
understood is then checked/verified for credibility, and then expounded and narrated.
PAST
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OBSERVED
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REMEMBERED
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RECORDED
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SURVIVE THE TEST OF TIME
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PART THAT COMES TO THE HISTORIANS' ATTENTION
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GRASPED PORTION
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CREDIBLE HISTORY
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PART WHICH IS EXPOUNDED AND NARRATED
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WHAT IS FACT?
• 'Fact is the datum of experience' - Oxford English Dictionary

• There are two types of fact: Hard and soft facts. Hard facts are verifiable, and undisputed. Soft
facts are the facts subject to interpretation, and have an element of understanding.
FACT AND HISTORICAL FACT: DISTINCTION
• To give an example, when the facts about Cleopatra are to be noted, whether Cleopatra has a
sharp or round nose is irrelevant as a historical fact. Historical facts are historical due to their
relevance and importance.
• The phrase 'Crossing the Rubicon' can be used to understand what distinguishes historical fact
from other facts. Example, whi le there were princesses even in the past, Princess Meghan
Markle was the first half-black Princess, and this is a historical fact as it crosses the Rubicon
because of its uniqueness.
POSITIVISM AND EMPIRICISM
• Positivism: Positivism talks about an emphasis on science. What positivists believe, is that fact is
sacred. Facts are, by themselves, in herently explanatory. They believe that history is a science,
and historical facts are as pure and as true as scientific facts.
"Fact is sacred but opinion is free" - C.P. Scott
• Empiricism: Fact by themselves, is not history. Historians dig out facts, and their interpretation
becomes history. This school focuses o n interpretation as the basic tenet of history.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________ "All history is contemporary
history" - E.H. Carr
• What Carr means here, is that the past has to be looked at, in the eyes of the present. The
interpretation of the past is therefore, made by understanding the tendencies that the present
provides. An understanding of the society in which one exists, allows for a better understand ing
of the society that existed earlier, and the changes in this society as opposed to the earlier one.
• Technological tools further aid in the understanding of the past.
"All history is the history of thought" - E.H. Carr
• This means that ideology is shaped by historical events, and the understanding of historical events
is necessarily an underst anding of the inherent ideology and thought that inspired such events.
The legacies of the events in history can be seen in due course of time.
Understanding History Page 1

Types of History
03 January 201915:01
1. Social History: This is linked to sociology, and talks about the societal structure and
functions, and their evolution over time.
2. Political History: The history of kings, evolution of understanding of State, and political
developments on ruling.
3. Economic History: History of the understanding of economics, growth of the subject and
trade history, history of how trade interactions shaped historical facts.
4. Intellectual History: Intellectual history emerged in the 1960s and 70s. This is the history of
ideas.
5. Environmental History: This emerged in the 60s and 70s, and talks about the history of the
environmental structure, and changes over time.
6. Military History: Winston Churchill's 'History of the Second World War' is good for both
military and diplomatic history.
This talks about the evolution of military regimes and strategies.
7. Diplomatic History: This talks about the history of diplomacy.
• Voltaire inspired a term 'Philosophy of History'. He spoke about how history was to be written,
what history was and why it was necessary.
The Renaissance model, which Voltaire emphasized upon of historical writing emphasized
how history was to be scientific, objectively interpreted. This is known as 'historiography'.

Inter-Disciplinary Approach to History
04 January 201914:28
1. Geography: History has a very close interaction with geography. Cartography and maps have
an important role to play in the understanding of territorial extent and borders. There are two
branches of history in this respect, military and diplomatic history. For these types of history,
a proper understanding of geography is necessary.
E.g., For writing the history of the Kargil War, the topography of the region, the people
residing there, the weather and meteorological conditions have to be looked into in order to get
a complete understanding of its diplomatic history. A field study may further be necessitated
for this purpose.
Geographical dominance: England played an important role for three centuries, and enjoyed
a dominant position in world politics. This historical dominance was caused because of their
geographical separation from mainland Europe, and the English Channel as a geographic
feature became an indispensable part which helped them assert their continued dominance.
Similarly, America and its geographical isolation resulted in no military attack to the
American mainland before 9/11.
However, because of technological developments, the use of geographical advantages has
diminished with the use of ICBMs, etc. Still, geography has an important role to play in the
development of history.
National Character Formation: Geography has often caused the divide and national
character formation, resulting in protectionist tendencies because one feels a sense of
togetherness with these people. This inspires a nationalist ideology, because of a feeling of
oneness. Geography acts as a basic feature for the creation of 'State' and 'nation' in concept for
this purpose. Eg.
Separatist tendencies in the U.S., separatist tendencies in the North-East or in Pakistan, the
Naga separatist movement. History of the Distant Past: For eras for which there is no
written record or documented evidence, history is oft written by looking at the landscapes,
artefacts though archaeological excavation and geographical features play an important role
in the understanding in the same.
Climate and its impact: Tropical climatic conditions, which cause little to no variations in
weather conditions in the year, aid the existence of civilizations. Population growth is higher
in the tropical regions, and climate definitely in that sense, has an impact on civilization
growth over time.
Geopolitics: Geopolitics means the interaction of geography with politics. The development
of national foreign policies is inextricably linked with both history and geography e.g., Israel-
Palestine divide, North Korea-South Korea divide.
Resources: The discovery of Australia as a 'gold-mine', is an important example of the
geographical and historical example of resources.
2. Economics:
Economic history: Economics essentially studies humans' economic activity, while history is
an overall understanding of human activity over a period of time. This creates an obvious link
between the two disciplines. Some of the great economic events have shaped history and are
an important part even in the study of economics eg. The Great Depression, Liberalization,
Capitalism. Econometrics also further allows for a data analysis of historic problems.
Colonial Legacy: Colonialism in essence was influenced by economics, because even the
British initially started out as traders in the economy. The problem of lop-sided development
in certain parts of India, is also a consequence of the British, and is an economic development
influenced by history. Furthermore, tax policies given by the British are historically given,
some have been abandoned in due course while the rest have survived the test of time.
Naxalism, imposed by Lord Cornwallis, had a further economic and historical impact.
3. Psychology: Psychology again has an interaction with history, in terms of how psychology is
about motives and reasons behind human actions. Psychology is useful in understanding those
heroes in history, who impacted the world in their own way. However, looking at the psyche
of those in history, can help us understand the ideology and historical development with the
help of psychology.
Certain ideologies like jingoism or mass hysteria could be understood better through
psychological studies, and in this sense, history has an undeniable link with the study of
psychology. Understanding a mob effect or a superiority complex in a historical context, can
be aided by a study of psychology with history. How behaviour shapes a revolution, or creates
movements, can be better understood by a psychological study of history. The change in
psychological perspective over time can be better understood over time with a connected
study between history and psychology.

Writing Biographies and Autobiographies: Knowledge of a person in-depth has to be
acquired so that a better insight into a person's work can be obtained. Information in this way,
has to be collected in order to understand the psychology of the person. Freudian and post-
Freudian psychology is helpful in understanding the person about whom the biography is to be
written.
4. Sociology: The relationship of history with sociology is long-standing, in how sociology

found its origin in history. This is because sociology studies the development of society and
social institutions, and a historical perspective allows for the chronological evolutionary
understanding of this particular subject. This interaction is therefore, patently evident in the
application of the theories in sociology. The development of sociological methods is also
influenced by trial and error in history. Sociology by itself, cannot exist without social history.
5. Political Science: A British scholar, John Seeley, said that history without political science has
no fruit, while political science without history has no root. This is the intricate connection between
history and political science. During the Renaissance, political science emerged out of history when
the new discussions about the idea of State emerged in political rhetoric. Political science as a
discipline, emerged from political history. Political history, which is a narration of the history of
political institutions ideologies. Political science emerged because of a need to understand political
institutions in detail, and the need for the formulation of theories. Political science is the analytical
and theoretical understanding of political history. International relations emerged as an independent
study in the 20th Century, as a result of history.
6. Law: Legal history itself shows the development of legal institutions as a result of history.
The Constitution of India for instance, also came out as a result of the development of legal
institutions. The development of court system, can also be understood with a joint study for
history and law. The background and evolution of law can also be understood in a historical
context.
7. Philosophy: Philosophy of history itself provides a methodology for historians to craft, write
history. This craft is known as historigraphy. The Renaissance model also pl
History as Progress
07 January 2019 13:43
▪ There are many different dimensions and understandings of what progress is. The understanding
of history is undeniably and closely linked to the idea of progress.
▪ The basic question that has to be asked in this respect is: What are the criteria to determine the
"progressiveness" of a person or policy?
ELEMENTS OF PROGRESSIVENESS
▪ There has to be a goal, which is intended to lead society towards development of some kind
[social, economic, political, etc.]. Acceptability is another criteria of determining progress.
Economics adds another idea and dimension to progressiveness [GDP growth]. Development of
science and technology adds a fourth dimension. Development has to be sustainable over a
considerably long period of time.
a. Accumulation of material resources; b. Scientific advancement; c. Mastery over the

environment; d. The Level of Consciousness;
▪ History is progress with trough and peaks. History is progress with the accumulated experience
of the past. Fire and wheel
Objectivity, Subjectivity and Bias in History
09 January 201914:36
• There is a relation between objectivity, subjectivity and bias. While the terms have been used
otherwise.
• Objectivity indicates absolute truth as to a particular statement or fact.
• "Objectivity is the capacity to rise above the limited vision of one's own situation in society and
in history, and a capacity to project one's vision in the future".
- E.H. Carr
This definition can be related to certain examples, such as Galileo, when he said that the earth
revolved around the sun.
For this, he was charged for apostacy and eventually punished to death [Cue: capacity to rise
above the limited vision of one's own situation].
• "Subjectivity means how subjective history is to be viewed and presented"
-E.H. Carr
• Subjectivity is an interpretation of the different instances that happen in history.
• Bias is deliberate, and intrinsic. When bias is present, one looks at things in a restrictive
manner, only in terms of what he can prove. Bias can be equated with pattern writing, and
something which is coloured with opinion and ideology over fact. E.g., Arun Sawhney, who
authored "Missionary in India", on the basis of the RSS ideology, thereby disregarding the
positive aspect of missionaries in favour of advocating solely the negatives that they presented.
In response to this book, a missionary wrote a point by point rebuttal of Arun Sawhney's book.
Why is there subjectivity in history?
• An objective history is impossible, as it merely delves into facts. Interpretation of historical

facts is necessary, as a historian brings into history an analysis which is inherent to the
understanding of the facts. However, the possibility of bias necessitates a focus on objectivity in
history.
• History is how we evaluate events, personalities, cultures and ideas. Subjectivity in
interpretation for these particular aspects is natural, as historians tend to view these from
different perspectives or lenses. These lenses could be Cultural, Political, Marxist, Rightist,
Feminist.

1. Personality: A historian is not firstly a historian. He is a member of society. And over time, he
has passed through a process of socialization, and his personality has been moulded by the
socialization and community that he has lived in through his life. As one lives with his parents,
his personality is shaped by his interactions and conflicts. Naturally, this personality would
reflect in that person's writing [For instance, the notion that liberalism is the ideology for the
millennial population].
2. Ideology: Ideology, like personality, is intrinsic to a person. Generally, intellectuals for
instance, portray a Leftist lineation. They are accordingly influenced by a Marxist approach.
Marxist approach to history: Marxist approach mainly tends to enter economics and trade. He
believes that economics is the base for wars and conflicts in the world. Economic undertones
can be seen in every sphere of interaction and conflict. Problem is that if a rational approach is
taken, economics cannot be taken as the sole factor. Religion, social statuses, culture, ethnicity
are some other driving factors which influence humans to move or be involved in economic
activity. Marx believed religion to be opium, and therefore disregarded the importance of
religion as an important driving factor for human beings. Marxism, because of this, has come
into conflict with the Political Right. Marxism again talks about history from the Renaissance
model, focusing on a historical and scientific inquiry. Living historians at present also have a
Marxist approach to history, requiring hard evidence for justification.
3. Religion: The historian's religion, for instance, J.N. Sarkar and Faruqqi, you would find that
Sarkar is very critical of Aurangzeb and his policies. But Faruqqi tends to defend Aurangzeb.
He did not deny that Aurangzeb was destructive, he simply said that he had his reasons for the
same. He justified Aurangzeb's destruction of temples, by stating that the Mughal empire was at
its largest during the period of Aurangzeb. Throughout his period, Aurangzeb was involved in
wars. For financing the wars, he needed money, and the Southern temples which were great
repositories of wealth, were destroyed in order to acquire said wealth. According to him,
religious fanaticism was not the reason for the destruction of temples, the reason for a 'show of
glory'. Even Hindus destroyed other temples when they attacked each other. Both arguments are
credible and well-reasoned, but their religion has influenced his subjectivity. Although religion
is not that widespread a factor.
4. Inference: Inference is intuition, or intelligent guessing. 'Where there is smoke, there is a fire'.
Archive positivism, is a phenomena where the historian attempts to fill gaps in history. E.g., if
the history of the Mauryan period is to be written, and a certain 20-30 years' evidence is not
found, then those 20-30 years' history is filled out by inference.

5. Interest: A historian who chooses to work in a particular field of study, chooses the same out of
interest. If someone chooses something with a particular interest, it brings a natural subjectivity
to the interpretation.
We cannot have objective history, as mere fact without analysis cannot make history. Subjectivity by
itself, is not a problem. But subjectivity should not descend to the level of prejudice or bias. If
historians are using their work solely to propagate their ideology, they should be boycotted by the
academic community.
• Subjectivity could also be contained by adopting the Renaissance model of history writing.
First, facts have to be straight, then there has to be rational and scientific interpretation of the
facts. This model could minimize subjectivity in history. Otherwise, perspective in any field,
plays a very important role.

Historical Evidence
10 January 2019 14:47
SOURCES OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
1. Archaeological sources;
In this criteria, inscriptions by Ashoka for instance, can be classified. Inscriptions can be found
in several forms. Numismatics or coins, are also evidenced as historical evidence. Coins show
very unique characteristics. For instance, Akbar, in the Mughal period, issued a Vishnu-Lakshmi
coin. This allowed for the interpretation that Akbar was a liberal who was all-accepting of the
Hindu culture. By the Gupta period, there was a debasement of the gold content, this shows the
then decline of the Indian economy.
Artefacts which come out of excavations also act as archaeological sources. A dancing bronze
statue of a dancing girl, for instance, when it came into the light of the historians, led to the idea
that the society was materialistic and utilitarian. The statue was depicted as nude, and this led to
the interpretation as to whether the dancing girl was a prostitute or whether nudism was
sanctioned in society. National archives and the archives of the India House in London, show
the evidences of history.
2. Literary sources;
They could be primary or secondary sources. Biographies etc., are secondary sources. Letters,
diaries, speeches are primary sources. Literary sources have existed for a long period of time,
and Vedic history was documented in the early ages. India has a very rich past in this regard, in
how a lot of our artefacts have been smuggled to European markets. The Nalanda University
library burning, or foreign travellers who carried Indian manuscripts to China. This had a
positive effect, in how Buddhism spread to China and Japan.
3. Foreign sources;
USE OF EVIDENCE IN THE WRITING OF HISTORY
Myth and History: Myth might have come across for centuries, but there is no tangible evidence to
justify the same. Eg. Mahabharata, Ramayana. Problem is that when one tries to justify such events,
they do not find any evidence. So it is considered mythology and not history. E.g., the history of
Dwarka. Historians do not deny its happening, but they do not accept it in the absence of hard
evidence.

Criteria for the Credibility of Historical Evidence
1. Was the primary witness able to tell the truth?

This can be understood through a number of parameters.
Spatial and temporal closeness: When the incident is happening, whether or not the witness
was present on the scene or whether he was observing from 100 metres. A better perspective is
obviously found closer. His proximity with the incident is an important aspect. Temporal
closeness, refers to whether he was there at the time of the incident, or whether he came in
minutes, days months or years after.
Competence of the observer: The aspects of the observer, like his professionalism or role in
the incident, is an important factor in determining whether or not the observer was able to tell
the truth about the historical fact.
Degree of attention: Whether the primary witness was paying complete attention, allows for a
determination of the level of truth.
2. Willingness to tell the truth
This talks about the intention of the observer in putting forward evidence. The observer may
pervert the truth, for different reasons. He may hide the truth, or may put forward a partial
truth. The truth would in this case, be compromised and influenced by bias.
Bias: Observer bias may be biased towards the object of his observations. This bias may be
deliberate or unintentional.
Literary Style: Furthermore, a literary style difference may in turn, impact the truth. A lot of
such observers have written in a poetic style, giving scope for interpretation. Literary style, in
this context, becomes very important.
Formalities and conventions: Formalities and conventions also pose a problem behind
the ascertaining the real truth. Example of the American War of Independence, whose
declaration was only signed on August 2, 1776 but which is still celebrated on July 4.
3. Accuracy of the report- so many travellers visited and wrote their own accounts of
what they observed. This clearly makes analysing how accurate these reports are
important.
Eg in megathenese’s indica he wrote that india does not have slaves which is jot true
but came top that inference due the conditions they were in which were much better

compared to those in America, its nature was not as harsh as cokmpared to how
slavery was practised in other parts of the world.
4. Independent corroboration
Pulkesan II defeated King Harshvardhan. This means to test the witness from other sources, in
order to let go of any exaggeration or misguidance that one source provides. Banabhata did not
mention that account in his biography of history so recheking it from other sources is important
5. Reputation of the author

The reputation of the person/observer who has written the report works in his favour or against
him. If he is known for writing the truth, it becomes significant in determining whether or not
such a person's evidence would be considered credible.
6. Lack of self-contradiction
The work in the document has to be free from self-contradiction. Refuting something that has
been stated by you, is something that reduces the credibility of the evidence. E.g., Manusmriti
was full of self-contradiction. Therefore, people found out that Manusmriti was not written by
Manu, and that it was compiled over several ages by someone named Bhrigu.
7. Absence of Contradiction from other sources

It becomes disputable and less credible if there are other sources which directly contradict the
proposition so put forth. Other sources should support that account
8. Freedom from anachronism

The work should be free of anachronism. It should not be chronicled wrongly, and it should
be exact in its chronology. If you put Kalidas in modern period that would create problem
Any fool can create history, but writing history is a very important task and requires a lot of
experience and expertise/
Extra – Marxist have followed all these thing but they have tend to overlook indias
knowledge. We have a lot of evidences and types of sciences we have developed and
Marxists historians have tend to ignore all these aspects or have written about it from a very

hollow point of view. These types of thing are what have affected Indian history related to
seciens
Secondly we hardly find phd today in history of science.
Thirdly, Most of the history written by Marxists is interpreted by british and muslijm writers
and they have reputation of being very biased.
Another problem with Indian history is that we have a lot of credible accounts written by
people like court poets which tended to exaggerated a lot and writing style was also in prose
form. Kalhan’s rajtarangini is one of the few accounts considered to be fairly objective and
not exaggerated.
History has also been written from the perspective of the victors and not the common man
this again is problematic as far as accuracy of them is concerned
“India has a rich past but a poor sense of History”- Om Prakash (Professor of History,
National Law University Jodhpur)

Controversies in History
12 January 2023 14:24
BACKGROUND
• There was no official writing in India, until the British period. The first historical writing in
India came from James Mill, who made an account, "History of India" in the 1820s was the first
official account of the history of India. The book consists of 5 volumes. One of the earliest
writings of history of India. Indian culture, traditions, mythology all was in this book. How it
delegitimises India’s learning. One of the biggest criticism is about into commonilization of
Indian history. He divided it into 3 parts, which was criticised by Gandhi that this is wrong
history.
• What good would they have found in rewriting history? The idea of a benevolent despot, in
order to promote the idea that they were reformists. The connotation which could be brought
from the White Man's Burden, the Civilization Project, etc., and they accordingly wanted to
promote ideological hegemony. This was the reason James Mill wrote the history of India. This
helped prolong their rule. Legitimacy to a ruling class can be provided by alteration of history.
• Hitler and Napoleon similarly, also altered history. Everywhere, James Mill wrote of the ridicule
of the Indian Gods and culture. One of the problems of Mill's work, was periodization. He
divided the history of India into three periods. He called these periods Hindu India, Muslim
India and British India.
• Historians found this periodization to be a root of communal history. Communalization crept
into the writing of history, and it impacted history at its very root. Gandhi accordingly said, "It is
better to not teach history than to teach a coloured history". Accordingly, Hindu India was
shown as thriving, while medieval Muslim India was classified as having slaughtered the initial
thriving.
• The seeping into a person's consciousness that it took place was perhaps not envisaged to have
been to such a great degree.
• Macaulay, Wilson Smith and the Cambridge School's views on Indian history, which denied the
existence of the Indian Freedom Struggle, calling the movement the 'charge of rebels against the
benevolent British Raj'.
• The Muslim rulers' medieval period was called the 'Dark Age'. While medieval India had great
expansion of art, culture and lifestyle, these aspects were not highlighted. In the Mughal period,
the Rajputs were the right hand of the Mughal rulers. Terming all suppressed as Hindus and all

the oppressors as Muslims was factually incorrect, as for a small bribe, the Rajputs were allowed
to autonomously run administration.
POST-1947 INDIA
• The nationalist and Marxist accounts of history were the only accounts of history present at this
point.
There was no true historical account at this point. The Government of India, under Nehru, felt
the need to write a history of India. R.C. Majumdar was given the task to write the official
history of India. Mentions about golden age of India, legitimized India’s history and also
exaggerated India’s achievements. Consisted of 10-11 volumes. Marxist attacked by saying that
there is an exaggeration. Deviation of gold coins.
• At this point, since colonial rule had just ended, there was a tendency to glorify Indian history.
Majumdar realized that due to governmental interference and their desire to write history a
certain way, he would not be able to write history properly. He therefore, resigned. Majumdar
was a nationalist.
• In 1977-80, the altering of history textbooks took place. This happened due to the Janata Dal
government, led by Morarji Desai. Most of the textbooks authored by Romilla Thapar for
instance, said that they did not criticize the Mughal period as a dark age, and they did not talk
about the policies of Aurangzeb.
• Another criticism was that the textbooks did not talk about Aurobindo Ghosh and Lokmanya
Tilak and their achievements much, in the sense that their achievements had not been
emphasized. Based on this, they sought to change the textbook. RSS and other rightist groups
supported the rewriting of the textbooks. They could not make substantial change however,
because they raised controversy in India.
• In the 1990s, after the Babri Masjid demolition on December 6, 1992, the BJP came to power in
a number of states. Around 1993, the National Steering Committee on Textbook Evaluation
submitted its report that in a number of states where BJP came to power, the textbook was
changed and reflected a communal view of the past of Indian nation. Altered in Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Thousands of RSS-run schools like Sarasvati
Shishumandir and Adarsh Vidyamandir taught a very narrow communalized history of India.
They had a network of all these schools. This report explained the gravity of the situation in

India. In such schools, it was taught for instance, that The Iliad (study what is iliad) was inspired
by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It also said that Alexander was defeated by Porus. It also
stated that Samudragupta built the Qutub Minar.
• Ncert textbooks were modified in transaction to this.
TALKED US INTO AN ARTICLE SMH WHICH HE SENT ON MAIL.
POST-2000 CONTROVERSIES IN HISTORY
1. The Beef-Eating Issue: Section IV of the book sent, has a reference by Romilla Thapar. This
talks about for special guests, beef was served as a manner of honour. Man's life was valued as
much as a hundred cows, and she said that cow was not a holy animal in the Vedas. Beef-eating
was not attacked by her, and the Aryans, who ate beef, ate the same only when the cows
became old. Milch cows were not slaughtered. Around 2nd to 3rd century BC, the cow started
to be perceived as a holy animal. Before that, while the cow was important, it was not holy.
Godhuliveda and terms such as these have been derived in the Vedas from cows. The rightist
view even today, rides on the idea that the cow was always considered a holy animal.
2. Medieval India as a dark age: The rightist approach. When we see the ancient india which
was a glorified and it is debatable (more of justified) as destruction of culture, invasions,
scriptures loss, educational institutions were burnt down took place in medieval India. The
arena involved developments like as happened in kushanas kingdom. Also, there was
architectural advancements, development in paintings. Though consisted of Hindu-Muslims
tussles.
3. Reference of Jainism:
4. Harappan Horse/Origins of Aryans: The Rightist groups had claims that the Aryans were
indigenous people. This issue has inspired politics. A German scholar, Friedrich Maxmillan,
gave this theory that the Aryans came from Central Asia. This Maxmillan theory was accepted
by most historians, as there is historical evidence to support the same. Evidences for the same
were:
a. The Boghaz Koi Inscription: The Boghaz Koi Inscription is located at Asia Minor. This
inscription is available today, and it is mentioned therein that in 1500 BC, five different
branches of the people went to five different parts of the world. One of these branches went

to Meluha. Before Megasthenes wrote 'Indica', Meluha was the term used to refer to India.
This inscription has also been tested by the Carbon Testing method. Therefore, this is
clinching evidence of the origin of the Aryans.
b. Nature of Civilization:The Indus civilization, which was before the Harappan civilization,
is claimed by the Rightist groups to have eventually become the Aryans. The Vedic
civilization was rural, while the Aryans were an urbanized civilization. How would it
become possible that an urban Aryan civilization became a rural Vedic civilization? This
contrast in qcivilization debunks this theory that the Indus civilization eventually became
the Aryans.
c. Philological Evidence: The science of phonetics is philology. Scholars have shown
philology to understand different words. Due to the languages, and dialects, similarities can
be found in different languages. A dictionary of such phonetic similarities between Sanskrit
and English has been developed.
d. Horse Evidence: This horse evidence has become extremely controversial in present times.
The Indus Valley civilization has no evidence of horses whatsoever. There are different
depictions, but none of these depictions have any horses. Horses were absent in the Indus
Valley civilization. Mules were present, but horses are usually even now, imported. This
horse evidence is significant, as horses were an important part of future Aryan success. The
Aryans from Central Asia defeated the indigenous population because of their horses.
In recent times, the NDA Government changed the NCERT Director and N.S. Rajaram was
made the NCERT Director. He claimed to have found a seal from the Indus Valley civilization
that contained a depiction of horses. This news reached the media, but when the seal was carbon
tested, it was found to be fake. He (Rajaram) sought to artificially change history.
The reason they did this, was because their thesis was that outsiders were the enemy. It was this
thesis, that would be in dispute if Aryans were considered outsiders. In order to prevent or cure
this dispute, they were hellbent on trying to prove that the Aryans were an indigenous
population. The Vedic Aryans came to India because of the scope for exploitation. Their
understanding personified natural phenomena, and was anthropomorphic. The Vedic religion
emerged as a result of this anthropomorphism.
In modern times, the Aryan Maxmillan theory has become the Aryan Migration Theory. This
theory merely states that the Aryans were not a violent population, and that they peacefully
migrated to India. The Aryans had matrimonial relations with the indigenous population.
Pathans, Jats for instance, depict Aryan features like fair faces, tall and handsome, etc.

5. Taj Mahal Controversy: The book by B.N. Oak, "" was banned. The issue again came up
later (Find notes)
6. RSS Run Schools/Madarasas: The Madarasa issue, or the Muslim seminary issue, pertained
from how while they were government-aided, they were taught religious extremism. The issue
was that while government aided the school, they expected a more secular education. The
problem further, was that there were Deobandhi Madarasas, who imparted religiously
extremist ideas which inherently caused brainwashing. Such Madarasas haven't been attacked
by the government so far, and this continues to raise issues.
AG Noorani- RSS and BJP: A division of labor
There were three types of schools the RSS ran, one such was the Sarasvati Shishumandir,
Balabharti and Adarsh Vidyamandir. In the class IV or V textbook, the RSS-run schools
inserted questions like, "Since formation of Babri Masjid, how many Rambhakts were killed?"
also, "Since the Rambhakts were killed, rivers of _____ started flowing" (Options: Water, blood,
milk). Lol xD. Students who used to come to these schools came in for the nominal fees, but the
overall quality of the education was average to below-average. The RSS aimed to create student
cadres. They taught science and math from a Hindutva perspective.
7. Euro-centric Bias: As the term denotes, it is something interpreted from a European
perspective. James Mill's periodization of India for instance, was biased. India's view by the
Europeans was biased, and provided incorrect fact interpretations. E.g., Kalidas was called the
'Shakespeare of India', even though Kalidas came before Shakespeare. Furthermore, Kalidas
wrote poetry, emphasized on nature. Shakespeare by contrast, wrote about the nature of human
beings. Additionally, the comparison of Shakespeare to Kalidas aimed at inspiring an inherent
sense of superiority in Shakespeare as Shakespeare barely talked about nature but wrote
poetries and dramas on human nature and romance. Similarly, Samudragupta was called the
'Napoleon of India'. But Samundragupta never got defeated however napoleon did. This Euro-
centric bias reflected on Indian historical writing. They tried to explain Indian history WRT to
European perspective. They belonged to the realist school. Vishkanya had some relevance.
8. Beef eating issue: missing. We have so much accounts of beef eating history in India. In rig
veda there was a term called gow ghana which means slayer of cows. People used to serve beef
as delicacies but, milk cows were not slaughtered.
When cow become important as a holy animal, it was not in vedic time, in fact many terms
emanated from cows themselves but they were not holy animals. Cow commanded very
important position in vedic economy and lifestyle, this is well evidenced fact. In later vedic

period there stared to be prohibition on slaughtering cows but they were different from
punishment was different for people of different classes.
When cow emerged as a holy animal? Rise of vashanism ie worship of god Vishnu rose in the
form of a cult and slowly a belief emerged that several deities resided in a cows body so from
that belief holiness of cows emerged.
Is history following the truth or appeasing a communities belief? Recent beef eating
controversies is linked with this issue. It is not reasonable to impose your will over other
especially if we talk about what kind of diet to take whether veg or non veg, in the recent times
this has again gained momentum
9. History v. Mythology: (Ramayana and mahabharatha)- in whole of India we find traces of

ramayan related stories and it becomes very difficult to believe them or disbelief them, but
important thing is to consider that what does the evidence says, for example for dinosaurs we
have their fossils but as such there is no archaeological sources to confirm then, but it is not
entirely possible to deny these as there are so many ideas and beliefs that resonate with these
mythologies but still they don’t fit into the criteria of history as per historians. Valmiki was
considered the person who wrote ramayan (adi ramayan) and was considered contemporary of
ram and likewise there are many varying versions of Ramayana which depicts different events
and thus historians say them as mythologies but we cannot exactly fit them into both.
Ram snehi sect in rajasthan- don’t refer to ram as a king or his somn but as someone as
omnipresent, away from all his politization.
10. Aryan system- well accepted evidence particulary german scholar max muller says that
Aryans came from central asia. After wards lots of research took place and ost historians with
some modification accepted that they came form central asia. IN recent times some rightist
groups have said that they are indegenious, evidence says that in central aisa, aisa minor, a
Boglaj koi inscription is there and thedate of its writing is same as the time Aryans came from
central asia, it provides account of Aryans movement and also mention different places they
moved ot including meluha(Ancient India).
Another evidence is similarity or dissimalrity between indus valley (urban) and vedic
civilization(rural), also the horses were absent in indus valley civilization but Aryan came on
horse back as it was the fastest mode back then . Arabic horses are the best quality horses and

Indian horses are the bad quality horses, this horse evidence goes infavour that they came from
central asia.
Another evidence in the philological evidence, Sanskrit was also part of indo- European
language , this could not have been possible unless people were same, this was also the reason
that germans were interested in Indian culture.
So why did the Aryans came to india?
Central asia at that time was not considered rich, people were not aware of its resources so
people in search of resources including water came to these parts. Different branches went to
different places.
Why this issue has become so important in recent times?

IN order to manipulate this then NCERT director, he created a caste of horse and created
evidence that it was found in indus valley so why? To treat outsiders as enemies so to disprove
that Aryans also came from outside they came up with this sort of idea.
Now the Aryan invasion theory has now been modified to Aryan migration theory. This is the
slight change form max mullers theory.
On the ramsetu bridge, nasa has said that the creation is not man made, its possible that it was
created earlier due to Policy of Ashoka- controversy is that it has injected the idea of cowardice
element, tha is why the entire reference of Buddhism and text books has been deleted form text
books. The pacifist policy of Ashoka like the sacrificing policy affected the brahman income.
This entire reference has been removed from NCERT books. The brahmin class naturally took a
huge eco blow due to ashoka's policy, this pacifist policy of Ashoka has been revered in the west
as weel , so this far right decision does not seem right and not trustworthy.
Taj Mahal: PN Oak published the book showjng it as an hindu monument and it was
immediately stopped by government of India. It was claimed so due to the designs on it which
were of dominantly hindu style.
Qutub minar- it was made by Samudra gupta, and was known, it has been heard by many of us
that qutub Uddin started making it and it was completed by his son. During the time of Tuglaq
iron pillar belonging to gupta period, it was taken down and brought near to qutub minar.

11. Varna System: R.S. Sharma, Class XI, the book on history, talks about the emergence of the
Varna system in the Rigvedic period. He wrote that there was no rigidity of caste earlier, and
everyone performed different professions. In the post-Vedic period, this discrimination and rigidity
became widespread. The four Varnas were created and professions in turn became subsequently
"assigned" by birth. The NDA Government, deleted the whole portion from the R.S. Sharma book
which referred to the Vedic system in this light. [pp. 240-241 in the book]
The NDA Government's principal objection came from how they believed the practice was
wrong, and that references to the same should not have been made in historical textbooks. It was
something which questioned the 'Golden Period of Ancient India', and was hence deleted.
12. Teg Bahadur: Teg Bahadur was a Sikh guru who was beheaded by Aurangzeb. He was
beheaded because he allegedly converted some Muslims to Sikhs. In the Ancient History of India by
Satish Chandra, where he wrote about the Sikhs, he wrote that Guru Teg Bahadur was involved in
"plunder and repine" in the collection of taxes. The interpretation that came out was that Teg
Bahadur was involved in rape. The Sikh community attacked Satish Chandra, who simply asked
them to look up the word 'repine', which meant plunder and not rape.
13. California Textbook Controversy: This controversy was raised by Hindutva organizations in
California. They raised the question as to the depiction of Hinduism in American textbooks.
Hinduism was not mentioned properly, and no proper analysis of Hinduism's treatment of women or
the caste system had been undertaken, and Hindus were demeaned. The California State Board
appointed a scholar to rectify the same, and Shiva Vajpayee, who was inserted, started to look for
materials. Shiva Vajpayee was influenced by the Hindutva groups, and Hinduism was depicted
differently. Several professors in history raised questions as to depiction. Oxford professors like
Steve Farmer and Michael Witzer (professor of Sanskrit), joined by 45 professors made a letter to
the California State Education Board and based on this recommendation, Shiva Vajpayee's history
was quashed. In 2009, after a case was filed, a compromise took place and the case was closed. This
controversy died down eventually.
History and Policy

31 January 201911:04
Last part of the module: What role does History have in the policy making of the State?

Indian Scenario Global Scenario
1. India's Foreign Policy and NAM :

Non-Alignment:
190 years of colonial domination had made the nation strongly interested in having an independent
foreign policy. The past experience of subjugation was a warning. India’s sovereignty was governed
by foreign states for 190 years. Even Freedom Fighters often talked of the fact (pre-independence)
that Independent India would have an independent foreign policy. Pakistan held the Americans'
hands- but is still an aid based economy. In contrast, India now even gives aid to some smaller
nations.
Had we not followed non-alignment India could not have built up muscle on the world stage. Our
past had a great impact on our foreign policy.
2. Divide and Rule
Divide and Rule was an official British Policy after 1857. It first privileged the Hindus against the
Muslims, then the other way.
Morley Minto Reforms. Communal Award.
How is this important today?
Best understood through our politicians- the politics of reservation, forms of the
divide and rule policy Our politicians in a way, are following the legacy of the
past.
Any way is used to entrap voters,
The past is still being carried on today in this manner
C.D- Citizenship amendment Bill.
3. Communal Violence Bill - 2009

It was brought into Parliament and there was great debate but it was not passed since no consensus
was reached.
In the last several decades, India has witnessed a series of communal riots. Need was felt to
recompense the victims. Who is responsible for a riot happening in a state? The District Collector,
the State Government? Who?
This bill came as a result of that historicity of communal violence.
If MHA records are seen, every year, a lot of people die due to communal violence in the country.

4. Second World War and History Department
After the Second WW was over, a Department of History was developed in many countries that
participated in the war. New nation was emerged.
Yalta conference- which territory would be claimed by who. History department would trace all the
history of the region so as to defend a claim or stake a claim, examine boundaries, collect data and so
on as part of the foreign policy.
Only recently, this department has been started in India along with the Ministry of External Affairs
in the North Block. The reason was being surrounded by two neighbours with whom we have
territorial disputes. India's nuclear triad, JN Dixit and +2 recommended it.
5. India's Tribal Policy

The British came up with oppressive Forest Acts and after 1947, when India become independent, a
section of the society were tribals. About seven percent. During the colonial period, there was a very
biased approach- some tribes were declared criminal tribes. Rebellions were there among tribals
Santhals. It was found that the sole responsible was the government. We have learnt from the past
and now know that we cannot force the tribals to adhere with the modern times.
Through the Forest Acts, they deprived them of the produce in the forests and therefore they rose in
rebellion. 'If you hit someone on the belly, they would naturally react'
Non-tribals started coming to tribal areas and began encroaching. The tribals lost everything and
became like ordinary labourers. In Jharkhand, present day free India, land cannot be brought by a
non-tribal from a tribal area- this ensures that the tribals forest rights are protected.
6. Civil Servants and Diplomats
Knowledge of a region's history is very relevant and the nature of the people, their culture is very
important. Suppose someone in the IFS is posted in Saudi Arabia, he must have a thorough
knowledge of the history of the place. When we see the UPSC aspirants, their training takes places in
places of historical importance like Mussoorie.

7. Indo-China Relationship: Nehru had very good chemistry with Zhou Enlai, we were liberal
towards China in certain policies. Inclusive are the panchsheel agreement, inclination towards Soviet
union, thought of inclusion of us in P5. After panchsheel, nehru was completely sure that peace is
all. The thing we learned from this si that in INTERNATIONAL level no one is no one’s friend or
enemy. We also started understanding China's mind and strategies and as seen in the last decade we
have tackled china very nicely. Things were good till the 50s, but when relations began to sour,
Nehru continued to believe that China would not attack. 'No one is a permanent friend and no one is
a permanent enemy in International Relations' Know the people, know the region, know their
culture, know their tradition. This was a very important step that was taken the central government.
We have learnt lessons from this relationship and now included them in our current policies. Like
RAW was formed after the war.
8. US Vietnam War
They have, in the future, avoided sending landed armies to fight wars. They have already done so
after thorough analysis. They've opted out of infantry battle.
9. Balkan Issue- Then and Now

Theatre of the First World War, This context as a volatile region, was the reason it was on the verge
of conflict in 1990. America then decided to get involved to contain the conflict since it felt that a
larger conflict could thereby be contained. (Taking in the 1912 lesson)
When Yugoslavia disintegrated, America intervened.

In 2011, when Obama became the president- their Libyan policy had the same logic. They chose to
intervene. Again, in 2014, in context of the Syrian crisis.
American interests were attempted to be safeguarded.
10. Rouge States and Nuclear Weapons
The P5 had nuclear weapons, originally. Later on, some other states started acquiring this capability.
India was one of them, but was not termed a rouge state because of its responsible behaviour.
Pakistan, North Korea and Iran.
This completely changed the body language of these states in the context of how far they were
willing to go and how threatening they could be.
After Pokhran, they tested in Chagai Hills, This resulted in nuclear parity. After that, most of the
infiltration problem happened after that. Because it was sure that after that, India's policy
perspective would change significantly. North Korea- a tiny state. David v. Goliath, USA v. N.K.
How is the behaviour of these rogue states changed after acquiring these nuclear weapons? There is a
similar pattern and trend.
After this, a number of states modified their nuclear doctrine and policy. In this context, the whole
incident has to be understood.
11. US Failure Theory

There is a theory emerging since the 1950s that America is declining. This emerged in the 1950s
during the serious slowdown in the economy, in the 70s - and then 80s and 90s- severe depression.
All of these crises contributed. 1-2 percent growth rate at present. However, this theory can always
be rebutted since we have seen that the nation has risen and fallen and such theories can be proved
right or wrong, through historical analogies.
Sub-prime mortgage crisis
12. Helsinki
A network called Historians without Borders. Emphasis is on how historical knowledge can be used
for conflict resolution and peace building.
One of the major kinds of conflict is ethnic conflict.
Environmental conflict. Historical knowledge has the power to eliminate shit facts.

Amartya Sen - The Enterprise of Knowledge
15 January 2019 14:29
• The newspapers were full of articles on history. In this background, Amartya Sen was invited to
give an address.
• In the very first sentence, he states that history could be made bunk through motivated
manipulation. The title herein talks about the interdependence of history with other sciences. In
this regard, it becomes a significant enterprise of knowledge.
• He has underlined three different aspects or utilities of historic interest.
a. Epistemic Interest;
b. Practical Reasons; [In order to address existing problems, we have to look to the past]
c. Idea Scrutiny; [In understanding a natural enquiry into the history of self. In the fights about
nation and nationalism, and in the development of an 'us and them' philosophy. Today,
identity politics like politics of caste, religion, region are invoked on the basis of history]
[Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan is the only Pakistani to win the Bharat Ratna. His son once said
that his Muslim identity was 1500 years old but his Pakistani identity was only 50 years old.
The interplay of this identity of Muslim and Pakistani for instance, in different contexts, is
identity scrutiny].
• Heterodoxy in his article talks about the approach which a professional should have. A person's
beliefs should not influence his work. Categorical simplification has been used as a term here,
referring to 'duty for duty's sake'. Heterodoxy has been described as a view which allows for
objectivity and history which is free from bias and in that sense, truly scientific.
• 'Meta-history' has been referred to as the history of histories. The way history is written in India,
has been described. Then, he refers to James Mill and his history-writing traditions.
• In the end, he talks about the references to a number of personalities. Brahmagupta, Al-Beruni,
Tagore, Aryabhata, Mill as been referred to.
a. Aryabhata: He discovered zero and the calculation for eclipses was given by him.
Aryabhata was during the Gupta period.
b. Brahmagupta: He was influenced by the orthodox approach. The belief of Rahu and Ketu
and Rahu eating the sun which caused eclipses, was believed.
c. Al-Beruni: He gave his reasoned criticism on both Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. He praised
Aryabhata and criticized Brahmagupta. Al-Beruni gave a very objective account of history.

d. James Mill: James Mill never came to India, and he gave observations about India while
sitting in Britain. He demeaned India while never having actually visited India. He almost
calls Indians good-for-nothing, without ever having met them. This was un-objective and
prejudiced interpretation.
• Sen also talks about positional objectivity, and brings up a discussion on the same. However,
this is subjectivity.

Aftermath of the Indian Freedom Struggle
25 January 2019 14:29
• The Freedom Struggle, by terminology, encompasses all the changes that took place during the
colonial period, including that of the colonial State. • Freedom Struggle refers not only to the
freedom struggle but also interface with the colonial state
• Why India Survives- Ramachandra Guha

• When India became independent, this was the thesis.
All theories of Western Nationalism failed in India but it did in India
•
1. Democracy and Constitutionalism:
a. The Indian Freedom Struggle
The political morals we follow are a direct legacy of the Indian Freedom Struggle.
The rise of civil liberties came along with the development of democratic systems.
Discourse about the model of polity is what resulted in our present democratic system.
The Right to dissent arose at the time: One could differ on different
issues and certain fundamental rights existed.
b. Adult Franchise:
Due to this, we have passed through popular voting and the election process.
The 1937 Election is an important landmark in this respect:
Through the GoI Act 1935, elections had to take place in various provinces and Indians were
even made Chief Ministers. Although the Indians received the right of self governance, real
power was not in their hands. Due to that reason, they could not initiate reforms or take
actions. "It has all the breaks, but no engines"- Nehru, in context of the Act.
c. 1931 Resolution on Fundamental Rights:

Through this Resolution, the concept that laid the
groundwork for the Fundamental Rights was laid.
d. The Idea of Non Violence:
Non Violence was an idea that was all pervasive in the Indian Freedom Struggle. This culture
of non-violence had a long term impact on the nature of the State. The nature of independent
India would have been very different had Independence been achieved violently. If
Independence is achieved through a non-violent method, it works out for everyone.
Legacy of the Freedom Struggle Page 29

Subhas Chandra Bose- 'If India achieves Independence, it would have to go through an
authoritarian government for a number of years'. India survives as one bloc because of the
idea of liberalism, not being partisan, the spirit of accommodation and so on united India.
Extremism cannot survive for long.
e. Sovereignty:
The freedom fighters had the vision of a sovereign nation, the reason was very obvious- 190
years of domination by a colonial power. The whole process of Constitutionalism that we can
trace from 1857 onwards through the Acts. These phases of Constitutionalism were very
important. Without them, the Constitution could never have been made.
f. Economic Legacy:
Immediately after Independence, India was a very backward nation, immensely complex
land relations full of poverty and famine. Millions were dying of starvation, and so on. India
developed tremendously on every count post Independence.
g. Social Justice:
The Indian National Congress under which Independence was fought had a very pro poor
orientation and believed in making policy from the people's perspective. Their ideological
influence and electoral success meant that the Independent India's policy reflected the same.
For instance:
"Gandhi's Talisman" - whenever you make a policy, think of the poorest of the poor and
whether it will benefit him.
The 1931 Karachi Resolution of the INC was very significant from the economic
perspective because it invoked the economic freedom for millions, primarily those who
were landless labour and had been exploited. In that context, this resolution reflected the
same.
h. Women Empowerment:
During the Freedom Struggle, women were active participants, especially in picketing.
1970s Feminist Movement: Sarojini Naidu, Aruna Asaf Ali- Underground radio station
during the Quit India Movement (Find more random names)
i. Untouchability:
"Untouchability is a crime against
man and God" - Gandhi Article 17
Caste
movements

in India
Gandhi and
'Bahujan'
CRITIQUE OF COLONIALISM
A brilliant critique of colonialism evolved as a result of the Indian Freedom Struggle, see,
Dadabhai Naorji's - Drain of Wealth, studies on the Railway system and how much they gave
back to the national economy and so on.
This critique of colonialism that evolved, helped in making anti-colonialism, India's policy
after Independence. After WW II, colonisation came in the new form of neo-colonialism.
This is what the USA and the USSR were doing by spreading their influence on the smaller
states through red imperialism and dollar imperialism. This opposition became part of our
State Policy.
STRATEGY TO DEAL WITH POVERTY
The leaders recognised that one of the most significant challenges India faced was poverty of
the masses (about ninety percent).. Through their writing (Gandhi et al. ) wanted to uplift the
villages and develop them. A comprehensive policy was to be developed and there was
constant debate and discussion about the best strategy.
One of the most important was the: Socialistic model, adopted after Independence to improve
the economic conditions of the poor.
As Gandhi had talked about, cottage industries were incentivised so that people become job
creators instead of simply job seekers relying on the government for job creation.
However, our policy also included a model for industrialisation.
When Nehru visited the USA and the USSR a definitive shape was laid down for the
industrialisation process in India, developing uran centres and so on
Big dam projects helped by the USSR. Bhakra Nangal Dam. "Dams are the temples of
modern India"
SELF RELIANCE
This was one of the stated aims of the Indian nation, by the 1970s we had so much deficit in
food supply that foreign aid had to indirectly be sought through the PL 480 deal with
America.

After the Green Revolution, however, we became self-sufficient in food grains.
INDIGENOUS CAPITAL
During the British period, foreign capital was the most important source, they did not invest,
they exploited. Emphasis was always on indigenous capital. Industrialists(homegrown ones)
who had gotten rich off the World War, were roped in to finance industries. For instance the
Tatas this explains our opposition to allowing the entry of MNCs and Foreign Capital
sources.
AGRARIAN RELATIONS
The Brits had left behind an extremely complex land relation system: ryotwari, Mahalwari,
Zamindari In 1948 the Abolition of Zamindari Act was passed .Through this act the
Zamindari system was to be ended. However, despite the act the Zamindari system continued
to flourish in some states. West Bengal and Kerala are examples of success of the policy
whereas Bihar was a failure. People evaded the land reforms (the Ceiling Act in particular)
by putting the land in the names of others.
Fodder scam-Jagannath Mishra
The Communist Government was able to handle the land relations properly. Till today, there
is a challenge.
For instance, the Bhoodan movement started by Vinoba Bhave in Pochampalli in Andhra
Pradesh. He was able to get millions of acres of land especially for landless labourers.
STATE INTERFERENCE
This interference slackened only after the Liberalisation Privatisation Globalisation reforms.
Pre liberalisation system was called the license raj or license quota raj because permissions
and clearances for business activity were painstaking to obtain and took an onerous amount
of time.
Corruption was a very serious problem that was a by-product of the license Raj.
1. Economic Legacy of the Indian Freedom Struggle:
• When India became independent, it was one of the most backward nations on the planet. It was
full of poverty, famines and complex land relations. At that point, millions were dying of
starvation. India has seen tremendous growth. The very important legacies in this regard are:

a. Critique of colonialism: Critique of colonialism, in terms of a Drain of Wealth Theory by
Dadabhai Naoroji. They brilliantly critiqued colonialism. However, it became legacy
primarily because anti-colonialism and anti-exploitation was condemned immediately,
following India's independence.
Colonialism came in a new form, known as neo-colonialism. The US and USSR were, in a
form of dollar imperialism, engaged in colonial activities. Our fundamental ground however,
led us to adopt a State policy wherein we did not adhere to, or fall prey to, colonial policies
imposed by these countries.
b. Strategy to deal with poverty: Gandhiji and others wrote about the poverty of the masses,
which was identified as a major factor affecting India's structural growth, and contributed to
one of the most significant challenges plaguing India. Gandhi basically spoke of the
agricultural aspect, and spoke about how cottage industries were to be elevated, for instance.
c. Industrialization: Nehru focused on industrialization, and modernizing India's economy was
one of the priorities were India.
d. Self-reliance: We had a vision of independence, and it affected our policies. After 1970,
India became a food exporter. Before 1970, we used to import grains of PL-480. However,
this scheme was eventually abandoned. It was this scheme that led to the food problem.
e. Indigenous capital: During the British period, foreign capital was the most important
source. Most foreigners were in India for the purpose of exploitation. India has to develop on
indigenous capital, and important foreign companies were not allowed in India during the
initial years.
f. Agrarian Relations: Britishers left behind some of the most complex land problems.
Agrarian problems were caused, and thorough land reforms were a priority. In 1948, they
accordingly abolished Zamindari. Through this Act, the zamindari system was done away
with. Despite this Act, zamindari system continued to flourish well. However, land reforms
were both a success and a failure. It was successful in states like West Bengal and Kerala,
while being largely unsuccessful in states like Bihar.
g. State Intervention: State intervention in the economy was higher. This intervention reduced
only after the LPG, and this intervention. State intervention.
OTHER LEGACIES OF THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE
a. Secularism: There has always been an overlap between religion and politics. Indian ideals of
secularism were understood as tolerance towards all religions. For example, the interplay of

religion and politics can be seen by the non co-operation movement and the Khilafat
movement. This was an instance of the mix-up between religion and politics. Gandhi's usage
of 'Ram Rajya' and like terms also incited communal tensions. The use of religious terms and
slogans resulted in unconscionable tension. In the 1931 Karachi revolution, secularism was
cited as an important goal of the Freedom Struggle. Ultimately, the idea of secularism
percolated into the Indian Constitution. Secularism herein, also meant opposition to
communalism. Therefore, post-independent India faced immense communal challenges. The
NDA initially closed in on communal lines, while the NDA II looks a little more mature in
terms of communal lines. From the Central Govt. perspective, no such religious causes have
ben actively asserted as such. Even the rightist parties in India have shown centrist rather
than active religion-based conservatism.
b. United India: The Freedom Movement envisaged an undivided, united India. India was
fragmented into India and Pakistan, but this reason led to the integration of the states. The
vision of a united India prevailed in spite of the partition between India and Pakistan. The
'Indian identity'
emerged and galvanization took place, which resulted in Indian unity.
c. United Policy and Internationalism: The Indian Freedom Struggle led to India adopting a
NAM stance, and their desire of independence, and non-involvement, led to them adopting
an independent stance separated from world conflict. India has played an important role in
complying with dispute resolution mechanisms. India's initial protectionist approach to trade,
further acts as evidence of the prevalent ideology.

The Mountbatten Plan and the Partition of India
28 January 2019 14:47
• It was known as the 3rd June plan. The Mountbatten Plan was sanctioned by the three important
communities, viz. The Hindu, Muslim and Sikh community. Jinnah, Nehru and Baldev Singh
were the representatives of the three religions.
It was also concerned with muslim majority countries which were Bengal, Punjab, Sindh,
balochistan which were given options to frokm their own const assembly or join Indian assembly.
1. The Constituent Assembly: The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946. There were many
Muslim provinces at this point, including Northwest provinces, the Balochistan provinces etc.
They were given the option to join India or Pakistan. Or remain independent.
2. The North West Frontier Province: The NWFP (North-West Frontier Province) had a
provision for referendum. Even though a Muslim provinces. People here were reluctant to go to
Pakistan, and were supporters of Congress under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan. The NWFP region,
which were subject to several invasions over thousands of years. These war-born people were
non-violent and the influence of Frontier Gandhi was very high. Jinnah could never make any
considerable difference to their ideology. The result of the referendum was that they wanted to
join Pakistan. They agreed to join Pakistan by rebellion, and this region, which is very rich in
minerals, became part of Pakistan. It is alleged that Pakistan rigged the election in the region.
The NWFP region remains one of the most underdeveloped regions in Pakistan.
3. Punjab and Bengal Division: The majority ratio of Hindu-Muslim was taken as the criteria to
determine the India-Pakistan divide in this region. For these also the provincial assembly was to
be formed on the basis of muslim and non-muslim majority districts.
4. Sylhet Referendum: Sylhet also showed opposition to join Pakistan, and a referendum was to be
held there as well. If Bengal was partitioned then only it was to be allowed
5. Boundary Commission: A boundary commission would be formed, and this boundary
commission would divide the two countries. The Boundary Award was passed by this
Commission. (if partition was agreed for)
THE BOUNDARY AWARD
• Cyril Radcliffe was made the leader of the Boundary Commissio He was given this task despite
him having no experience to primarily avoid bias as per the justification of british. After the

partition award, once his award was over, it is a myth that he burned all his papers. He stated that
no one in India was going to like him, and it was because of his award, two crore people became
refugees.
• Radcliffe had to divide Bengal and Punjab with five weeks' time to divide the boundary. The
reason for his appointment in spite of his inexperience in India, was impartiality. He was
considered unbiased, and was given the task to consolidate the three communities and divide the
states. Initially, he just took suggestions from the community leaders. But there was so much
confusion, that he almost rejected all of them. He simply brought a pencil and scale and divided
India and Pakistan.
• East pakisthan and West Bengal: East pakisthan received territory of 54,500 sq. Miles. West
Bengal received 28,000 sq. Miles. Population wise, East Bengal received 40 million people,
while West Bengal had 21 million. The minority ratio was 27% of minority in East Bengal, the
samewas 29% in West Bengal. While it prima facie looked like it was a fair transaction, the
persecution of minorities in East Pakistan led to their migration to West Bengal, making the
population rise in West Bengal. Criteria was that muslim majority and non muslim majority as a
criteria ie if the pop of muslims is above 50% then it would go to pakisthan.
• East and West Punjab: East Punjab received 37,000 sq. Miles, while West Punjab received
63,000 sq. Miles. The last part of Punjab went to Pakistan. Population wise, East Punjab received
12.5 million, while West Punjab had 16 million. East Punjab received 35% minorities, while
West Punjab received 25% minority. East Punjab minority was primarily Muslims. It led to the
creation of Hindu-Muslim minority enclaves or settlements in both countries. It led to the
formation. Nadia, Murshidabad and Malda were there as exceptions for India. Rehabilitation of
Punjab was more successful than punjab
CONTROVERSIES
• Jinnah claimed that the award was heavily in favour of India saying mountbatten influenced
radcliffe. The Gurudaspur question, was relevant as this was the sole landaccess to J&K. In order
to have Kashmir be a part of India in the future, Gurudaspur was given to India.
• Radcliffe submitted this plan on august on 12 th August but there was delay in announcing this
award but was announced only on august 17 which led to a lot of confusion in the boundry states
and thus led to a lot of blood shed. It also looked liked this announcement was delihbereate as
they did not want to take responsibility of this blood shed and violence

• Also why was Gurdaspur given to india, so was it done deliberately? , what if it went to pak, we
wouldn’t have access to jammu and kashmir
• Nadia and Murshidabad, which are currently in West Bengal. Nadia is a holy place, and both
were Muslim majority areas given to India.
• Khulna had a Hindu majority, but geographical proximity led ot the region being given to
Pakistan.
• On the day of independence, there was extreme confusion at the border, and it led to massive
killings. If the award was presented on time, then these killings could have been awarded. One of
the famous authors, Pendula Moon, said that the British government deliberately did this, so that
the new government would be held responsible for the killings.
• When the award was said to be in favour of India, it was Nehru who had influenced Mountbatten
to tilt the award in India's famous. The friendship of Nehru with Lady Mountbatten is alleged to
have played a role, but Mountbatten's daughter denies this in her book. It continues to be alleged
that Nehru had an influence on Lord Mountbatten's plans.
EFFECTS OF PARTITION
1. Humanitarian/Refugee Crises: The partition left one of the biggest refugee crises in the world,
and eighteen million people, including Hindus, Muslims andSikhs, were uprooted and became
refugees. This was one of the biggest human rights crises. The loss of lives was in the millions.
Ramchandra Guha wrote that a train from Peshawar to Delhi, reached Delhi with only one
survivor. All of them were either killed or grievously injured by the Muslims. Similarly, a train
to Pakistan was attacked by the Hindus and Sikhs.
2. Property Loss: An estimated Rs. 1.5 billion worth of properties (1947 prices), was destroyed in
the humanitarian crises during the partition.
3. Delinking of Canals: Specially in Punjab- There were a lot of canals, whose controlling
stations were in India. The fields where the canals were to be used however, were in Pakistan. In
1960, the Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan. Something similar
happened in benagl also with jute mills in calculla and fields in west Bengal, Calcutta was a
opportunity hub which was now given serious setback.
4. Water sharing problem- Most partoling stations remained in India and it could stop supply of
water in India and an agreeemnet was signed in 1947 which was broken in 1948 and pak still
continued to press for a treaty which ultimately led to Indus water treaty

5. No Natural Boundary Lines: The improper division of boundary lines led to the boundary line
passing through houses. There was a 'divided home phenomenon' and this caused permanent
trauma, resulting in a lot of people losing their family and the areas in general, becoming prone
to communal violence. Polar Brass, an American scholar, said that wherever there are refugees,
the region is prone to communal violence. E.g., Ganganagar in Jodhpur. The hatred against
minorities continues to persist.
6. Neighbour Animosity: Pakistan and (to some extent) Bangladesh became neighbours with
whom India had animosity from their inception. Terrorist activities were also fuelled by the
partition, e.g., 26/11 attacks.
Refugee Resettlement
29 January 2019 14:54
THE SITUATION OF EAST PUNJAB
• East Punjab had 45% of the undivided Punjab population. However, east Punjab only received
30% of the fertile land. Punjab, when undivided, was hydraulic and one of the most fertile
regions in the world. The Land of the Seven Rivers, and the combined effort of the three
communities, led to the area becoming rich and irrigated.
• Indian Punjab only received 31% of the income after the partition. The best cotton producing
area, and best wheat producing area of Punjab, both went to Pakistan.
• There was a serious food deficit problem in Punjab, and this resulted in starvation. Hindus and
Sikhs, who left Pakistan, left 67 lakh acres of land but received merely 47 lakh acres in terms of
evacuee land.
Temporary Settlement Phase: 1947 to 1949
• In this temporary phase, certain policies were undertaken by the Government of India.
1. Refugee camps: They established refugee camps for Pakistani refugees. However, once the
refugee settlements became congested, they were transferred to other areas of Punjab.
2. Rural refugees: Refugees from village areas were settled on evacuee land, and they planned to
resettle the rural refugees on this evacuee land. Every refugee was to get land and ploughs in
order to produce grains and earn their livelihood.
3. Psychological Rehabilitation: This meant that attempts were made to put families, friends,
relatives, all together. The idea was to infuse security among these people, and in order to

improve their security, these relatives were made to stay together. Another benefit was that they
could stay together, and they could share implements of agriculture, and accordingly help each
other. This was done on the group of family basis, and land was allotted. This was one of the
reasons Punjab was chosen for the Green Revolution. Food loans were provided, and then ration
shops were provided so that they could provide for food till the next harvest. There were also
programs for artisans, who were not experienced in farming.
4. Loans: They were given food loans, in order to encourage occupation. Loans were also given for
houses, and artisans not experienced in farming were also given loans for work like blacksmiths,
goldsmiths. From 1947-1949, this phase of temporary settlement took place.
Permanent Settlement Phase: 1949 onwards
1. Land Records: One of the problems of the permanent settlement was the problem of land
records. They therefore, did not have proof as to how much land they had in Pakistan. This
problem was settled by Panchayats, and they were expected to tell the truth about their land
holding. Two principles were put forth by Tarlok Singh and adopted in India, in order to
determine this land holding:
a. Concept of Standard Acre: This meant that the piece of land that could produce four to five
quintals of wheat would be considered one standard acre of land.
b. Concept of Graded Cut: This concept meant that one would not get the exact quantity of land
that they had in Pakistan. Due to the disparity in the volume of owned land that was given to
Pakistan vis-à-vis what was given to India, this problem was caused.
GRADE (Amount RATE OF CUT ALLOTMENT

of acres had in
Pakistan)
0-10 acres 25% 7.5 acres
10 - 30 30% --
30 - 40 40% --
71,000 95% 50 acres

CONSEQUENCES OF REFUGEE SETTLEMENT IN PUNJAB
1. Levelling of Holdings: In 1948, East Punjab Holdings (Consolidation and Prevention of

Fragmentation) Act, 1948 was passed to level the lands, and according to statistics, by 1965-66,
large numbers of land was consolidated. Earlier there was fragmentation, now there was

consolidation. This led to efficient crop production. The mechanization could not be done
without consolidated holdings. Furthermore, the Green Revolution was started in Punjab because
it had huge holdings and greenery. With consolidation, it developed. The lands were levelled in
the consolidation process.
2. The Bhakra Nangal Dam: In 1947, there was a food deficit in Punjab but by 1970s, it started
developing food surpluses. This was largely in part due to the Bhakra Nangal Dam, which was
instrumental to Indian history. By 1963, this dam was completed and this inspired and instigated
a Green Revolution. The biggest incentive for the dam, was electricity. This was the largest dam
in India at the time it was made, and is a highly sensitive area, considering how if the dam is
breached, almost all of North India, ranging from Delhi to Mathura-Brindavan region, would be
heavily impacted. The problems of this Green Revolution however, were seen in how there was
excess salinity, which rendered the soil infertile. Furthermore, the unfettered use of pesticides
caused undue problems in the Green Revolution.
"Dams cause more damage than nuclear missiles" - Arundhati Roy
3. The Tube Well Revolution: The dam allowed for tube wells, which reduced the dependence of
the people on canal water. The high variety of the seeds was used, and agricultural
mechanization was done so modern technology could be used.
These factors made Punjab the Food Basket of India. There was massive public investment in
agriculture. The Green Revolution has been viewed with criticism as well, because it had ecological
and environmental implications.
phases.

The Indus Water Treaty
04 February 2019 13:40
• After 1947, when India and Pakistan were partitioned, most water-controlled stations went to
India, but the canals went to Pakistan. Pakistan had a fear that India would stop the water flow to
Pakistan. Pakistan tried to enter into this agreement, right from independence.
• In 1948, a standstill agreement was signed by Pakistan.
• After the persuasion of over a decade, the Indus Water Treaty was signed in 1960. It was signed
by the two Prime Ministers, Ayub Khan from Pakistan and Nehru from India.
• By this treaty, three east-flowing and three west-flowing rivers' fates were decided:
a. East-flowing rivers: Rivers Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
b. West-flowing rivers: Chenab, Jhelum, Indus
• Eastern-flowing rivers mean that they come from Pakistan, but they flow towards India. India
was the Lower Riparian and Pakistan was the Upper Riparian State for these rivers.
• West-flowing rivers pass through Indian territory, but flow into Pakistan. Pakistan was the Lower
Riparian and India was the Upper Riparian State for these rivers.
• Eastern-flowing rivers were allotted to India, Western-flowing rivers were allotted to Pakistan.
• The Lower-Riparian States had unrestricted right over these rivers because of this treaty. The
Upper-Riparian States had no right, and there were certain conditions.
a. Upper-Riparian States could use the water for the purpose of navigation;
b. Upper-Riparian States could use the water for drinking;
c. Upper-Riparian States cannot make a large hydraulic project, which would impact the flow of
water;
• Both nations were to exchange the data about any hydraulic project to be carried on in any of
these rivers for the purpose of transparency. Because this was an International Treaty, there was a
guarantor for the Treaty. The World Bank is said to have been the guarantor, but in recent times,
it has come to light that while the World Bank was instrumental, the World Bank was not the
guarantor. Recent opinion however, suggests that there is no guarantor to this Treaty.
• India had also agreed to give financial assistance of ₹100 crore to Pakistan, under this Treaty.
The Government and Nehru, agreed to pay this amount.
• For Conflict Resolution, this Treaty suggested that at the lower level, an Indus Commission was
to be formed, comprising ministers from both India and Pakistan. Any dispute regarding this

Treaty, the dispute was to go to the Indus Commission. An Indus Commission of India and Indus
Commission of Pakistan, were to resolve the dispute.
• If the Indus Commission could not resolve the dispute, the dispute would go to the government.
There was a three-tier structural mechanism:
a. Foreign secretary; then,
b. Foreign Minister; then,
c. Prime Minister;
• Suppose the governments still could not come to consensus, there was a provision which allowed
for dispute resolution by International Arbitration. Here, the matter would be referred to the
World Bank.
• The World Bank would, at this point, appoint a neutral expert which were to be appointed from a
country which had no vested interest, e.g., Switzerland, Denmark. A report was to be made, and
based on the report, the issue was to be adjudicated as a difference, or as a dispute. If it was
termed as a difference, the judgment was final and binding on both parties. If termed as a dispute,
it was referred to the ICJ or any other court for arbitration.
• Cases sent to the ICJ:
• Case: Tulbul Navigation Project case; [Hydraulic constructions]
It was a barrage, which India started constructing in 1984. This barrage was constructed primarily
for the purpose of navigation, and it allows the water use for the purpose of navigation. India
wanted to import apples from Baramulla to Srinagar, and so India started this project. This
project was located on the Jhelum river, and at this point, Pakistan had exclusive access to the
Jhelum river. The Upper Riparian State (in this case, India), had lower rights in the river.
Pakistan had exclusive rights over the water of this river. When India started constructing, in
1987, Pakistan objected and talks began.
PAKISTAN'S OBJECTIONS
1. Violation of Indus Water Treaty: Project capacity was 3 lakhs acres feet of water, while the
permissible limit was 10,000 lakhs acres feet.
2. River Jhelum: River Jhelum passes through the Punjab province, and it passes through Pakistani
Punjab. If the flow of water goes down, it would affect agricultural activity in Pakistani Punjab.
3. Tributaries: Jhelum is an important tributary of Indus river, and it would affect the Indus river
and affect the agriculture in the Sindh province in Pakistan.
• Pakistan insisted on technical details of the project.

• After a prolonged period of more than a year or two, from a number of channels. India decided to
forego its treaty rights, and stopped the project construction. Because of this, the matter was not
taken to the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
• India stopped construction because on sharing of technical details, the construction of this project
has affected the course of justice. If the matter went internationally, it would be in favour of
Pakistan. Pakistan's rights as a Lower Riparian State would be affected, and till date the project is
in limbo.
• Case: Baglihar Dispute; [Hydraulic constructions]

These were projects constructed for the purpose of obtaining hydel power. This project was being
constructed in the Chenab river, and this was in the Dodha district in Kashmir. Chenab is the
river, over which India was the Upper Riparian State and Pakistan was the Lower Riparian State.
The reason for construction of this project, and a lot of hydro-electric power could be generated
by the Upper Riparian State, by virtue of the location of the project.
Immediately after construction began, Pakistan raised its objections.
The objections were largely similar, as Pakistan contended that this was a direct violation of the
Indus Water Treaty. The capacity of this project was 37.5 million acre feet. The Indus Water
Treaty prescribed 10,000 acre feet of water. The second objection herein also pertained to
tributaries, and the fact that it would affect the flow of water in the Chenab and by extension, the
Indus river.
The third objection was, that the dam was such that if the gates of the Baglihar dam were opened,
half of Pakistan could be flooded in a heartbeat. It again insisted on the sharing of the technical
details regarding the project.
1995 onwards, there were talks between India and Pakistan. Talks happened at several levels, and
after ten years in 2005, the matter went to the neutral expert. It actually was referred by Pakistan
to the World Bank, who appointed a neutral expert. The neutral expert in this case, visited this
site. The neutral expert observed for one and a half years, and observed the monthly flow and
quarterly rate for years. In 2007, a Partial Award was given that said that it was a difference and
not a dispute, and it said that 'India had not violated the Indus Water Treaty'. As tis was a
difference, the decision of the neutral expert was final and binding. It suggested certain
modifications, however. These were:
a. Height of dam was to be reduced by 13m; the height was 144m, it had to be reduced by 1.5m;
b. The pondage capacity of the dam is to be reduced by 13%;

These were technically minor modifications. Why did India go ahead with this project? Why did
the Award go in favour of India?
The Award was given in favour of India on technical grounds. They went over the provisions of
the Treaty, and saw that the issue was not 10,000 acre feet. The actual issue was the flow of
water. India learnt a lesson by the Tulbul fiasco, and they understood that when a large dam was
constructed, it was not to affect the flow of water. By sediment management, India had kept the
flow of water intact. The life of the dam depends on its capacity to handle sediments [e.g.,
Bhakranangal Dam]. Because of this sediment management, the flow of water was not impaired
beyond the prescribed level. On this line, the neutral expert did not consider this to be a violation
of the Indus Water Treaty. Based on this, India planned a chain of projects on these lines.
Pakistan considered it a victory as well, because the modifications to the project had to be made.
• Case: Kishanganga Project Issue

This was constructed on the Jhelum river, over which Pakistan had exclusive rights. This was a
hydroelectric project, over which the expected capacity is 330 MW. The location of this project
is Bandipur. The Kishanganga is the tributary of Indus, and is known as the Neelum river in
Pakistan. In 2007, the project began. The project was to be completed in 2016, but it has not been
completed as of yet.
In this project, after the initial talks failed, the issue went to the neutral expert. The neutral expert
determined the matter as a dispute, and it was therefore appealable to the Permanent Court of
Arbitration at the Hague. The immediate interim order was to stop the construction of the project.
In 2010, the appeal went to the International Court of Justice, and in 2011, the Kishanganga
project was to be visited, and the details and technical data were to be looked into. In 2013, the
ICJ gave an Interim Award, and they gave relief to India. The ICJ ruled that India could go ahead
with the project, and the three-year loss was damaging to India. India could divert only a limited
amount of water for the development of the project. This was only an Interim Award.
The Final Award came in December 2013, and this said that India could go ahead with the
project. It specified the flow of water, and stated that the flow of water should be minimum 9
cubic metres per second. As per the Treaty, this flow of water was sufficient, and this would not
impair the Neelum project. This is how the Kishanganga issue was resolved.
After two or three years, Pakistan has still approached the ICJ for a review, and this review hasn't
been attended to yet. The review however, won't be arbitrary. The dam however, remains
ongoing and functional.

Integration of States into the Union
Monday, February 18, 2019 3:08 PM
There were four stages at which the states were integrated into the Union. There were 600 princely
states at this point.
Stage I: Due to the nationalistic appeal of the INC, by April 1947, a lot of princely states had
agreed to join the Union.
Stage II: On August 15, 1947, most of the princely states joined India by August 15, 1947. After
this, there were only three princely states, the 'bad apples', who did not join the Union.
Stage III: The three bad apples of Hyderabad, Junagadh and Jammu and
Kashmir were also integrated into the Union.
tage IV: Goa, Daman, Diu and Pondicherry were integrated by 1961.
WHY DID THE STATES JOIN THE UNION?
1. The Mountbatten Plan: Lord Mountbatten gave only two choices, either join India or Pakistan.
Due to there being no choice of autonomy, the ground reality was understood by the princely
states, and they realized that sooner or later, they would have to accede.
2. State People's Movement: Most of the princely states had a State People's Movement, wherein
the INC's idea of democracy was also propagated. They would have more rights, they would end
up leading a better life. They wanted to lead a better life, and so they ended up supporting the
INC. The People's Movement, who realized the autocracy of the Kings of the States, caused the
accession of a lot of the princely states into In dia.
3. The Patel Factor: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was known for his ruthlessness, and he issued
warnings to the States. Nehru was a liberal, but Patel was not. Patel was known for his
ruthlessness.
INTEGRATION OF JUNAGARH
Junagarh was located in the Saurashtra region, and Junagarh was one of the very prominent
states. It refused to be part of In dia for its own region. Nawab Mahawat Khan was the ruler of
Junagarh. More than 90% of the population in Junagarh was Hindu, but he declared Junagarh as
acceding to Pakistan. The people wanted Junagarh to be part of Pakistan. The Nawab, on huge
protests, realized his blunder and fled to Pakistan. When h e fled to Pakistan, he left his wives
here and took his dogs with him (so woke!). He was also known for his inability to rule the

states. The Dewan, after th e Nawab fled, was Shahnawaz Bhutto. Shahnawaz Bhutto invited
India to intervene. In February 1948, the Indian army marched to Junagarh and Junagarh was
acceded to India. Plebiscite was however, taken in Junagarh after the region had acceded to India.
In this plebiscite, the Junagarh people (almost 90%) wanted to join India. The reason for the
plebiscite was because the region had initially acceded to Pakistan. In order to undo the accession
to Pakistan, the plebiscite was necessary to avoid international conflict.
INTEGRATION OF HYDERABAD
In Hyderabad, the last Nizam was Osman Ali Shah. At the time, the Nizam was the richest person
on the planet. There is an exh ibition in Delhi, which displays the Nizam's jewels. He had also
not made up his mind in acceding to India. He had a desire for an independent state. However,
the Mountbatten plan denied this. Pakistan was willing to help the Nizam in joining Pakistan. A
secret commitment was signed between the Nizam and India, he promised that he would not
accede to Pakistan. After this, a standstill agreement was signed with India such that status quo
would be maintained, such that India would not intervene in Hyderabad. A Representative
government however, was to be introduced. The Nizam's plan however, was different. The
Nizam's Plan was to buy time, so that he could build up a large army with the help of Pakistan.
Through this army, he wanted India to accept Hyderabad as an independent State.
Political Conditions in the State
a. Razkars: They were loyalists of the Nizam, and they started a reign of terror. This was
because they felt they would lose their influenced if they joined a Hindu-dominant Indian
State. They attacked the Hindus, and political leaders who were in favour of Indian accession.
b. The Satyagraha: A satyagraha was launched, however the satyagrahis were also oppressed
by the militant groups in the State.
c. Refugee Problem: Due to the suppression of the Razkars, a lot of refugees fled the State, and
they gathered in the neighbouring provinces. Due to this, Patel gave a firm warning to
Hyderabad to stop such developments.
d. State Congress: They also resorted to arms, in order to act against the Razkars. At this point,
the Congress members in the State, which was linked to the INC, took up arms.
e. Communist Groups: The communist groups organized the peasantry groups against the
Nizam, and they started regrouping the peasantry class. The groups had fights with the
Razkars, the feudal elements in the State. There was in conclusion, utter chaos and anarchy in
the State.

On September 13, 1948, the Indian Army marched to Hyderabad. Hyderabad was accordingly
acceded to India. There were differenc es between Nehru and Patel as to the need for army
intervention, however, ultimately army intervention was undertaken. The Nizam was allowed to
keep his property, and was given a privy purse of ₹5 million. This privy purse policy only ended
in the Indira Gandhi regime, in 1972-73.
INTEGRATION OF KASHMIR
Linguistic Reorganization of States

04 March 2019 14:29
REASONS FOR REORGANIZATION OF STATES [HELPDP]
1. Haphazard Boundaries: The British created unnatural boundaries, and the colonial system
around the world created unnatural boundaries based on arbitrary administrative considerations.
In order to undo the same, reorganization became imperative.
2. Plurality of considerations: India is multi-religious, and plurality is prominent. There are many
different linguistic differences. The question was, what exactly can be the basis for creation of d
ifferent States in India. Caste or religion could not be taken, as they were parochial
considerations. Language was therefore, taken as the criteria to separate and reorganize States.
3. Education: India was one of the most illiterate countries in 1947. Literacy was a priority for the
government. If the mother tongue wa s used, the spirit of education could be transferred faster.
The mother tongue was taken as the unit or basis to divide States, so that independent education
policies could come into force.
4. Language Enrichment: If language was the basis, then the language would in itself be
encouraged and enriched. The values would in turn, be furth er enriched. The development of the
language, and the show of tis authenticity, are guaranteed by the fact that a State uses the same as
the language of the State. When a State is carved out on the basis of the linguistic barriers, the
language would be accordingly enriched.
5. Indian National Congress Pre-Independence Debate : There was a lot of debate in this respect,
and it was thought that if in the future, India were to be independent, it was thought that language
would be the best unit to carve out the States itself.
6. People's Movement: There were many movements across the country, and upon ignoring this,
these movements turned violent. Andhra Pradesh was the first state which was carved out on the
basis of language. A Gandhian, P. Sriramaloo, started the satyagraha to separate and get a

Telugu-speaking state. He started a fast, and after a while, it got the people's support. After 60
days of fasting, the man died. After death, there were movemen ts and the government was
forced to concede to the demand of there being a separate Andhra Pradesh. This was the clarion
call for the linguistic state reorgan ization.
Why was the Reorganization of States given low priority? [PISD]
1. Pangs of Partition: The government was embroiled into the Pakistan issue, and the priority of
the government was the resettlement of refugees. Rehabilitation and resettlement of refugees was
the top priority.
2. Security and Stability: The security problem immediately after partition, pertained to the 1948
War with Pakistan. The government attention was diverted to protection of the boundary, and to
ensure that India is not fragmented into several regions. The security and stability, at t his point,
was of higher priority.
3. Internal turmoil: The British colonial State left back one of the worst economies, with the worst
land relations, and some of the most underd eveloped regions in the world. Therefore, there was
severe food problems in different parts of the country. There were food riots and famines, and the
government dealt with the question as to how food had to be distributed. EL-480 wheat was
imported from the USA, at very cheap rates.
4. Dar Commission: This Commission, led by Justice Dar, was given the task of looking into a
possible reorganizing of States in India. This re port was against reorganization, and stated that
reorganizing would be like opening a Pandora's Box. The government decided to eventually not
go in favour of reorganization, on the basis of this report.
• In 1953, a State Reorganization Commission was constituted, under the leadership of Justice
Fazal Ali (SC judge). K.M. Panicker and H.M. Kunjuru were two important parliamentarians
who were the members of this Commission. In 1955, they submitted their report in this res pect.
The government accepted most of the recommendations of this Commission. In 1956, the State
Reorganization Act, 1956 was passed, and 14 states and 6 union territories were formed on the
basis of linguistic divisions.
Cardinal Principles of Reorganization by Language [SRDC]
1. Anti-separatism: Any groups making separatist demands, would not be heard, and their
demands would not be considered or accepted. It would b e rejected by the government. This
principles were applicable against several groups, including the Nagas, the Mizos, the Punjab in

1984(when the Khalistan demand was made), in Kashmir since 1987, in Assam (when the
demand for Boroland was made).
2. Anti-Religious: If any group had to create a state based on religion, that would also be rejected.
This was imposed because India had just then, got partitioned along religious lines. Any religious
demand would therefore, not be considered. This principle was rejected in ca se of Punjab,
because they demanded a Sikh state. The Punjab issue therefore, was dragged out for two
decades.
3. Mutual differences: If there are two different linguistic groups, and they have mutual
differences, then their demands would not be accepted. T his principle was applied in case of
Mithilanchal, who were asking for a Mithilanchal State out of Bihar. The Bhojpuri people
objected to the creation of such a state.
4. Mutual consent/recognition: It means that if there are two or more linguistic groups, and if they
do not have mutual distinctions, but they have mutual consent, the state would still be created.
The creation of Punjab is an example here, as when the Punjabi speaking people, the Hindi
speaking people and the Pahadi spea king people, the demand was accepted by mutual
recognition. The states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh were therefore, created.
Madras is another example of this, where there were Tamil-speaking and Kannada-speaking
people. Accordingly, there were two states made.
In Bombay as well, there were two different Gujarati and Maharashtrian supporting people.
Therefore on May 1, 1960, two separ ate states of Maharashtra and Gujarat were made.
EXAMPLES OF REORGANIZATION [AKKBPNFMSMAGJT]
1. Andhra Pradesh: Present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh were part of the Telugu-speaking
Andhra Pradesh. This was the earlier Hyderabad State, and parts of the Madras State which were
telugu-speaking.
2. Kerala: The Malabar region and Travancore were added to Kerala, and Travancore and Cochin,
which were all Malayali speaking regions , were added to Malabar, which is present-day Kerala.
3. Karnataka: The Kannada speaking region of the Bombay and Madras presidency, were added
to the Mysore State, which was one of the bigge st presidencies. The Kannada-speaking regions
of Hyderabad, and the whole of Coorg, were also added to the Karnataka region.
4. Bombay Presidency: The Bombay State was enlarged by adding the princely states of Kutch,
Saurashtra, and the Marathi-speaking region of Hyderabad Presidency. Kutch is the largest
district in India. The Kutch region was added to the Bombay Presidency, and by this, the Bom

bay State was enlarged. Later, it was divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat. Both states wanted
Bombay, and after a later compromise, Ahmedabad became the capital of Gujarat, and Mumbai
became the capital of Maharashtra.
5. PEPSU: PEPSU was the Patiala and East Punjab States Union. East Punjab, which were all
princely states, were added to the Punjab r egion, and Punjab was also enlarged. The Ruler of
Patiala was a wasteful person, and had differences with his wife. He killed 500 tigers, and
Punjab was enlarged by adding this region to the same.
6. Nagaland: Nagaland as a state emerged in 1963. In 1957, the Naga Hills Tuensang Area was
brought under central control and administered from Assam. The
Governor of Assam was responsible for the administration of Nagaland. With increasing calls and
protests for a separate identity to preserve it s unique culture,
the region was separated from Assam and the state of Nagaland was formed in 1963 with
Kohima as its capital.
7. French and Portuguese territories: Process of transfer of French territories to India was very
amicably carried out in 1963.Pondicherry, Mahe, Karakal, Chandranagar, Yama were French
territories. There were issues related to Portuguese territories. There had to be police actio n by
the Indian government in these territories because the autonomy of people was restricted by the
Portuguese. Portugal had raised this issue at an inter national level, but their claims weren’t
awarded.
8. Meghalaya: The north-eastern state of Meghalaya was formed as an autonomous state within
Assam where it had an autonomous state. It became a separ ate full-fledged state in 1969 with
Shillong as its capital. It was one of the carve of largest state.
9. Himachal Pradesh: Himachal Pradesh was created with the merger of 30 princely states in
1950, and in 1956, was declared a Union Territory. It became an independent state in 1971 with
Shimla as its capital.
10. Sikkim: This peaceful state was an Indian protectorate till 1947 (India would protect it against
external aggression. Foreign policie s and external affairs would be decided by India). There
was also fear against Chinese influence and there was also the example of Tibet in their minds. I
n 1974, it wanted to associate with India of its own volition because of the developments in
India and thus it was given the status of an “Associate State” (India can contribute in its
infrastructural development, education, etc.) by India. A referendum took place in which
maximum people (more than 90% of the population) wanted to become a part of India. It
merged with the Indian Union as an independent state in 1975 with Gangtok as its capital.

11. Mizoram: It was declared a UT in 1972. After the peace accord was signed with the Mizo
National Front in 1986, Mizoram was declared an independent state in 1986 with Aizawl as its
capital.
12. Arunachal Pradesh: The strategically important state of Arunachal Pradesh was part of the
North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) and controlled by the Central government but was part of
Assam region. In 1972, it became a Union Territory and in 1987 became an independent state of
India with Itanagar as its capital.
13. Goa: This Portuguese colony was liberated in 1961 by the Indian Army and made part of the
Union Territory along with Daman and D iu. The state of Goa was formed in 1987, while
Daman and Diu continue to remain as Union Territories.
14. Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh: Socio-economic reason was the factor behind
the formation of these states. In 2000, NDA was in power was at the centre. There was Laloo-
Rabdi government in Bihar. It was in the southern part of Bihar. Laloo’s RJD government
realized that if the southern part was made a separate state, then RJD will have full-fledged
majority. Thus keeping this political interest in mind, Jharkhand was carved out. It was carved
along with 18 southern districts. Most of these districts were mineral-rich regions and thus there
could be more development of these regions f they became a part of a separate state. The hilly
state of Uttaranchal was carved out of Uttar Pradesh as an independent state in 2000 with
Dehradun as its capital. In 2007, the state was renamed Uttarakhand. There were 11 hill districts
of Uttar Pradesh. They had claimed that their development had been ignored. Also, the size of
UP was very large and thus carving out a separate state would provide administrative
convenience. The central Indian state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh and
formed as an independent state in 2000 with Raipur as its capital. (similar reasons as in the case
of Uttarakhand, it was a mineralrich region). 25-30% percent of the territory of MP became a
part of Chhattisgarh.
READ WRITEUP FROM MAIL
15. Telangana: Socio-economic reason of backwardness. The state was carved out of Andhra
Pradesh as an independent state in 2014, with Hyderabad a s its capital. The demand for an
independent Telangana dates back to the time of reorganization of Indian states in the post -
independence period.

Language Controvers
06 March 2019 14:35
Official language vs national language issue:
There was a demand for national lang but there were instances in which it didn’t happen,
Is it necessary to have a national language? In india we are a number of nations, having 1 national
lang will be problematic. If we sewe our neighbours, how loang has created turmoil and divide
between them. One of the reason of division of Pakistan was vase doon linguistically. (bengally vs
urdu
).
It it a very sensitive issue butit was relaised by loeader igf they declare a national language, there
will be division and boundaries would be createsd,
Status of English: the first issue cane was to get ridn of this language as it was a sign of colonjuial
rule and will have a devastating effect on population
1. English should be retained for some time for practical puroses only like for the communication bw
central and the states and between states as well. 10-12 years was the transition period after that the
situation will be reviewed.
Status of hindi: aroud 45% spoke hindi at that time so this was a requisite to set it up as national
language. While other lamnvuage spokers like tamil,telugu said that ytheirt language should also be
identified as national language. People from south had the contention to make hindi as official
language and not national language.
As a result of this comrpoimse took place in 1963 by offciail language act which declares hinfi as the
sole official language and English as thr associate of thuis lamguage. Under this, a parliamentary
committee was set up for the status of English.

THREE LANGUAGE FORMULA: there has to be one mother tongue, one forregin language, and in
hidni speaking area any language other than hindi, and in non-speaking area, hindi has to be the
mother langaue.
Urdu and Sanskrit were also brought in light. But it failed primarily because there was resistance
from many states to implement this.
Sanskrit and urdu emerged as alternative. People thought that these was imposed on them so they
were reluctant ot implemetm it.
How LTBT riots emerged?
In 1964, GL Nanda was the home minister, he has a desire to make hindi the naqtiona language, he
then directed everyone to report abpiu thr progress of hindi do it can move to becaome a national
language. A very deep rooted anti-hindi thing emerged in J and K meanwhile.
Lal became PM, who also had empathy towards hindi to make it a national language.
In 1967, official language amendment act was passed. First provis was to direct towards to remove
all the ambiguities. Second provio that the non-hindi states were ensured that hindi would never be
imposed on them. And then it further says that English continue as an associate official language as
long as any single state demands for the same.
All lnagauge mentioned in 8th scheduyle can be used as equally important. It also prescribes that hter
should be a joint use of hindi and enjglish in parliament.
UOI vs murasouli maran
The SC said that hindi is the sole official lamgauge and that progress should be directed in its
direction.

• In 1937, based on the GoI Act, 1935, there were provinces where Indians became CMs. In Tamil
Nadu, Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister.
• He was a Gandhian, and he showed his inclinations that in the days to come, Hindi would be the
official language in the state of Tamil Nadu. This inclination was exacerbated by the media, and
the
1. Phases of development of Hindi: ABRA

a. Adi Kal; [11th century](Amir Khusro)
b. Bhakti Kal; [16th and 17th century](Dohas)
c. Riti Kal; [18th century](Shringar ras)
d. Aadhunik Kal; [19th century onwards](after independence)
2. Arguments to make Hindi the national language: MWU
a. Spoken by majority;
b. Hindu more widespread than merely being in one state;
c. It would be a unifying language;
3. Solutions envisaged for the language problem:
a. Official Language Act, 1963;
b. Multi-lingual solution;
c. Official Language (Amendment) Act, 1967;
4. Failure of the multi-lingual solution: Teachers, reluctance, non-Hindi
a. If Hindi is taught in non-Hindi area, there will be an issue regarding teachers who can teach
Hindi. The teachers who could teach were reluctant to move to these states
b. There was also reluctance on part of non-Hindi states to implement this scheme.
c. Non-Hindi states said that why the Hindi areas should be taught Hindi/Urdu and not their
languages such as Tamil, Malayalam, etc.
5. Changes brought about by the Official Language (Amendment) Act, 1967: Clarity, non-
imposition, English continuance, UPSC, joint use in Parliament
a. Clarity was brought. All ambiguities in the Act were removed.
b. The assurance emerged in black and white terms that Hindi will not be imposed against the
will of the states.
c. It was decided that English will continue to be the associate official language even if a single
state desires that.

d. All the languages which are in the 8th schedule will have equal importance and a person can
write the UPSC exam in any of these languages.
e. There shall be a joint use of Hindi and English in the Parliament for oath-taking, debates,
discussions, etc.

Tribal policy:
Integration of Tribes into the Union

11 March 2019 14:29
• Tribal population accounts for 8.6% of India's total population (as per 2011 census).
• As per Anthropological Survey of India, there are more than 400 tribal communities in India.
The groups which are civil tribes, come under this bracket.
• There are only certain states, where there is a high concentration of tribal population. Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and the
North East region are regions where tribal populations are in the majority.
• North-East is the only region where tribal population is in majority. More than 90% are of the
tribal population. Tripura is an exception here, which does not have a tribal-heavy population.
• What is the reason for BJPs attention towards tribal population. They are able to likn themselves
to the tribal policy of india, act was also passed for their bettwerment but its nothing without
proper implementation
TRIBAL ISOLATION
• Tribals have been isolated since millennia. One of the famous devils Ram faced in mythology,
was Tarkha. Historians believe, that the rakshasas are actually tribal populations. The
Dandakaranya region, which was chosen for Bengal rehabilitation, was a region which had a
tribal majority.
• There is only one community in India which remains completely, in the state of nature. This is
the Jarwah tribe. They are only about hundred to one fifty in number.
BREAKING OF TRIBAL ISOLATION
• Around the 17th to 18th century, the tribal isolation was broken. The reasons for this were:
1. British colonialism: The British colonialism had a policy to exploit resources. At this point,
Britain had the biggest shipping industry in the world, an they were laying the foundation for the
ships. They needed timber and teak, wood, and due to this colonial interest, they encroached into
tribal areas, and the tribals were removed. They passed Forest Acts, and the tribal rights were
encroached upon. They were totally dependent on forests, and they brought consent to reserved

forests. The reserved forests resulted in the tribal population losing their habitat. There were
hundreds of rebellions by the tribal population, before these British people. When the real
question of survival came about, the tribal rebellions took place. In light of this exploitation, a
number of agents can be noted. One of the important exploiting agents were State officers,
another was moneylenders. There were also contractors, planters, traders. All these elements
emerged as exploitative elements for the tribal community. In this way, they made their entry
into the tribal areas. They were given allurement, and they were made to lose their land, and they
(tribals) ended up falling into a vicious death-trap and became landless labourers. It is a very
important reason behind tribal uprisings, traditional rights forest rights etc were their main
purpose.
2. Tribal Policy: A fundamental tribal policy, is that no land can be bought in the tribal region.
Non-tribals cannot encroach upon the tribal regions. On independence, the planners and
bureaucrats sought a twin approach for India's tribal policy. The first was the Museum Approach,
and the other was the Assimilation approach. The Museum Approach was to let the tribals be
where they are. The Assimilation approach was the polar opposite, and sought to assimilate the
tribals quickly into Indian society. The twin approaches were brought about by the policy
planners. Nehru saw that both these approaches were flawed, and rejected both of them. A third
approach was adopted, which was the inclusive approach. This emerged as a blending of the
earlier approaches, and had two objectives:
a. Tribal areas have to develop;
b. Tribal areas have to develop in their own unique way and at their own unique pace;
One thing was clear, that the area had to be developed. The idea of development was looked at
with the eye of progress, but it was looked at such that their progress had to be out in their hands.
No enforcing of the progressive ideals would take place. The tribals have a very unique
traditional knowledge system. Example, the sociologist who went to the Red Indian region, and
who found that the Red Indians had knowledge of sustainable development measures. This was
the main objective of India's tribal policy.
TRIBAL POLICIES POST-1947 [ARTGCLE]
• Article 46: Art. 46 of the Constitution of India talks about the safeguards and policies for the
benefit of tribals. Considerable measures are to be taken, where the tribals are to be protected
from all forms of discrimination.
• Article 15, 16, 49 (minorities rights)

• Governor's Powers: The Governor has special powers to protect tribals in tribal-majority states.
If the legislature passes a law modifying the tribal rights. The governor can alter or even nullify
the legislation passed by the state government. The governor has a right to frame a special
ordinance to protect the tribals from moneylenders and other exploitative elements.
• 2006 act- community rights of the tribals were greatly stretched , ownership rights over the forest
produce and rights over biodiversity. (things which are given in them are in the writeup.)
• Restriction on buying lands in tribal areas- lands can be obtained only lease basis so that tribal
land is not transferred to non tribals for their own purpose or by fooling them. (Despite all these
efforts the tribals are not very developed expect few communities like meenas in rajasthan
• Reasons for their mnon devellopment- misappropritation of funds, tribal advisory council
doesnot function properly, extention of mines and industries and - )
• Reservation: Under the Constitution, there is reservation in government services, and in
education institutions.
• Tribal Advisory Council: where tribals are in concentration, there is a tribal Advisory council.
This council would talk to the state and union government, and would point out certain policies
which would act for the benefit of the tribal population. The representatives of the tribals would
also be part of this council.
• Commissioner of SC and ST: The SC and ST Commission would be appointed by the
President, and the Commission would have to report to the President regarding implementation
of government policies. All the reports, would have to be, on an annual basis, be sent to the
government.
• Legislations for tribals: That legislations have been passed by started to protect the interests of
the tribals. The restriction on non-tribals buying land in tribal areas is an example of the same.
• Employment: For the purposes of self-employment, heavy industries were employing the
tribals. Especially for tribal areas, subsidies are very high in number, and the objective is to make
the tribal community independent.
• However, these tribal policies have not entirely worked, except in the North-Eazt. The
missionaries advocated the points, and them being in majority in the North-East was an
important factor leading to development. The foreign money brought development to the region.
Missionaries have played a great role, and 65% literacy rate can be seen today. There is also an
anti-Indianism sentiment created, however this was suppressed. For two decades, India did not
pay attention to the region. Only in the 70s and 80s, India paid attention to the region.

REASONS FOR NON-DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBAL AREAS [DMITTRI][Read from
Shubha notes]
• Policy formulation, policy implementation and policy review are the three stages of making
policy.
The willingness in part of officials in implementation is an important part of the policy itself. The
challenges faced by the bureaucrat in implementation, have to be looked at in review. In review,
the policy must then be modified and made easier to implement. The problem was that no
formulation of proper measures, and weak execution of well-intended measures.
•
• Divergence between centre and state policies: The central government bringing certain
policies, which brought interests to the tribals. The state government would then pass a
contradictory Act allowing MNCs. The divergence is also a reason for underdevelopment of
tribal areas. The entire region of Chhatiagarh for instance, and the Raipur region was given on
lease to the Jindals, and the mineral resources of the tribals have been exploited. The commercial
interests have been prioritized.
• Inability of state government to implement central government policy : The inability was a
significant reason for the underdevelopment of tribal areas.
• Misappropriation: The funds are either diverted, or they are misappropriated. The instances of
corruption and misappropriation are also important.
• Tribal Advisory Council: They did not carry out their role properly. A mechanism was needed
for implementation of the measures suggested by the Council, and due to lack of the same, they
were ineffective. On part of the bureaucrat, they needed special training to deal with the tribals.
They weren't trained to deal with tribals, and they were prejudiced in their dealings with the
tribals. This reflected in their implementation of policies.
• Transfer of sympathetic officials: Those sympathetic officials were transferred due to political
pressure, by land grabbing businessmen. The officials were preventing the timber mafia for
instance, to carry out work. This was a reason for the failure of the policy. • Rapid Expansion of
mines (Industrialization);
• Tribal policies not truly inclusive;
• Lack of awareness about rights: Legal rights given to tribals were not made aware to the
tribals. The tribals weren't aware about the non-tribals acquisition prohibition law. Mines,
industries, were also made.
These are the factors which led to the non-progression or slow progression of tribals.

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM IN TRIBAL SYSTEMS
These contain many different areas of knowledge and are very rich.
1. Kani Tribe in Kerala; [Immuno enhancing, Anti-stress drugs; Arya Vaidya Community
patented drug as "jeevani", they have been using them for centuries and contains extract from
things like Geloy arya vaisdya pharmacy patented this drug and considered as govt drug , money
form this drug goes to this community]
2. Raika Tribe in Rajasthan; [Sheep herders] – location of them keeps changing- they have
created they have bre suich a brred of sheeps which can survice in drought conditions and travel
loing distances and still produce wool, this is very important store of knowledge and even if this
doesn’t benefit much but still is recognized asan important facet of tribal knowledge
3. Hills in assam – Rauwalphia tetrafia is a drug against snake and scorpion bites and they have
knowledge of preventing damages for bites of even poisonous snakes. Botanical survey of India
reveals that they use almost 250 species of plants for various types of ailments and how to cure
them like fever.
4. Tribes in Tamil Nadu; [
Asthma, leprosy, epilepsy and 60 other diseases]
5. Tribes in North East region; [Snake bites]
6. Meetei tribe in Manipur; [Nature lovers, bamboo tree conservation]- awareness of
environment and bamboo is considered very important and it plays important role in their lives.
They don’t cut everyday and there are some prohitbitions which is an evidence of their awareness.
IN US the government had to contrast a dam where the red Indians were residing and one of the
ideas was to take suggestions from these tribals, so they made a survey and their suggestion was
excellent to construct the dam and as their considerations were taken which were very sustainable
in nature and prevented plantation on a large scale. We tend to believe that the tribals are not
literate but they have rich knowledge in things pertaining to their lives which should be taken into
consideration

Son of the Soil Movement
12 March 2019 14:40
• It is linked to the aspect of regionalism, and originated in the 1960s. It started off in Bombay,
Bangalore and Guwahati.
• At present, the Kannada-speaking population in Bangalore is only 23%. Tamilians, Malayalis
and Telugu groups are also present in Bangalore. The local people were outnumbered by the
migrants.
• In Guwahati, the population was 33%. In Mumbai, 42% of the population is Marathi-speaking.
• The local people were outnumbered by the migrants. In Guwahati, the population was 33%.
In Mumbai, 42% of the population is Marathi-speaking.There are reasons why calcutta has not
witnessed this kind of thing
• What is this doctrine? It’s the worst form of regionalism. Sow the seeds of conflict by
regionalism. Differential treatment to people of a particular regions as the belef is that the region
belongs to them as contrasted to to the outsiders.
• In mumbai what is the percentage of marathi speaking people?
CAUSES[JE]
1. Job Opportunities: Around 1960s and 70s, when the economy was improving, some of these
cities became cities of commercial opportunity. For the purpose of private and commercial
opportunity, they were recognized as job and education hubs.
2. Education: More number of colleges at this point, produced more number of graduates, and they
wanted jobs. The economy however, wasn't developed in non-metropolitan areas. In this
scenario, the recently graduated youth because the forefront of the movement. The movement
was about the young population, between the ages of 18-35.
NATURE [MWU]
1. Middle-class: This was primarily a middle-class movement, and it was a movement against
other middle-class people.
2. Against white collar workers: Punjab, Haryana, Mumbai, Rajasthan attract maximum labourers
from different parts of the country. This movement however, had no concern with labourers. It

was concerned with the white-collar jobs, which were taken by middle-class people from other
parts of the country.
3. Urban movement: It has no rural reach, and was essentially confined to urban areas only.
MODES OF INVOKING[CCL]
It has been linked with the pide piper cartoon as the local leaders persuaded the young people to rally
againt them mianly three modes of persuasion were there-
1.Communalism: Communalism became a way of targeting minority immigrants.
2.Casteism: Among immigrants, those from the lower class were targeted.
3.Language: Shiv Sena were targeting South Indians because of their attack on South Indians. Bal
Thackeray organized targeted attacks against migrants. They entered politics only once the
movement died out. They called South Indians dhaba owners. However, their political relevance
even at present, is in question.
DEMANDS [PT]
1.Preferential treatment for locals; example of Local seat resevations in Public universities.
2.Tushar Gandhi's article, "Who Built Bombay and not Mumbai?", It belongs to no one and everyone
were welcome;
3.Gerald Aungier - British contribution to the development of Mumbai; Why these demands are not
justified- Article 15 no discrimination , Art 16 - no discrimination in job opportunities.
So why calcutta is an exception? 1.
Role of local political leaders- In calcutta these leaders werenot involved in any such dividing
politics. The congress party which ruled them had significant chunk of vote bank form these
immigrants. All the immigrants remained an important part of the politics so they were not
marginalized
2. major populaition was bengali speaking - Major immigrrant population was bengali speakingso
they were not marginalizedCommunalism
09 May 2019 16:16
Upendra bakshi and Parikh talked about the religious identities. Whether identity constructs
personality or personality construct’s identity?
Can we say that Identity means sameness?
Sameness (exactly the same) or Similar (which looks somewhat same not wholly)
When we see identity, it attributes to the sameness and quality. Ideology, belief, caste etc.

Q. What is the marker/criteria of identity? Identity has two aspects: Tangible (which we can perceive for
example looks, language) and Intangible (ideologies, beliefs, thoughts, educational qualifications)
Physical features are not the sole criteria of identities. It is only a part of it.
Law of Momentariness : it is a Buddhist law. Referring to in context whether identity is static or it
changes.
As our identity changes from daughter or son, or sister or brother to a student. Religious identity can also be
changed as well as caste by way of marriage or Sanskritization.
Law of Momentariness: everything changes even in the gap of one second. It might appear the same but
change is constant. When we are watching the water flowing, it may appear ot us the same but it chnges
with every n second. EVERY IDENTITY IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING.
Definition of identity: scholars say identity is the frame within which one can determine what is good or
valued. What ought to be done, what to endorse or approach. It is the horizon in which one is capable to
take a stand. This is the best definition to refer when we define identity.
1. What constitutes identity? SBS

a. Sense of belongingness;
b. Birth;
c. Society;
2. Two broad categories of identity: TIM
a. Tangible; [Physical attributes]
b. Intangible; [Thoughts, ideology]
c. Law of Momentariness; [Constant change in identity; comparable to static and dynamic
identity]
- Religious Identity: scholars tried to explain that for understanding RI, we must understand
the ultimate religious values. They say RI means to have a RI means, the person has to make
a qualitative distinction between what is worthy and trivial, valuable and despicable, superior
and inferior, sacred and profane, good and evil, glorious and despicable. That is the marker of
the RI.
Let’s say about the identity of Sikh, identities of the 5 Ks should be perceivable along with
Guru Granth Sahib ideologies will be a true Sikh identity.
About Islam identity, going to mosques, 5 times namaz is the most perceivable thing to
capture their identity. Countries such as Afghanistan have Islamic majority.
Distinction between faith and belief? Faith is puttimg yoiur trust in someone and taking it to be
complelety true and reliable. While belief is just a belief. Faith happens when someone passes
through any experience and a trust is build in the process.

There are 3 types of religious identities: BIF
a. Identity of a religious believer: [Can differ between the ultimate ideals, and the] Monolith
and pluralist; Monolith believes in the superiority of one's religion, only his faith or belief is
superior and important and disregard others. Monolith tend to become Divisive. He
particularizes.
Pluralist talks about integration, and they believe that all religions are the same. It is more
universalizing. He sees everyone’s faith and belief to be the same. Religions are just different
paths and the destination is the same. They tend to become Integrative. He universalizes.
Believer and faithful can have different qualities, he might be monolith or pluralistic.
According to sir, monoliths dominate a society which results in religious fundamentalism.
b. Identity of a religious ideologue; A set of norms and guidelines which ensure of the
following of the religion. They manipulate religion to their will.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RI : A religious ideologue is a person who converts religion
from a matter of faith to a matter of ideology. When this ideologization takes place, the
certainty of faith begins to decline. Then the religion merely limit itself as a set of norms.
Now a gulf appears between belief/faith and commitment and religion becomes a set of mere
propositions. A RI hold the religion and manipulate it according to his own will and
understanding. Where ever any religion witnesses any sign of ideologization then the religion
actually is under threat. Identity of a RI is not centered on those ultimate ideas, intrinsic
values. A RI is solely guided by desires and economic issues and political interest.
E.g., Jinnah, VD Savarkar; RSS (Hedgewar, Golwalkar); a monolith believer usually
becomes an ideologue]
c. Identity of a religious Fanatic/Zealer; [Prime mission is restoration of a religious order, there

is however a great desire for power; will go to any extent to fulfil goal of power; he is
extremist; They became fanatics because of the ideologues]. They are very cynical to liberal
ideas. They do not talk rationality but only arguments. Also they are off from the ultimate
ideals.

READ FROM PAGE 53
OF STUTI'S NOTES 5.
Two ways of becoming
communalists:
a. State of consciousness; [The first stage is to percolate the common masses, in a way that they
can be mobilized and used to propagate communal ideals. E.g., of this is Sayyed Ahmed
Khan, the RSS; the Ram Janmabhoomi issue]
b. Sense of power; [Belief that this is a stepping stone to gaining power]
6. Series which influenced religious identities among the people: RMT
a. Ramayana (Ramanand Sagar);
b. Mahabharata (B.R. Chopra);
c. Tamas (Bhismsahni); [Communally mobilized - Neutral; Communally convinced - Extreme]
7. The goals of communalism: MP
a. Capturing people's minds;
b. Means to capture power;
i. Education;
ii. Culture;
8. The causes of communalism: HEPGEPA
a. Identity politics;
b. Superiority and inferiority;
c. Religion;
d. Rumors;
e. Historical aspect;
f. Psychological aspect;
g. Ethnic aspect;
h. Gandhian aspect;
i. Political aspect;
j. Economic aspect;
k. Role of administration; 9. Historical aspect:
a. Historical animosity between two communities;

b. Historical oppression and subjugation;
c. Destruction of temples;
d. British Divide and Rule policy;
10. Chain reaction of communal riots: Given by
Paul R. Brass and Steven Wilkinson a.
Communal activity;
b. Communal consciousness;
c. Communal mobility;
d. Riots;
11. Why did communal riots start in India:
a. Ideology;
b. 1965 Indo-Pak War;
c. Economic rivalry;
d. Administration of police;
e. Black money;
f. Weakness of Congress;
12. Cases of riots;
a. Ranchi Riots, 1967; [CM Mahamaya Prasad, Urdu made official language][20% Muslims]
b. Meerut Riots, 1968; [Sheikh Abdullah, opposition to Urdu made official language][30%
Muslims]
c. Ahmedabad Riots, 1969; [Jagmohan Reddy Commission, Jagannath Temple incident, alleged
kick to Ramayana][15%]
d. Bhiwandi Riots, 1970; [D.P. Madan Commission, 65% Muslims and yet Muslim toll, role of
rumors in riots exemplified]
e. Moradabad Riots, 1980; [15% Muslims][Dalit girl kidnapping; Pig incident (Police and then
Dalits blamed); Dalit Hindus and Muslims communal tension; Mob becomes communal once
they realized that pig was sent by the Dalits]
f. Bihar Sharif Riots, 1981; [48% Muslims][Yadavs and Muslims; Yadavs constructed
Hanuman temple in Muslim graveyard; before the DM could pass an order, riots took place]
g. Bhagalpur Riots, 1989; [1,100 people died; 50,000 displaced; 90% of those killed were
Muslims; (a) Ramjanmabhoomi incident; Ram Shila Pooja and the anti-Muslim slogans; then
two incidents (1) Chanderi Incident (Killing of Hindus in the haveli); (2) Logain Village

Incident (Cauliflowers put over dead bodies of Muslims); C.P. Sinha Committee convicted
some people; later Nitish Kumar formed N.N. Singh Committee]

Naxalism
10 May 2019 07:06
1. Three things discussed in Kisan Convention, 1966:

a. Peasant community organized;
b. Peasa
Understanding History
31 January 2019 10:05
1. Process of construction of history: PORRTAGCE

a. Past;
b. Observed past;
c. Remembered past;
d. Recorded past;
e. Lasting the test of Time;
f. Part that comes to historians' Attention;
g. Grasped portion;
h. Credibility of the information and of the author;
i. Expounded and narrated;
2. Distinction between facts and historical facts: RI
a. Relevance;
b. Importance;
3. Two understandings of history: PE
a. Positivism;
b. Empiricism;
4. Types of history: SEPIDEM
a. Social history;
b. Economic history;
c. Political history;
d. Intellectual history;
e. Diplomatic history;
f. Environmental history;
g. Military history;
5. Disciplines related to history: GEPPSLP
a. Geography;
b. Economics;
c. Psychology;
d. Political science;
e. Sociology;
f. Law;
g. Philosophy;
6. Nexus between Geography and History: DNDCGR
a. Geographical Dominance;
b. National Character Formation;
c. History of the Distant past;
d. Climate and its impact;
e. Geopolitics;
f. Resources;
7. Nexus between Economics and History: EC
a. Economic history;
b. Colonial history;
8. Elements of Progressiveness:
a. Accumulation of Material resources;
b. Scientific advancement;
c. Mastery over the Environment;
d. Level of Consciousness;
Mnemonics Page 32
9. Reasons for subjectivity in history: PIRII
a. Personality;
b. Ideology;
c. Religion;
d. Inference;
e. Interest;
10. Criteria for the credibility of historical evidence: TWCRSCA
a. Was the primary evidence able to tell the Truth?: SCA
i. Spatial and temporal closeness;
ii. Competence of the observer;
iii. Degree of Attention;
b. Willingness to tell the truth: BLF
i. Bias;
ii. Literary style;
iii. Formalities and conventions;
c. Independent Corroboration;
d. Reputation of the author;
e. Lack of Self-contradiction;
f. Contradiction from other sources;
g. Freedom from Anachronism;
11. Controversies in post-2000 India:
a. Beef-eating issue;
b. Epic Age;
c. Jainism;
d. Harappan Horse/Origin of the Aryans;
e. Taj Mahal Controversy;
f. RSS-run schools/Madarasas;
g. Euro-centric bias;
h. Varna System;
i. Tegh Bahadur;
j. California Textbook Controversy; 12. History and Policy in
India:
a. Foreign Policy;
b. Divide and Rule;
c. Communal Violence Bill, 2009;
d. World War II and Creation of History Departments;
e. Tribal Policy;
f. Civil servants and diplomats;
g. Indo-China Relationship;
h. Vietnam War;
i. Balkan Issue;
j. Rouge states;
k. US Failure;
l. Helsinki;
Mnemonics Page 33
How to Tackle Naxalism
18 April 2019 13:41
• Land reforms are the need of the hour, because the Naxalbari problem which emerged as a result
of
Mnemonics Page 34
Naxalism
09 May 2019 00:17
➢ The Naxal moveme3nt originated from Mao-Tse Tung's ideology, and he believed
taht organized peasant rebellions must be organized to reject parliamentary
democracy.
➢ Guerilla warfare and armed struggles were to be used
Handouts Page 35
Commission on Riots
09 May 2019 11:42
1. Justice Shrivastava Commission (1961)[Intel officers] Jabalpur, Damoh, Sagar,

Narasinghpur.
2. Justice Dayal Commission (1967)[No police officers, or available officers were
ineffective] Ranchi, Solapur, Malegaon, Ahmednagar, Jaipur, Suchetpur
3. Justice Reddy Commission (1969)[Law enforcement agencies remained passive]
Ahmedabad riots
4. Justice Madan Commission (1970)[Incorrect information, incorrect FIRs, communal
discrimination] Bhiwandi, Jalgaon and Mahad
5. Vidyathlul Commission (1971)[Infected by virus of communalism] Tellichery
disturbances
6. Justices Narain, Gliosh and Rizvi (1979)[Bihar Military Police] Jamshedpur riots
7. N.C. Saxena (1982)[Muslims must be taught a lesson] Meerut
8. Sixth Report of National Police Commission (1981)[Policemen have shown an
unmistakable bias]
9. National Integration Council [Police have lost their credibility]
DELHI RIOTS OF 1984
1. Justice Mishra Commission (1984)

Police instigated the violence, were involved in violence, allegations against police dropped in
FIRs,
FIRs were not recorded or wrongly recorded, emergency police numbers did not work
2. Justice Kapur and K.L. Mittal Committee
Report identifying police officers on the basis of good conduct, dismissal, departmental
inquiries or further investigations
3. Jain-Aggarwal Committee
Finding lapses in investigation, senior officers abdicated responsibility, accused left out of
charge-sheet after being in FIR
4. Nanavati Commission
Ram Jethmalani said P.V. Narasimha Rao was listless and unconcerned
Kushwant Singh deposition was that police officer was just standing around when looting was
going on Jaya Jaitley, "rioters were not afraid of the police"
OBSERVATIONS BY COURTS
1. State v. Abdul Aziz

Grossly negligent and grave dereliction of duties
2. State v. Kanak Singh
Police not interested in investigation, but in hushing up things
3. State v. Ashok
Acquittal because the police had not conducted a TIP
4. State v. Ram Pal Saroj
In order to help the accused, the police had given the wrong facts. Criminal law system had
failed, manner in which trial conducted was unthinkable in any civilized country
MUMBAI (1992)
1. Justice B.N. Srikrishna Report

Police officers were utterly trigger-happy, unnecessary communal behaviors, excessive firing
resulting in deaths of hundreds of Muslims, openly indulging in riots with Shivsena activities,
killed Abdul
Handouts Page 36
Razak, Babu Abdul Shaik given to the mob which led to him being hacked to death, allowed
kidnapping of 18-year old girl and brutal murder of handicapped person
2. Adv. Jyoti Punwani
Action Taken Report of Maharashtra government, worst officers were in fact promoted, they
were given anticipatory bail, no police officers spent any days in lockup or jail, no proper
criminal prosecution, no FIR registration or charge-sheets
Reports were ignored.

21 February 2023
Why HC of Rajasthan is in jodhpur and not Jaipur?
It was started in 1949 and it was also part of the deal that a promise was made once if jodhpur was integrated,
the HC will be moved to Jodhpur, so initially it was in Jaipur and it was done by Satyanarayana Rao
committee. This is the reason.
Integration happened under 4 different phases:-
1. April 1947- some princely states out of 950 decided to join, the india congress appealed them to join, and
due to this appeal, they joined
2. 15 August 1947- almost all princely states joined but the 3 bad apples. By the end of 1948 they also joined.
3. December 1948- Junagarh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir
4. 1961- Pondicherry, Goa, Daman and Diu and few more like these joined India.
How this integration was made possible?
1. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: He joined in June 1947 along with BP Menon and took complete charges of
integration when the government saw it impossible to make all other states integrate. It took him 2 and half
month which was a turbulent time in which patel was seen running from one corner of nation to another. His
efforts were unquestionable.
2. People’s Representation: Another reason was almost in all states there was an authoritarian rule by the
rules who compromised on the liberty of commoners. From 1921, INC ran several national movements, which
gave birth to idea of democracy and liberty and unity and constitutionality which reached to the educated
masses. 1920 onwards, people’s awareness rose regarding these princely states. In almost every state, State
People Conference was established but subsequently from 1939-46 as a connection between British India and
princely states. They realised if they joined India there will be growth and development right after 1930’s civil
disobedience movement.
Junagarh: The ruler was Mahabat Khan. Majority of population was Hindu and the ruler was Muslim. The
ruler was fond of dogs and he used to declare public holidays on dog’s birthdays. When there was rise against
him as he said he would integrate with Pakistan and Jinnah also agreed, that made him fly away from
Junagarh leaving all his wives and dogs behind. After that Junagarh was integrated. Later, there was plebiscite
and majority voted for India. Once the ruler left, Shah Nawaz Bhutto,(Grandfather of Benazir Bhutto), the
diwan invited the Indian government take over.
Hyderabad: The Nizam was Osman Ali Shah, who was known as one of the richest men of the planet then.
He was the last Nizam. So, Nizam wanted to remain independent and that is the reason integration did not
happen in 1947. Jinnah also proposed him offers, goodies. Integration with India was not even merely
concerned by the Nizam.
Nizam enters into a secret agreement with India, part of it was the promise or assurance that he will not join
Pakistan. The reason was so that he had more time to build his troops and armies just in case India invades, he
can resist them.
This secret agreement followed by a Stand Still Agreement maintained that a representative government
should be there in state.
Political developments in Hyderabad:
Rajkars: Hyderabad also witness lot of political developments. There was a militia group called Rajkars who
had a very privileged position. They realised if integrated to India, they will lose their position so they
deterred. Their plan was also ETHNIC KILLS and attach and kill Hindus and announce the state as a
MUSLIM STATE. Threatened, the Hindus started moving to nearby states.
INC: They also had Satyagraha movement by the INC against the Rajkars. So now the congress took over the
weapons as they had to fight Rajkars, so transmission was from satyagrahis to fighters.
Communist: they laid the peasanty class which had dual system, firstly to put resistance to the Rajkars and
second to attack the zamindars and destroy the records. This was a class conflict. There was total anarchy and
chaos and lawlessness in the state of Hyderabad.
Operation POLO: Indian army marched to Hyderabad, there was resistance from Rajkars but had no effect
over them. They destroyed the Militant group and made it possible to integrate. Government allowed Nizam
to keep his privy purse of 5 million rupees and most of his wealth and title of former Nizam.
23 Feb. 23
There are certain issues of plebiscite. Who started it? How it emerged? What happened in UNO?
Introductory part: Kashmir was a part of state of Punjab and Raja Ranjit Singh of Punjab was a princely ruler
(Ranjit trophy guy) . In his tenure, it was a part of Punjab and later passes to the british then Gulab Singh
Dogra bought the state of Kashmir. Maharaja Gulab Singh of Dogra Dynasty signed the ‘Treaty of Amritsar’
with the British East India Company in 1846. Under this treaty, he paid Rs. 75 lakhs to the East India
Company in 1846 in exchange for Kashmir and some other areas. Jammu and Kashmir as a single entity
was unified and founded (1846).
Jammu and Kashmir, from 1846 until 1947, remained a princely state ruled by Jamwal Rajput Dogra Dynasty.
Around 1920-30, the military started communal strikes but it was not successful and then there was a leader
Shaikh Abdullah has established the state based upon secularity. Kashmir remained non-communal in nature
in which contribution of congress and his leadership has a significant role to play.
Around 1945-46, Shaikh Abdullah quit Kashmir. Subsequently, Raja Hari Singh did not wanted integration of
Kashmir. Hari Singh tried to negotiate with India and Pakistan to have an independent status for his state. He
offered a proposal of Standstill Agreement to both the Dominion, pending a final decision on State’s
accession. Kashmir was always a secular state – with a history of Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh rule. Even though
the majority population was Muslims, it then had a significant Hindu population as well.
India in 1947 had suggested conducting a plebiscite to know the aspirations of Kashmiri people. With tall
leaders of Jammu and Kashmir like Sheik Abdullah on its side, cherishing the common values – secularism,
democracy, and pan-India nationalism – India was confident to win the Plebiscite if it was held in 1947.
There was a book called “my frozen turbulence” by Jagmohan. (Ramchandra Guha)
REASONS FOR DELAY IN INTEGRATION OF KASHMIR
Hari Singh’s Dilemma: He realised he cannot integrate with Pakistan and if he integrate with India, the
power will be given to Shaikh Abdullah. He was delaying the integration.
In October 1947- invasion begins in Hazara district. The theory is that the invasion was done by local tribals
but now it has proved beyond doubt that this entire group was led by General of Pakistan. So this controversy
has continued till date between India and Pakistan and they subsequently occupied Gilgit region and POK.
Maharaja Hari Singh signed Instrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947 in Srinagar.
As soon as the accession documents were signed, the Indian Armed Force took over the stage to repulse
Pakistan-supported tribal assault.
Indian and Pakistani forces thus fought their first war over Kashmir in 1947-48.
India successfully drove out most of the Pak-supported tribal militants from Kashmir occupation. However,
one part of the State came under Pakistani control. India claims that this area is under illegal occupation.
Pakistan describes this area as ‘Azad Kashmir’. India however, does not recognize this term. India uses the
term Pak occupied Kashmir (PoK) for the area of Kashmir under the control of Pakistan.
Once this instrument was signed, it was still not clear about the territory. It was the time when the biggest
airlift took place with around 1 lakh troops and they were unsure about the occupation of the airport but
eventually Kashmir was saved.
Once the raja signed the instrument, Jinnah was very furious and he sent his army chief ‘General Gvacey’ but
he told Jinnah that we cannot attack India as the accession was legal and constitutional.
The question of Plebiscite- after this instrument was signed, Mountbatten proposed a referendum which was
accepted by Nehru. But why did he accept this?
Jinnah sent invitation to Nehru and Mountbatten to talk in Pakistan but patel very formally denied it but Nehru
agreed and lastly there was only Mountbatten who visited Lahore. Jinnah said the referendum must be under
the UNO. On his proposal, Jinnah said to Mountbatten when the troops of both the country will withdraw the
troops, this justifies the plebiscite and the legacy we carry today.
Why Nehru accepted this idea of Plebiscite?
Primarily why Nehru agreed was to refute the two nation theory of HINDUSTAN IS FOR HINDUS AND
PAKISTAN IS FOR MUSLIMS. This is the most important reason why Nehru agreed to it.
Mountbatten suggested the matter should go the UN. Chapter 35 of UN charter

firstly, Kashmir issue was the only agenda but later on it was changed to India Pakistan issue which were
brought on the same grounds.
Secondly, power rival was there. Cold war already started at that time and US thought it would be a
significant area and Pakistan took advantage and became ally with Americans while India remained Non-
aligned.
Role of Ayengar and Jafrullah Khan was important as they were the leaders of the troops.
UNCIP- visited Kashmir, noticed the way Pakistan was torturing the people and doing illegal stuff wh9ich
was later reported to the UN, and on 1 Jan 1949, a seize fire was announced and this way the conflict between
India and Pakistan was ended.
Whenever the issue of withdrawing the troops came, they never trusted each other and the plebiscite in its
actual sense never happened.
Why no Plebiscite or Referendum was held in Kashmir yet?
 The state of Jammu and Kashmir is defined as it existed on or before the invasion of Pakistan
on 22nd October 1947. This includes the present territory of Pak occupied Kashmir (POK),
Gilgit, Baltistan, Jammu, Laddhak and Kashmir valley.
 Pakistan asked for time to vacate its occupation but it never complied.
 As nearly one-third of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is still under the occupation of
Pakistan, it is a noncompliance of conditions leading to the plebiscite.

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What is History?

03 January 2019 13:01

• Book: 'What is History?' by E.H. Carr.

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY

• 'Fact is the datum of experience' - Oxford English Dictionary

FACT AND HISTORICAL FACT: DISTINCTION

POSITIVISM AND EMPIRICISM

Understanding History Page 1

Understanding History Page 3

Understanding History Page 5

4. Sociology: The relationship of history with sociology is long-standing, in how sociology

a. Accumulation of material resources; b. Scientific advancement; c. Mastery over the

Why is there subjectivity in history?

• An objective history is impossible, as it merely delves into facts. Interpretation of historical

Understanding History Page 8

Understanding History Page 9

Understanding History Page 10

SOURCES OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

USE OF EVIDENCE IN THE WRITING OF HISTORY

Understanding History Page 11

1. Was the primary witness able to tell the truth?

Understanding History Page 12

5. Reputation of the author

7. Absence of Contradiction from other sources

8. Freedom from anachronism

Understanding History Page 13

Understanding History Page 14

Understanding History Page 15

Understanding History Page 16

• Ncert textbooks were modified in transaction to this.

TALKED US INTO AN ARTICLE SMH WHICH HE SENT ON MAIL.

POST-2000 CONTROVERSIES IN HISTORY

Understanding History Page 17

Understanding History Page 18

Understanding History Page 19

9. History v. Mythology: (Ramayana and mahabharatha)- in whole of India we find traces of

Understanding History Page 20

Why this issue has become so important in recent times?

Understanding History Page 21

History and Policy

Understanding History Page 22

1. India's Foreign Policy and NAM :

2. Divide and Rule

3. Communal Violence Bill - 2009

Understanding History Page 23

5. India's Tribal Policy

6. Civil Servants and Diplomats

Understanding History Page 24

9. Balkan Issue- Then and Now

Understanding History Page 25

10. Rouge States and Nuclear Weapons

11. US Failure Theory

Understanding History Page 26

Understanding History Page 27

Understanding History Page 28

• Why India Survives- Ramachandra Guha

c. 1931 Resolution on Fundamental Rights:

Legacy of the Freedom Struggle Page 29

Legacy of the Freedom Struggle Page 30

STRATEGY TO DEAL WITH POVERTY

Legacy of the Freedom Struggle Page 31

1. Economic Legacy of the Indian Freedom Struggle: