2 4 n R 

For dark ring, We know, Dn 


2 4 n R 1 
 for 1 , we have, D n 

- - - - - - - - - - - (1)

4 (n  1) R 2
 for 2 , we have, D 2n1  - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

As nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2,
D 2n  D 2n1
4 n R 1  4 (n  1) R 2
 
 
 n 1  (n  1) 2
 n (1  2 )  2
2 6 x 10-5
 n     7 x 10 -5 - 6 x 10 -5  6
1 2

2 4 n R 1
Now, D n 

D2 x  (0.5)2 x 1
 R  n   148.81 cm
4 n 1 4 x 6 x 7 x 10-5
 LASER

LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Laser as a light source Non-laser light source

1) Quantum mechanical electronic
device which produces intense,
monochromatic and coherent beam
of light as a result of stimulated
emission.
2) Light is emitted in one direction.
3) Light is coherent.
4) Light is highly intense.
5) Light is monochromatic.
1) Emission of light is a result of
spontaneous emission of photons by
thermally excited solids (filament lamps
or electronically excited atoms, ions or
molecules (fluorescent lamps).
2) Light spreads in all directions.
3) Light is not coherent.
4) Intensity is comparatively less.
5) Light may not be monochromatic.

Laser beam is used as a high power electromagnetic beam in Engineering and Biological
applications.

Basic Properties of LASER

1. Directionality : Lasers emit light in one direction.

2. Divergence : Angular spread for laser is very small.
3. Coherence : Light waves emerging from laser maintain common phase
relationship.
4. Intensity : Laser beam is very narrow and hence its intensity is very high
5. Monochromaticity : Laser beam is characterized by only one wavelength.

How LASERs are different compared to X-rays?

LASERs
1) LASERs are electromagnetic waves
having wavelength of the order of few
thousand angstroms.
2) LASERs are highly coherent.
3) LASERs are obtained due to phenomenon
called stimulated emission of radiation.
X-rays
1) X-rays are electromagnetic waves
having wavelength of few
angstroms.
2) X-rays are not highly coherent.
3) X-rays are given out when high
speed electrons strike the target of
high atomic number and melting
point
Interaction of light with matter -

About Light:
 Light consists of discrete bundles or chunks (quantum) of energy. Energy of each bundle
is “h”. - Max Planck
 Albert Einstein provided theoretical justification to this and introduced name photon to
this quantum of light energy.
 Photon represents minimum energy unit of light.
 Each photon carries energy „h‟ where „‟ is frequency of light wave.
 Light energy cannot have arbitrary values but must be multiple of „h‟.

About Matter:
 Electrons in an atom cannot have arbitrary amount of energy, but they take only discrete
energies. – Bohr.
 Electrons in an atom can have only discrete energy levels which are schematically
represented by horizontal lines drawn to the energy scale –

Nucleus

n=5
n=4

n=3
Energy

n=2

n=1
n=2
Ground State
n=3 n=1
n=4
n=5

Energies of electrons
Ground State of an atom:
 The lowest stable state of the atom.
 Electrons move in their respective orbits without emitting energy.

Excited State of an atom:

 If electrons get sufficient energy, they jump to the higher energy level and the atom is
said to be excited state.

Quantum Transition:
 Passing of an atom from one energy state to the other state.
 Whenever quantum transition occurs between energy states E1 and E2, energy E2 ~ E1 =
h is absorbed or released as a radiation.
ABSORPTION

 Consider an atom residing in the energy level E1.

 Let E2 be the allowed energy level of this atom.
 When a photon of energy h = E2 – E1 is incident on this atom, electrons in atom absorb
this energy and the atom is excited to the energy level E2.
 This process is called Absorption.

E2 E2 E2

h = E2- E1

E1 E1 E1
During Transition

Absorption
SPONTANEOUS EMISSION:

 Excited atom can stay at the excited level for a limited time known as
(life-time of that state).
 After the life-time of the state gets over, the atom is de-excited and come back to the
lower energy level.
 During the transition, Excess energy is given in the form of photon of
energy h = E2 – E1.
 This process is called Spontaneous Emission of Radiation.
 It is independent of outside circumstances.
 It is probabilistic in nature.
 Light spreads in all directions around the source.
 Light intensity decreases rapidly with distance from the source.
 Light is incoherent.

Before Transition During Transition After Transition

Spontaneous Emission
STIMULATED EMISSION

 If a photon can stimulate an atom to move from a lower energy state E1 to the higher
energy state E2 by means of absorption, then a photon should also be able to stimulate an
atom from the higher energy level E2 to the lower energy level E1 – Albert Einstein.
 Consider an atom in the excited energy level E2.
 External photon having energy h = E2 – E1 incident on this system, stimulates this atom
to jump back to lower energy level E1 before its life time gets over.
 During this transition, atom emits a photon with same energy as the energy of incident
photon. This is called as stimulated emission.

E2 E2 E2

h = E2- E1 h = E2- E1
E1 E1 E1
Before Transition During Transition After Transition

Stimulated Emission

Features of Stimulated Emission:

1. This process can be controlled from outside.

2. The emitted photon propagates in the same direction as that of the stimulating photon.
3. Emitted photon has same frequency, phase and plane of polarization as that of the
incident photon. Light produced is monochromatic and coherent.
4. Light amplification:

h
h
h
h
h
h
h

20 21 22 23 2N
Fig. 4.5 Light Amplification

5. High Intensity: Intensity of resultant light is proportional to the square of the

number of atoms emitting that light.
POPULATION INVERSION

Let N1 = Number of atoms in the lower energy level.

N2 = Number of atoms in the higher energy level.

 In Normal equilibrium, the lower energy level is more densely populated than the higher
energy level. (N1 >> N2)
 Stimulated emission to be effective for light amplification, it should be dominant over the
process of absorption.
 This is achieved by adjusting N2 >> N1
 Getting more number of atoms in higher energy level than lower energy level (N2 >> N1)
is called Population Inversion.
PUMPING

 To achieve population inversion, atoms must be continuously promoted from lower

energy level to the higher energy level.
 The process by which atoms are raised from the lower energy level to the higher energy
level is called Pumping.

Pumping Methods:

1. Optical Pumping:
 Light energy is used for pumping.
 Photons are made incident on the active medium.
 E.g. Flash discharge tubes, continuously operating lamps, Spark gaps.
2. Electrical Pumping:
 Electric current is passed through the active medium.
 Electrons collide with atoms and excite them to higher energy states.
 Used in gas lasers.
3. Direct Conversion:
 Electrical energy is directly converted into light energy.
 Electrical current is passed through active medium but atoms are not excited to
higher states.
 The current carriers themselves are excited to higher states to achieve
population inversion. E.g. Semiconductor Laser.
Active Medium:
It is the medium, when excited, reaches the state of population inversion and eventually
causes Light Amplification.
Metastable State:
 Excited states of atom have short life time ( 10 – 9 sec.)
 Atoms do not stay at such excited state and fall down due to spontaneous emission after
the life-time gets over.
 Hence population inversion cannot be achieved.
 To achieve population inversion, life-time of the excited state must be higher ( 10 – 3
sec.), so that number of atoms can gather at that state.
 Such excited states are called as Metastable States.
 If the metastable state does not exist, there could be no population inversion and hence,
no stimulated emission and hence no laser operation.
Role of resonant cavity :
 To produce LASER beam, we must collimate the stimulated emission by properly
designing a resonant cavity in which, the light waves can be used over again and again
for amplification. Resonant cavity is made up of one fully reflecting mirror and one
partially reflecting mirror.
 Resonant cavity is useful for enhancing the light amplification.
 Resonant cavity is used to get a laser beam in one direction.

Partially reflecting
Fully reflecting Mirror
Mirror

Resonant Cavity
 N3
E3
Spontaneous Emission

h   E2 N2 Metastable State



Stimulated
h   Emission

E1 N1 N2 > N1

Three level laser System

Spontaneous Emission

Metastable State

 Emission

Spontaneous Emission

Four level system

Ruby Laser Definition
Ruby laser is a solid-state laser that was developed by Maiman in 1960 using Ruby as an active
medium. Ruby is a crystal of Aluminium oxide. In which a part of the aluminium ion is substituted by
chromium ion. Ruby LASER is also well known as pulsed laser.
The active material in the Ruby is chromium ion. That is the energy level of chromium ion takes part
in the lasing action.
A ruby laser consists of three main parts:
 An active material (or laser medium).
 A present and system made of two parallel plates with a reflecting coating applied on them.
 An exciting system usually made up of helical xenon. Flash tubes for achieving population
inversion and a power supply source.
Ruby Laser Construction and Working
Construction of Ruby Laser
Ruby is a crystal of Aluminium oxide. In which a part of the aluminium ion is substituted by chromium
ion. The active material in the Ruby is chromium ion. That is the energy level of chromium Ion takes
part in the lasing action. The colour (pink or red) of a Ruby crystal depends upon the amount of
chromium in it.

A crystal of Aluminium oxide is formed with chromium replacing around 0.05 percent of the
aluminium atoms. Ruby crystals are grown in special furnaces, then annealed and shaped into rods.
Such Rods are 2 to 30 cm in length and 0.5 to 2 cm in diameter. Flat end faces of the rod are made
strictly parallel, ground and polished to a high degree of precision. The end faces of the rod are silver
so that the Surface of the one end face becomes fully reflecting and that of the other end face becomes
partially reflecting. Usually the light transmission coefficient of the partially reflecting end face of the
ruby rod is about 10 to 25 per cent. Thus, Ruby Rod with its one end only reflecting and the other
end partially reflecting acts as a resonant cavity.

Working of Ruby Laser

The Ruby rod is arranged along the axis of a helical xenon flash tube. In such a manner that the will of
the helix encloses the rod. The flash of the tube lasts several milliseconds.
During this period of time, the tube absorbs energy amounting to Several thousand joules and most of
the energy is spent on heating the Apparatus.
This heat produced is removed by liquid nitrogen circulating around the Ruby rod. The remaining part
of the energy in the form of blue and green radiation is absorbed by the Ruby. This energy ensures the
excitation of chromium Ion from the ground state to the excited energy state for achieving population
inversion.

The optical pumping result when incident photons of wavelength 5500Å. Raise the chromium Ion from
ground state E1 to higher excited state E3. These iron interact with the crystal lattice and decay to
metastable state E2 by spontaneous emission where they can stay for a longer period (3 x 10–3sec)
Producing population inversion. That is, the number of chromium ions in the energy state E2
(metastable state) is more than the number of chromium ions in excited energy state E3. Hence,
population inversion is achieving by optical pumping source.

Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Laser

Definition
Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon gas is used as an active
or gain medium and electrical pumping is used to achieve population inversion. Helium-Neon laser is
also known as He-Ne laser.
Construction of He-Ne Laser

In He-Ne gas laser, the He and Ne gases are taken in the ratio 10:1 in the discharge tube. Two reflecting
mirrors are fixed on either ends of the discharge tube, in that, one is partially reflecting and the other is
fully reflecting which serve as optical cavity or resonator. In He-Ne laser 80 cm length and 1 cm
diameter discharge tube is generally used. The out power of these lasers depends on the length of the
discharge tube and pressure of the gas mixture. When the two windows are set at Brewster’s angle, the
output laser is linearly polarized.

Helium-Neon Laser Working

Helium and neon are noble gases having only one atom per molecule. The energy level diagram of
helium and neon atom is shown below.
1) Working When the electric discharge (fast moving electrons) is passing through the gas mixture,
the electrons collide with the He gas atoms excites into higher levels F2 and F3 form F1 by
absorbing the electrons energy.
2) In He atoms higher levels F2 and F3, the life time of He atoms is more.
3) Since F2 and F3 states are acting as metastable states, so the He atom cannot return to ground
ground level through spontaneous emission.
4) So there is a maximum possibility of energy transfer between He and Ne atoms through atomic
collisions.
5) When He atoms present in the levels F2 and F3 collide with Ne atoms present ground state E1,
the Ne atoms gets excitation into higher levels E4 andE6.
6) Due to the continuous excitation of Ne atoms, we can achieve the population inversion between
the higher levels E4 (E6) and lower levels E3 (E5).
7) The various transitions , E6  E5 E4  E3 and E6  E3 leads to the emission of wavelengths
0 3.39 m, 1.15 m and 6328A .
8) The first two corresponding to the infrared region while the last wavelength is corresponding to
the visible region.
9) The Ne atoms present in the E3 level are de-excited into E2 level, by spontaneously emitting a
photon of around wavelength 6000A0 .
10) When a narrow discharge tube is used, the Ne atoms present in the level E2 collide with the
walls of the tube and get de-excited to ground level E1.
11) The excitation and de-excitation of He and Ne atoms is a continuous process and thus it gives
continuous laser radiations.
Advantages of helium-neon laser

 Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
 High stability
 Low cost
 Operates without damage at higher temperatures

Disadvantages of helium-neon laser

 Low efficiency
 Low gain
 Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks
Applications of helium-neon lasers

 Helium-neon lasers are used in industries.

 Helium-neon lasers are used in scientific instruments.
 Helium-neon lasers are used in the college laboratories.
 Fibre Optics
FIBRE OPTICS INTRODUCTION:

Electronic communications use radio waves and microwaves to carry information over copper
wires and coaxial cables. The capacity of these wires is restricted due to their limited bandwidth.
The use of light waves, in place of radio waves and microwaves, enhances tremendously, the
number of signals that can be transmitted simultaneously. This is due to larger bandwidth
supported by optical fibres through which these light waves are transmitted.

Apart from the use as communication medium, optical fibres are used as sensors for detecting
electrical, mechanical, thermal energies. Fibro-scopes are used in different forms in medical
diagnostics.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF OPTICAL FIBRE:

Optical fibre contains three coaxial regions as shown in below –

Protective Sheath

Cladding

Core
Layers in Optical Fibre

The innermost region is known as core. Light waves travel through this region. The middle
region is cladding and the outermost region is protective sheath.

The refractive index of core (n1) is always greater than the refractive index of cladding (n2). The
purpose of cladding is to make light to be confined to the core. An optical fibre works on the
principle of total internal reflection. When light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes
successive total internal reflections from core-cladding boundary and travels along the fibre
following a zig-zag path as shown in following figure -

Zig-zag path of Light ray

For total internal reflection to take place, two conditions must be satisfied –
i) Refractive index of core (n1) must be greater than refractive index of cladding (n2).
ii) The angle of incidence of light rays at core cladding boundary must be greater than
critical angle of incidence.

Critical angle of incidence and Total internal reflection

cladding
r r = 900
R.I. = n2
core Refracted
R.I. =n1
c
beam   c
i Incident
Incident
n1 beam
Incident beam
beam

a) i < c a) i = c a) i > c

Critical angle of incidence (c) is defined as minimum angle of incidence at core-cladding

boundary for which light ray travels along the core-cladding boundary after refraction.
sin i n
 2 (Snell' s law)
sin r n1
n
When i = c, r = 900 and sin  c  n 2
1

n
For total internal reflection,   c and sin c  n 2
1
MODES OF PROPAGATION :

Light rays traveling in the direction for which angle of incidence at core-cladding boundary is
greater than critical angle are trapped within the fibre due to total internal reflection. As the ray
gets repeatedly reflected at the walls of the fibre, phase shift occurs. The waves traveling along
certain zig-zag paths will be in phase and are intensified. The waves traveling along certain paths
will be out of phase and diminish due to destructive interference. The light ray paths along which
the waves are in phase inside the fibre are known as modes. In simple words the allowed paths
for the light ray inside the fibre are known as modes of propagation.
diminished ray

cladding (n2)

core (n1)

Mode of propagation

The number of modes that a fibre supports depends on ratio d/ where d is diameter of core and
 is wavelength of light being transmitted.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRE :

Basically, there are tow types of optical fibres –

i) Single Mode Fibre (SMP)
ii) Multi Mode Fibre (MMF)

Optical Fibre

Single Mode Fibre Multi Mode Fibre

Step Index Fibre Step Index Fibre Graded Index fibre

Types of Optical Fibre

A Single Mode Fibre has a smaller core diameter and can support only one mode of propagation.
A Multi Mode Fibre has a larger core diameter and supports number of modes. Multi Mode
Fibres are further classified into two categories – Step Index Fibre and Graded Index Fibre based
on nature of refractive index of core. Single Mode Fibre is of Step Index Fibre.

Single Mode Step Index Fibre :

Single Mode Step Index Fibre has a very thin core of uniform refractive index. This thin core is
surrounded by a cladding of lower refractive index. The refractive index changes abruptly at core
cladding boundary as shown in fig. 3.6.

R.I.

n2

cladding

core
n1

Single Mode Step Index Fibre

Typically, core diameter is 4m, which is of the order of a wavelength of light. Light travels in
SMF along a single path i.e. along the axis.

Multi Mode Step Index Fibre:

It is similar to single mode fiber expect that its core has larger diameter (100 m). Light follows
a zig-zag path inside the fibre. Many such zig-zag paths of propagation are allowed inside MMF.

R.I.

n2
cladding

core

n1

Multi Mode Step Index Fibre

In step index fibre light rays entering at different angles travel different paths and take different
time in reaching other end of the fibre. This may result in distortion.
Multimode Graded Index Fibre:

In a graded index optical fibre, refractive index of core is not constant. The refractive index of
the core decreases with distance from the axis of the fibre as shown in fig.3.8.

The variation in refractive index is achieved by using concentric layers of different refractive
indices. This causes a periodic focusing of the light through the fibre. This is because, the rays
making larger angles with the axis traverses a larger path length in a region of lower refractive
index (and hence larger speed). The longer path is compensated by a greater average speed.
Therefore all rays take same time in traversing the fibre.

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE, ACCEPTANCE CONE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE:

Let n1 be refractive index of core and n2 be the refractive index of cladding such that n1 > n2. Let
a light ray enters the fibre at an angle i with the axis of the fiber. Let r be the angle of
refraction. Let  be the angle of incidence of the light ray at core-cladding boundary. If  is
greater than critical angle of incidence c, the ray undergoes total internal reflection. Light rays
will travel within the fibre as long as angle  is greater than c.

Let us calculate angle of incidence i at entry point for which  ≥ c, so that light ray remains
inside the fibre.

B cladding

 core
A r
axis
i C

Numerical Aperture
 Applying Snell’s law at the entry, if light enters from air,

sini
 n1 (1)
sinr
If i is increased, at a particular value of i,  drops below c and ray escapes into cladding. The
largest value of i occurs when  = c.

The largest value of angle (i) between incident ray and axis of the fibre for which angle of
incidence at core-cladding boundary  is greater than critical angle of incidence c is called as
acceptance angle.

In ABC,
sinr = sin(90 - ) = cos-------------------------------------------- (2)

therefore, from equation (1) and (2),

sini = n1 cos


when  = c , i = i(max)

 sini(max) = n1 cosc ------------------------------------------- (3)

sin c  n 2
n
1

but,  cosc  1 - sin 2c


n22
 1-
 n21
 n 12 - n 22
  cosc ------------------------------------- (4)
n1
substituting in (3), we get,
sin   n n 12 - n 22
i (max) 1
n1
 sin i (max)  n 12 - n 22

 i(max)  sin -1 n 12 - n 22 ------------------------------------- (5)

The angle sini(max) is called as acceptance angle of the fibre. It is also defined as the maximum
angle that light ray can have relative to the axis of the fibre and propagate down the fibre.
 The light rays contained within the cone having full angle 2 sini(max) are accepted and
transmitted through the fibre. Therefore, the cone is called the acceptance cone.

Numerical Aperture (N.A.) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.

N. A.  sin i(max)  n 12 - n 22 ------------------------------------- (6)

n1  n 2 n1  n 2
n 12 - n 22  (n 1  n 2 ) (n1  n 2 )  ( )( ) 2n1
2 n1
n1  n 2
as (  )  n1 , we can write, n 2 - n 2  2 n 2  ;
1 2 1
2
where  n1 - n2 is fractional index difference and equation (6) becomes
n1
N.A.  n1 2  (7)

V – NUMBER and NUMBER OF MODES OF PROPAGATION:

An optical fibre is characterized by one important parameter known as V- number. It is also

called as normalized frequency. It is given by

2 a
V   n 12  n 22



Where ‘a’ is radius of core and ‘’ is wavelength of light being transmitted.

2 a 
 V  N.A.

The maximum no. of modes Nm supported by a step index optical fibre is –
1 2
N m  V
2
For V < 2.405 the fibre can support only one mode and is called Single Mode Fibre. Multi Mode
Fibres have V > 2.405 and support many modes simultaneously.

Fibre Optic Communication System

LED
Fiber
INPUT DATA Connector
LED DRIVER
TRANSDUCER
CIRCUIT

OPTICAL FIBRE

AMPLIFIER TRANSDUCER RECEIVED

DATA
Fiber
Connector
PHOTO
DETECTOR

FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The fibre optic communication system consists of transmitter, fibre optic communication link
and the receiver.

Transmitter
At the transmitting end, the input data is converted into the electrical signal. This electrical signal
is used to drive the LED driver circuit which converts it into light signal. Light emitting diodes
are used for short distances and low data rate applications. For longer distance, laser diodes are
preferred due to their high power.

Fibre Optic Communication link

The light signal obtained is made to travel through the optical fibre using the phenomenon of
total internal reflection. As the light signal traveling through the fibre will be progressively
attenuated and distorted due to various losses and dispersion in the fibre. Hence repeaters are
used in the transmission line to amplify the signal.

Receiver
At the receiving end, the light signal is converted into the electrical signal using the
photodetector diode. The electrical signal is amplified and the signal in original form is recoverd
back using a suitable transducer.
Advantages of using Optical Fibre Communication network
a) The data is transmitted in the form of light. Due to high frequency of light, large
bandwidth is available. So the data transfer speed increases and more channels are
available.
b) As the optical fibres are very thin and can accommodate more channels, they need less
space as compared to cable network.
c) Transmission losses are low.
d) Fibre optic communication system is not affected by electromagnetic disturbances.
e) Optical fibres are not affected by corrosion and atmospheric conditions. So optical fibre
network has longer life.
f) There is good electrical isolation between transmitter and receiver.

1. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1 = 1.61 and cladding
index n2 = 1.55.
Given : n1 = 1.61 and n2 = 1.55
N.A.  n  n  (1.61)2  (1.55)2
2 2
 0.435
1 2

2. Calculate the numerical aperture of a fibre with core index n1 = 1.65 and cladding
index n2 = 1.53.
Given : n1 = 1.65 and n2 = 1.53
N.A.  n  n  (1.65)2  (1.53)2
2 2
 0.618
1 2

3. The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is 0.5 and core refractive index is 1.54.
Find refractive index of cladding.
Given : N.A. = 0.5 and n1 = 1.54
N.A.  n 12  n 22
 (N.A.)2  n 2  n 2
1 2
 n2  n 2 - (N.A.)2  (1.54)2 - (0.5)2  2.5
2 1

 n 2  1.456
Therefore refractive index of cladding is 1.456.

4. Numerical aperture of a fibre is 0.5 and core refractive index is 1.48. Find cladding
refractive index and acceptance angle.
Given : N.A. = 0.5 and n1 = 1.48
N.A.  n 12  n 22
 (N.A.)2  n 2  n 2
1 2
 n2  n 2 - (N.A.)2  (1.48)2 - (0.5)2  1.9404
2 1

 n 2  1.393
Therefore refractive index of cladding is 1.393.
Acceptance angle = sin-1(N.A.) = sin-1(0.5) = 300.
5. Calculate the acceptance angle for an optical fibre whose core refractive index is 1.48
and cladding refractive index is 1.39.

Given : n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.39

N.A.  n  n 2  (1.48)2  (1.39)2
2
 0.508
1 2
Acceptance angle = sin (N.A.) = sin (0.508) = 30.530.
-1 -1

6. A step index fibre is made with a core of index 1.52 and diameter 29 m and cladding
refractive index 1.5189. If it is operated at wavelength 1.3 m, find V number of fibre
and no. of mode it will support.

2 a d
V  n2  n2  n2  n2
 1 2
 1 2

3.142 x 29 x 10 -6
 (1.52)2 - (1.5189)2
1.3 x 106
 4.049
1 2 1
Number of Modes  V  (4.049)2  8.18
2 2
Thus the fibre will support 8 modes.

7. Find the core radius necessary for single mode operation at 850 nm in step index fibre
with n1 =1.480 and n2 = 1.47. What is the numerical aperture and maximum
acceptance angle of this fibre.

For single mode operation, V = 2.405

2 a
V  n2  n2
 1 2

V 2.405  850 109 6

a    1.89 10 m
2 n 1  n 2 2  3.142  (1.48)  (1.47)
2 2 2 2

N.A.  n 2  n 2  (1.48)2  (1.47)2  0.1717

1 2

Acceptance angle  sin -1 (N.A.)  sin -1 (0.1717)  9053'

8. An optical fibre has core diameter of 6 micrometer and core refractive index is 1.45.
The critical angle is 870. Calculate i) refractive index of cladding, ii) acceptance angle
and iii)number of modes propagating through fibre when wavelength of light is 1
micrometer
Given : d  6 m  6 10-6 m, n  1.45,   870 ,   1.x 106 m
1 c
n2
sin  
c
n1
 Refractive index of cladding  n2  n1 sin c 1.45 sin(87)  1.448
Numerical Aperture  n 2  n 2  (1.45)2  (1.448)2  0.0761
1 2

Acceptance angle  sin (N.A.)  sin -1 (0.0761)  4.3640

-1

2 a d
V  n2  n2  n2  n2
 1 2
 1 2

-6
3.142 x 6 x 10
  0.0761
1.x 106
 1.434
As V - number is less than 2.405, number of modes supported by the given fibre is 1.