ENG-201

Academic and Technical Writing

Study Material

2020
 Contents Page Number

Introduction to Communication 1

Basics of Communication (7Cs) 4

Process of Communication 7

Barriers to Effective Communication 10

Types and Methods of Communication 11

Letter Writing 21

Sample Letter 28

CV/Resume Writing 32

Sample CV 33

Report Writing 36

Sample Report 41

Introduction to Communication

What is Communication?

The term communication has been derived from the Latin word ‘Communis’ that means common. Thus communication means to develop commonness and mutual
understanding through interaction. So far as the term communication is concerned, it has been defined in different ways. We analyze a few definitions of
communication here:

According to Keith Davis, Communication is “the process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs or
behaviour”.
Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as “it is imparting, conveying or exchange of ideas, knowledge, etc. (whether by speech, writing or signs).

Professor Rudolph regards communication as “the process of creating or sharing meaning in informal conversation, group interaction, or public meeting”.

Gregory Terry says, “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions between two or more persons”.

While keeping in view the above given and many other definitions, we may define communication as “the process of exchanging ideas, conveying thoughts and sharing
information by using different ways”.

In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, Signs, pictures, sounds) which stand for the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons
with whom we intend to communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used; otherwise, there is miscommunication. Unless there is a common
understanding of the symbols, it is not possible to communicate.

The word communication is used in common talk, usually, to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another person. Communication is really much more
than that. It involves ensuring that your message has reached the target audience, (that is, the persons to whom it is sent) and that the receiver understands and responds
as you want them to. It also involves ensuring that you yourself are able to understand, interpret, and respond to messages that you receive.

Business Communication

The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and receive for official purposes like running a business, managing an organisation, conducting
the formal affairs of a voluntary organisation and- so on. Business communication is marked by formality as against personal and social communication.

It includes both written and oral communication. Letters, reports, memos, notices are all formal and part of commercial and business activity; so are interviews,
meetings, conferences, presentations, negotiations. Some of these are more formal than others; a group discussion would be less formal than a company meeting; a
letter is less formal than a report.

Friendly chatting, letters between friends and family, reciting poetry for one's own pleasure or telling stories to entertain friends, are not included in business
communication.

The study of communication and efforts to develop skills of communication are needed because communication is absolutely necessary for business. And there is no
one who does not have to engage in some kind of business activity. Persons in all professions need to cultivate skills as needed for their work. Doctors, engineers,
chartered accountants, actors and others in the entertainment industry, managers of all kinds of organisations, educators, besides persons engaged in business
enterprises have to engage daily in some kind of business communication.

Role of Communication in Business

The importance of communication can be evaluated from the fact that we are communicating in some form or other almost every moment of our lives. Whether we are
working, talking, playing, sitting or sleeping, a message is being formulated and transmitted. Communication is inevitable for any organization. Communication is
essential for life in general but in business settings, it is critical. Communication is more than just a matter of speaking and hearing, especially within a business setting.
Communication skills are increasingly necessary for businesses and business people to succeed. People have to communicate to plan, to produce, to hire, to train, and
to motivate workers in organizations. The success of every organization depends on good communication skills.

Let’s discuss the importance of communication under different headings.

Lifeblood of an Organization
Herta. A Murphy regards communication as the life blood of an organization. He opines that the internal and the external flow of communication functions as a soul in
the body of an organization. From the top management to the lower staff and from the internal terminals to external world, organizations require effective network of
communication.

For Effective Management

Communication is a key to effective management. Management needs to communicate policies, objectives, orders and instructions so that all the employees may
understand them. All managerial problems stem from ineffective communication.

To Plan Business Matters

The management of an organization not only issues orders but also plans and controls the business matters. Being the students of business studies we know that
planning is an important feature of any business. To plan and control the business matters, the management needs extensive communication inside the organization
from upper to lower level.

Building Good Relations

Communication establishes good relations between the senior and the junior, between the management and the workers, between the employers and the employees,
between the sellers and the customers. Good relations help in building goodwill, promoting business and developing understanding inside or outside of an organization.
We may say that the quality of relationship revolves around the nature of communication.

To Increase Productivity

Effective communication helps a lot in increasing productivity. Employees can be better motivated and encouraged by it. Outside of an organization communication is
vital to satisfy and win the customers. All these things direct affect the production rate of a company. In this respect, business firms send information about their goods
and services to consumers and customers.

For Smooth Functioning

The business of an organization is run on interchange of information, plans, ideas, proposals, use of data, conducting meetings and discussions which are all different
forms of communication. We may say that without communication, no organization can function properly.

For Decision Making

What to do and what not to do? This question may confuse a manager while working in an organization. Communication helps in decision making. A good manager
always prefers to listen to others when he finds himself in a position where he cannot take any decision alone. When a decision is made in the light of the comments
and opinions, it will be accepted by everyone. Therefore, both the activities of decision making and its implementation need effective flow of communication.

Summing up, we may say that the success of an organization is built upon effective communication. Effective communication is the life blood of every organization
and a key to success in our business career and our personal life.

Basics of Communication (7 Cs)

To write business messages is really painstaking. While composing and writing business messages, the writer must follow the basic principles of communication. These
principles help the writer to adopt the most appropriate words, style and approach for his message. Having read a variety of business letters, we may say that these
principles are common to almost all the business letters.

These principles are seven in number and each term representing each principle starts with letter ‘C’ that is why these principles are called 7Cs. Let us discuss the
principles or qualities of a business message in detail.

THE SEVEN CS

These seven principles are:

1. Clarity
2. Conciseness
3. Completeness
4. Courtesy
5. Concreteness
6. Consideration
7. Correctness

1. Clarity

Clarity is the most striking feature of a business message. Clarity means that the receiver is able to comprehend our message without any difficulty. There should not be
any ambiguity in your message. Clarity can be achieved only when we have clear idea of what we want to say. The writer, therefore, should think deeply over the main
points of his subject matter. The sender or the writer must use simple language. Do not use technical terms and business jargons when the message is sent to the people
who are not acquainted with business terms. Use also short sentences, and divide the message in properly sized paragraph. The writer must prepare a rough draft of his
message before making final draft.

2. Conciseness

Business executives do not have time to read unnecessary lengthy messages, due to their busy routine. Conciseness makes the message more understandable. The writer
should not beat about the bush because time is valuable for both the writer and the reader. Wordy messages create a bad impression. Do not include the information
already known to the reader. To achieve conciseness omit hackneyed expressions and include only relevant facts. Use minimum words instead of long phrases. For
example:

Instead of using “due to the reason that” use "because”.

Instead of using “at the present time” use "now”.

3. Completeness

The message should be complete to bring desirable results. It should include everything the reader wants or needs. We should be able to know the reader’s background,
viewpoints, needs and emotions. Ensure to answer 5 Ws which are; Why, What, Where, When and Who. For example, while writing an order letter the writer should
give full description of the item, quantity, size, mode of transportation and mode of payment as well. In the same way, while responding an inquiry give answer to all
the questions asked in inquiry.
4. Courtesy

Another important principle of writing business message is courtesy. Courtesy builds goodwill and it strengthens present relations and makes new friends. Sometimes,
a businessman has to write letters dealing with unpleasant matters like making a serious complaint or writing letters of collection. Such letters must be written very
tactfully with a courteous approach.

Be tactful and appreciative.

Omit the expressions that may annoy the reader.

Reply promptly

Grant and apologize candidly

5. Concreteness

The business writing should be specific, definite and vivid rather than vague and general. Concreteness means giving the fullest possible information consisting of facts
and figures. The writer should be firm in his opinions. Sometimes, a letter fails to convey the exact sense and spirit of the message. It happens when the message is not
concrete enough to make the ideas clear. The following guidelines lead to concreteness.

Use specific facts and figures

Use action verbs and building words

Be definite and clear

Avoid words like few, quick, soon etc

6. Consideration

Consideration refers to attitude, the human thought and understanding of human nature. A successful business message must concentrate on the reader’s interests and
take into account his problems.

The best way to achieve this principle is to act on the ‘you attitude’. ‘you’ attitude means writing from the reader’s point of view rather than your own point of view.

For example, it may not be desirable to say “We offer the crockery items for your kitchen”. Instead it should be described as “Select your desired crockery items for
your kitchen”.

The writer of a business letter must show interest in the benefit of the reader. It means that the writer should personalize the reader’s benefit. The writer should also
stress the positive and pleasant facts. Consideration can be achieved through the following:

Emphasize ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’.

Your message should convey truth.

Stress the positive aspects of facts

Offer a service of value to the reader.

7. Correctness

A good business message should be correct in form as well as in language. The business letter must be free from mistakes and errors of punctuation, spelling, grammar
and format. Correctness also means accuracy of facts and contents. The information that you give in your message should be accurate. Correctness builds confidence
and it leaves a pleasant and favorable impression on reader’s mind. The error or mistake of a single letter in the spellings of words or a mistake of a single digit in a
figure may change the whole message. Such mistakes destroy confidence. To be correct in communication the following points should be kept in mind:

a) Use correct level of language.

b) Include only accurate facts and figures
c) Use writing mechanics carefully.

Process of Communication

In order to analyse the activity of communication, we must know the process and the elements involved in the process of communication.

Elements/components of Communication

Six fundamental elements of communication are:

I- Context II- Sender (Encoder)

III- Message IV- Medium

V- Receiver (Decoder) VI- Feedback

1.
Context

Context may well be called any specific setting that works as a stimulus and rouses a person to take an action. Context plays a very vital role in how a message is
encoded and decoded. The same message may have a quite different meaning depending on the situation. Whether we communicate orally or in written form, every
message begins with context. The stimulus may be internal or external.

2.
Sender / Encoder

A person who starts or initiates the process of communication is normally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bank he selects ideas, encodes and finally
transmits them to the receiver. The entire burden of communication rests upon the sender or encoder. His choice of words and images, and the combination of the two
is what makes the receiver listens carefully. The sender should also decide first what specific outcomes he wants from communication. This will help you to choose
appropriate language.

The External Stimuli

External stimulus may include a letter, a memo, telephone call etc. Some external factors make the sender start communication and function as stimuli.

The Internal Stimuli

Internal stimulus includes sender’s own idea, observation, thought, urge, experience etc. The most important thing is to understand and analyze the receiver’s needs,
culture and attitude. In order to make message effective, all these aspects of context must be understood.

3. Message:

Message is the encoded idea that is transmitted by the sender to receiver. The formulation of the message is very important because an incorrect patterning can turn the
receiver hostile or make him lose interest. At this very stage the sender has to be extremely cautious.

No message can achieve its goals unless it has unity of thoughts, simple language, consistency in expression and emphasis on main point. The message may be oral or
written. The sender must be very much clear about his message and its contents. The sender must design his message in view of the receiver.

4. Medium:

Another important element of communication is the medium or channel. It could be oral, written or non-verbal. Prior to the composition of the message, the medium
should be decided. For example, in oral communication one can afford to be a little informal but in written communication, all rules of communication need to be
observed. We may say that each medium follows its own set of rules and regulations. The medium chosen for communicating any message will depend on various
factors such as cost, urgency, confidentiality and influence.

Written media used inside an organization may be memos, letters, fax, etc. Oral communication within an organization may take place in the form of meetings,
presentations, interviews etc. External written and oral communication may be reports, letters, group presentations, teleconferences, advertisements in newspapers,
commercials on T.V etc.

5. Receiver / Decoder

The person who receives the message sent by the sender is called receiver. The receiver attempts to decode the message that is why he may be called the decoder. If the
goal of the sender is envisioned as similar to his own, the listener becomes more receptive. For the decoding of the message is done in almost the same terms as were
indicted by the sender.

The receiver must consider carefully the tone used in the message so that the correct message is received. He should also give the attention to every message which that
deserves.

6. Feedback

This is the most important element of communication. Effective communication takes place only when there is feedback. The errors and flaws that abound in business
situations are a result of lack of communication.

Feedback can be oral or written, in action or silence depending upon the situation or the choice of the receiver. We may say that it is the part of communication that
completes the entire loop. A good strategy for giving feedback is to follow the following steps:

Read or listen to what the sender is trying to communicate.

Repeat the crux of the message to ensure that your intention has been rightly understood.

One-way and Two-way Communication Process Models

The following figure shows the steps in the one-way process of communication in a linear form.

This one-way routine is only a part of the communication process. For the communication to be complete, the sender must know whether the receiver has got the
message, understood it in the way it was intended, and has received it well. The sender can find out this only on getting a chance to note the reaction and response of
the receiver. The response may be in words (spoken or written), signs, or behaviour, both conscious and unconscious. The response or return message is feedback.
When the feedback is got by the sender, one cycle of communication is complete. This may be represented roughly by the following diagram.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication

The process of communication has multiple barriers. The intended communique will often be disturbed and distorted leading to a condition of misunderstanding and failure of
communication. The Barriers to effective communication could be of many types like linguistic, psychological, emotional, physical, and cultural etc. We will see all of these
types in detail below.

Linguistic Barriers

The language barrier is one of the main barriers that limit effective communication. Language is the most commonly employed tool of communication. The fact that each major
region has its own language is one of the Barriers to effective communication. Sometimes even a thick dialect may render the communication ineffective.

As per some estimates, the dialects of every two regions changes within a few kilometers. Even in the same workplace, different employees will have different linguistic skills.
As a result, the communication channels that span across the organization would be affected by this.

Thus keeping this barrier in mind, different considerations have to be made for different employees. Some of them are very proficient in a certain language and others will be ok
with these languages.
Psychological Barriers

There are various mental and psychological issues that may be barriers to effective communication. Some people have stage fear, speech disorders, phobia, depression etc. All of
these conditions are very difficult to manage sometimes and will most certainly limit the ease of communication.

Emotional Barriers

The emotional IQ of a person determines the ease and comfort with which they can communicate. A person who is emotionally mature will be able to communicate effectively.
On the other hand, people who let their emotions take over will face certain difficulties.

A perfect mixture of emotions and facts is necessary for effective communication. Emotions like anger, frustration, humour, can blur the decision-making capacities
of a person and thus limit the effectiveness of their communication.

Physical Barriers to Communication

They are the most obvious barriers to effective communication. These barriers are mostly easily removable in principle at least. They include barriers like noise, closed doors,
faulty equipment used for communication, closed cabins, etc. Sometimes, in a large office, the physical separation between various employees combined with faulty equipment
may result in severe barriers to effective communication.

Cultural Barriers of Communication

As the world is getting more and more globalized, any large office may have people from several parts of the world. Different cultures have a different meaning for several basic
values of society. Dressing, Religions or lack of them, food, drinks, pets, and the general behaviour will change drastically from one culture to another.

Hence it is a must that we must take these different cultures into account while communication. This is what we call being culturally appropriate. In many multinational
companies, special courses are offered at the orientation stages that let people know about other cultures and how to be courteous and tolerant of others.

Organisational Structure Barriers

As we saw there are many methods of communication at an organizational level. Each of these methods has its own problems and constraints that may
become barriers to effective communication. Most of these barriers arise because of misinformation or lack of appropriate transparency available to the employees.

Attitude Barriers

Certain people like to be left alone. They are the introverts or just people who are not very social. Others like to be social or sometimes extra clingy! Both these cases
could become a barrier to communication. Some people have attitude issues, like huge ego and inconsiderate behaviours.

These employees can cause severe strains in the communication channels that they are present in. Certain personality traits like shyness, anger, social anxiety may be removable
through courses and proper training. However, problems like egocentric behaviour and selfishness may not be correctable.

Perception Barriers
Different people perceive the same things differently. This is a fact which we must consider during the communication process. Knowledge of the perception
levels of the audience is crucial to effective communication. All the messages or communique must be easy and clear. There shouldn’t be any room for a diversified
interpretational set.

Physiological Barriers

Certain disorders or diseases or other limitations could also prevent effective communication between the various channels of an organization. The shrillness of
voice, dyslexia, etc are some examples of physiological barriers to effective communication. However, these are not crucial because they can easily be compensated and
removed.

Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers

Other barriers include the technological barriers. The technology is developing fast and as a result, it becomes difficult to keep up with the newest developments. Hence
sometimes the technological advance may become a barrier. In addition to this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high.

Most of the organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the purpose of communication. Hence, this becomes a very crucial barrier. Other barriers are socio-religious
barriers. In a patriarchal society, a woman or a transgender may face many difficulties and barriers while communicating.
 Types and Modes of communication

The types of communication are based on communication channels as well as purpose and style of communication.

 Based on Communication channel

1. Verbal communication
Verbal communication is refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally. Verbal communication is done by words,
mouth or a piece of writing. It can be oral and written as well.
 Objective of every communication is to have people understood what we are trying to say
a. Oral Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used.
 It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet.
 Communication is influence by volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

Advantages of Oral Communication: Oral communication involves many advantages. In a recent survey about communication it is clear that more than 55% of the
executives choose this communication. The advantages of oral communication are as follows:

1. Time-saving: When action is required to be taken immediately it is best to transmit a message orally. If the executive’s workload is high then they
stop writing and by oral instructions, they complete their message transmission and released their workload and also it saves time.

2. Cost savings: Cost is involved in any communication. When the communication is needed within the organization and if it and is completed in
orally, it has not needed any paper, pen or stamp or computer. So it saves the money of the organization.

3. More powerful: Speech is a more powerful means of persuasion and control. Therefore, executives often prefer to transmit messages orally.

4. Effectiveness: With the help of variations in the tone, pitch, and intensity of voice, the speaker can convey shades of meaning. This factor also con -
tributes to the effectiveness of oral communication.

5. Immediate feedback: The speaker can get immediate feedback on whether it is creating a favorable impression on the receiver or whether the re -
ceiver will protest or whether the receiver has clearly understood his meaning or is feeling perplexed or baffled and he can mold and adjust his mes -
sage accordingly.

6. More suitable: The employees felt more suitable when the message transmits in orally. They get an opportunity for feedback and clarification.

7. A relationship develops: Oral communication is mostly carried out helps to promote friendly relations between the parties communicating with each
other.

8. Flexibility: By the demand of the situations, oral instructions can be changed easily and for these cases maintain the formalities are not necessary. So
it is very much flexible and effective.

9. Easiness: It is so an easy method of communication. It needs little preparation to send a message. No need of pens, pencils and other writing equip -
ment which are needed in written communication.
 10. Correction of errors: If any error is expressed at the time of oral communication. It was possible to rectify at that time or within a very short time.

11. Informal communication: In no need to maintain such formalities which are needed in written communication. So it is easy and helpful to any or -
ganization.

12. Motivation: In oral communication system, top executives and subordinates staff can sit face-to-face and exchange their views directly, so sub-ordi -
nates are motivated day by day.

13. Special applications: Oral communication is more helpful in communicating messages to groups of people at assembly meetings etc.

14. Maintaining secrecy: Interested parties of oral communication can maintain the secrecy of messages easily.

Disadvantages of oral communication

Oral communication contains many advantages. In spite of this, there are oral some disadvantages which are given below:

1. No record: In oral communication, messages are difficult to record. So it is impossible to preserve the message for the future.

2. Expensive: It is also expensive media of communication. Sometimes the audience can be managed by paying T. A and D. A. On the other hand
Technological devices that are used in this system are costly.

3. Distortion of the word: If distortion of the word occurs in oral communication, then main goals of the organization may be filed.

4. Inaccuracy: There is very possibility of inaccurate messages to reach the destination. So, the reverse result of expected plan may be occurred.

5. Limited use: The scope of usage of oral communication is limited. It is not suitable for lengthy messages. It should be sued for a short message.

6. Probability of omitting main subject: Sometimes, main subject may be omitted to express a word for communicating. So, expected result may not
be achieved.
 7. Confused speech: Sometimes the receiver fails to understand the meaning of a message due to habitual productions of the speaker.

8. No legal validity: there is any legal validity of the oral message. As, the oral messages are not taped and kept records, so it can be denied easily if
the situation goes against the speaker.

9. Late decision: It takes time to reach a decision. At the beginning stage, sometime is killed in the discussion of any personal matters. Besides some
time is also wasted for irrelevant discussion. In this way, decision making is delayed.

10. Less important: In oral communication, meaningless speech can mislead the main effects of communication. But when the information comes out
in written, we take it seriously.

11. Lack of secrecy: In oral communication, important and secret information may be disclosed.

12. Defective: Oral communication is defective for the company’s policy, procedure, programs, law, and other important information.

13. Creates misunderstanding: The speaker often gives message without having properly organized it earlier. So, it is possible that he may not be able
to make himself properly to communicate with the receiver. As a result, misunderstanding May develops.

b. Written
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate.
 In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc.
 In written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language
used.

Advantages of Written communication

Advantages of written communication or importance of written communication and disadvantages of written communication . There are some advantages of written
communication. They are discussed below:

 Easy to preserve:

The documents of are easy to preserve. Oral and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is needed, important information can be collected from the
preserved documents.

 Easy presentation of complex matter:

Written communication is the best way to represent any complex matter easily and attractively.

 Permanent record:

The documents of written communication act as a permanent record. When it is needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved documents.

 Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication prevents the waste of money and time. Without meeting with each other the
communicator and communicate can exchange their views.
  Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written communication top executive can present the information more accurately and
clearly. As it is a legal document everybody takes much care does draft it.

 Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as future reference.

 Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossi -
ble to delegate power without a written document.

 Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That is why; all the important issues of an organization should be back and
white.

 Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other
forms of communication.

 Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the person and the organization. It also protects the images of the
company or organization.

 Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a writ -
ten document.

 Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is recorded permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and alter-
ation of the information.

 No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the information or messages of written communication.

 Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the organizational activity. The written document may be used as a tool for control -
ling.

 Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily. If there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily
verify the information.

 Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating confidence, Easy circulation, wide access or coverage etc.

Disadvantages of Written Communication: The limitations and disadvantages of written communication are given below:

 Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. For this communication paper, pen, ink, typewriter, computer and a large number of
employees are needed.

 Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a time consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both
the writer and the reader.

 Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most disadvantages of written communication. It means to take time for approval of a project.

 Useless for illiterate person: It messages receiver is illiterate, written communication is quite impossible. This is major disadvantage written com-
munication.
 Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy. Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written
communication. Because here needs to discuss everything in black and white.

 Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack of flexibility is one of the most important limitations of
written communication.

 Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver; prompt response is not possible in case of written communica -
tion that is possible in oral communication.

 Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot
take decisions quickly.

 Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in written communication.

 Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives
of the communication may lose.

 Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader, writer communication cannot help to establish a direct rela-
tion between them.

 Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick clari-
fication and correction, formality problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.

2. Non-verbal communication
This is the communication through signs and symbols. Non-Verbal communication can go without verbal communication but verbal can’t go with -
out non-verbal communication.

 kinesics (Body language)

 Haptics (Touch) Proxemics (Space distancing)
 Chronemics
  Sign language
 para language
 environmental
 silence
 artifact

 Kinesics: It is the study of how we use body movement and facial expressions. We interpret a great deal of meaning through body movement, facial ex-
pressions, and eye contact. Many people believe they can easily interpret the meanings of body movements and facial expressions in others. The reality is,
it is almost impossible to determine an exact meaning for gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. Even so, we rely a great deal on kinesics to inter -
pret and express meaning. We know that kinesics can communicate liking, social status, and even relational responsiveness. Facial expressions are a pri-
mary method of sharing emotions and feelings. Kinesics (BODY LANGUAGE) include the followings:

 Facial expression  Eye contact/ gaze

 Gestures and Postures  Personal appearance

Facial Expression: Face is the index of mind. Think how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. By facial expressions we can show
or we can understand happiness, sadness, anger and fear and much more.

Eye Gaze: Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions like anger, grudge and danger. A dangerous look can tell you, someone is unhappy and not
comfortable with.

Gestures and Postures: Gestures constitute non-verbal communication, which complement verbal modes of communication. They have a defining impact on how one
receives words and can make or break the impact of the spoken word. Gestures include any intentional or unintentional body movement made during the course of a
conversation. In a formal scenario, such as interviews, gestures have a big role to play, more so, because the candidates, in their nervousness, do not pay attention to the
way their body reacts. This exposes them to the critical eyes of the people on the other side and enables them to form certain impressions about the candidates. For
instance, pointing your fingers in a formal set-up is considered rude.

Gestures come in handy, especially to portray you as a confident person, in control of his/ her self. The right gestures used at the right time can enhance the meaning of
the spoken words and even add another layer to them. They, in fact, become the second line of communication, in addition to the spoken word. A firm handshake, for
instance, reveals a person’s confidence level and self- belief and tells the other person that you mean business. A nod of the head during a conversation conveys
acknowledgement and shows that you are focused on the conversation. Conversely, inappropriate gestures can reduce the import of the spoken word and create an
unfavorable impression. For instance, people who bite their nails, stare at the ground, sweat due to anxiety, reveal their lack of confidence as well as nervousness,
which works against them and leaves a poor impression.

Personal Appearance Adornment: Appearance can indicate our profession. It shows your nature, interest and your taste. It can also point out our religious and cultural
values.
  Haptics (Touch Language) is the study of touch. Remember that conference room full of angry people? There was probably a lot of finger pointing and
several invasions of personal space. All this indicates attack mode. Someone's aggressively conveying they're looking to "get you" or prove a point. In this
line of attack, someone can also reach out and grab someone by the arm to shock them into attention.

That said, we typically consider physical touch in a positive and personal light. If someone's sitting at their desk crying, someone's likely to put a hand on their shoulder
and ask them what's wrong. These signs of touch are meant to be comforting while forging a connection. Someone can also give a light touch to a co-worker's arm as
they say thanks.

In every instance, bad or good, touch is designed to strengthen the message being sent.

 Proxemics (Space distancing): It is the study of how our use of space influences the ways we relate with others. It also demonstrates our relational stand-
ing with those around us. Intimate space consists of space that ranges from touch to eighteen inches. We use intimate space with those whom we are close
(family members, close friends, and intimate partners). Intimate space is also the context for physical fighting and violence. Personal space ranges from
eighteen inches to four feet and is reserved for most conversations with non-intimate others (friends and acquaintances). Social space extends from four to
twelve feet and is used for small group interactions such as sitting around a dinner table with others or a group meeting. Public space extends beyond
twelve feet and is most often used in public speaking situations. We use space to regulate our verbal communication and communicate relational and so -
cial meanings. A fun exercise to do is to go to a public space and observe people. Based on their use of the above categories of space, try to determine
what type of relationship the people are in: Romantic, Family, or Friends.
To communicate while keeping distance is called proxemics. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is
influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality characteristics and level of familiarity.
 Chronemics (Time Language): A call at 2 a.m. indicates some kind of emergency. You reached in a party on time, shows you are punctual. It is basically
the study of how people use time. Are you someone who is always early or on-time? Or, are you someone who arrives late to most events? Think about the
person you know who is most frequently late. How do you describe that person based on their use of time? Now, think about someone else who is always
on time. How do you describe that person? Is there a difference? If so, these differences are probably based on their use of time. In the U.S., we place high
value on being on time, and respond more positively to people who are punctual. But, in many Arab and Latin American countries, time is used more
loosely, and punctuality is not necessarily a goal to achieve. You may have heard the expression, “Indian time” to refer to “the perception of time [that] is
circular and flexible”. This is the belief that activities will commence when everyone is present and ready; not according to an arbitrary schedule based on
a clock or calendar. Neither approach is better than the other, but the dissimilar uses of time can create misunderstandings among those from different cul -
tural groups.
 Sign language- A Sign language, any means of communication through bodily movements, especially of the hands and arms, used when spoken commu -
nication is impossible or not desirable. In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as any oral language but they are not "real languages". It
is a conventional communication which is a part of non- verbal communication.

This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's
thoughts.They share many similarities with spoken languages, which is why linguists consider both to be natural languages, but there are also some significant
differences between signed and spoken languages.

Types of Sign Language: There are 7 types of sign language:-

1. Sign language for the deaf

2. Sign language for people who are deaf and blind

3. Sign language for children and adults with special needs

4. Sign language for babies - a most fabulous way to understand and communicate with hearing baby, before he or she can speak!

5. Sign language for communicating with animals for example dogs and dolphins.
6. Home sign is not a full language, but it is used for a particular family, where a deaf child does not have contact with other deaf children and is not educated in sign.

7. A village sign language is a local language is used both by the deaf and by a significant portion of the hearing community, who have deaf family and friends.

 para language: It is the term we use to describe vocal qualities such as pitch, the tone, the volume, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality and
even the accent of the speaker collectively known as paralanguage, we can understand mood and the situation by paralanguage expressions.
 Environment:Our environment are nonverbal acts through our use of spaces we occupy like are homes, rooms, cars, or offices. Think of your home,
room, automobile, or office space. What meanings can others perceive about you from these spaces? What meanings are you trying to send by how you
keep them? Think about spaces you use frequently and the nonverbal meanings they have for you. Most educational institutions intentionally paint class -
rooms in dull colors. Why? Dull colors on walls have a calming effect, theoretically keeping students from being distracted by bright colors and excessive
stimuli. Contrast the environment of a classroom to that of a fast food restaurant. These establishments have bright colors and hard plastic seats and tables.
The bright colors generate an upbeat environment, while the hard plastic seats are just uncomfortable enough to keep patrons from staying too long–re -
member, its FAST food (Restaurants See Color as Key Ingredient). People and cultures place different emphasis on the use of space as a way to communi-
cate nonverbally.
 Silence: it serves as a type of nonverbal communication when we do not use words or utterances to convey meanings. Have you ever experienced the
“silent treatment” from someone? What meanings did you take from that person’s silence? Silence is powerful because the person using silence may be re -
fusing to engage in communication with you. Likewise, we can use silence to regulate the flow of our conversations. Silence has a variety of meanings
and, as with other types of nonverbal communication; context plays an important role for interpreting the meaning of silence. For example, the Day of Si -
lence protest which has taken place every year since 1996 is a day which students use their silence as a tool to get people to stand up for LGBT rights.
Here, like in the Women in Black movement, the participants believe that silence sends a louder message than anything they could say. Do you think they
are right? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of using silence as a political strategy? If you wish to participate or read further.
 Artifact:Artifacts are physical objects, such as clothing, homes, and cars that indicate to others a person's personal and social beliefs and habits. Mes-
sages are thus conveyed in a nonverbal manner.
o Clothing: One of the first judgments people make when they see an individual, whether it be stranger or friend, is based on that person's

clothing. Accurate or not, these inferences affect how people view and react to others. Clothing can communicate many ideas, including so-
cial class, attitudes (conservative, liberal, moderate), style and creativity, and age. For example, a professor is more likely to take seriously a
student who dresses conservatively and appropriately for class than a student who constantly lounges in sweats and an old t-shirt.
o Jewelry: Jewelry as well communicates certain messages. Political buttons inform others of your views and activity concerning society

while college rings or religious adornments reveal personal values and beliefs. Engagement and wedding rings indicate matrimony and the
union of two people in love, though the type of rings can further indicate wealth and thus social class; large stones are usually associated with
those who have money while simple and plain rings are often reserved for those with less wealth.

o Body Piercing and Tattoos: Piercings and tattoos often facilitate complex messages, especially in terms of presentation and perception. Of-

ten, when people get a piercing in their nose, eyebrow, or tongue, they communicate a message that is different than from how others perceive
it. This can be a result of a culture or generation gap, for younger people are more comfortable with such expressions than are their parents
and grandparents. Many people tend to overlook the actual meaning of such an adornment and instead perceive it in within a broad message.
For example, a young person may get a tattoo of a religious object, perhaps a cross. While that person's intent may be to indicate to others
his/her devotion to faith, an older individual may misinterpret the message and think that the person with the tattoo is defying his/her religion.
o Space Decoration: The way in which private spaces are decorated indicate messages about a particular person or group of people. For exam-

ple, a boss' office is usually arranged with nice furniture in a private room, unlike a worker's lowly cubicle. Thus, objects and adornments can
highlight wealth and status. Despite this, they also contribute to information about a person's interests and lifestyles. Magazines, books, and
dvds each communicate a different message about the tastes of a person and what they consider to be important.
 Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears their own characteristics. Communication types based on
style and purpose are:
 1. Formal Communication: In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while communicating message.Formal

communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.In
formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be fol-
lowed in formal communication.

Formal Communication Channels: Upward, Downward, Horizontal, and External

 Downward Communication: Traditional views of the communication process in school organizations have been dominated by downward communica -
tion flows. Such flows transmit information from higher to lower levels of the school organization. School leaders, from central office administrators to
building-level administrators, communicate downward to group members through speeches, messages in school bulletins, school board policy manuals,
and school procedure handbooks.

Canary (2011) has identified five general purposes of downward communication:

1.Implementation of goals, strategies, and objectives.

Communicating new strategies and goals provides information about specific targets and expected behaviors. It gives direction for lower levels of the school/school
district, community college, or university. For example: "The new reform mandate is for real. We must improve the quality of student learning if we are to succeed."

2. Job instructions and rationale

These are directives on how to do a specific task and how the job relates to other activities of the school organization. Schools, community colleges, or universities
need to coordinate individual and departmental objectives with organization-wide goals. We often fail to provide enough of this kind of information, leaving it to the
individual staff member to get the big picture.

3. Procedures and Practices

These are messages defining the school organization's policies, rules, regulations, benefits, and structural arrangements in order to get some degree of uniformity in
organization practices. In school organizations, this information is transmitted to staff members through board and organization-wide policy manuals, handbooks, and
the day-to-day operation of the school organization.

4. Performance feedback.

Departmental progress reports, individual performance appraisals, and other means are used to tell departments or individuals how well they are doing with respect to
performance standards and goals. For example: "Mary, your work on the computer terminal has greatly improved the efficiency of our department."

5. Socialization
Every school organization tries to motivate staff members to adopt the institution's mission and cultural values and to participate in special ceremonies, such as picnics
and United Way campaigns. It is an attempt to get a commitment, a sense of belonging, and a unity of direction among staff members (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008).
For example: "The school thinks of its employees as family and would like to invite everyone to attend the annual picnic and fair on May 30."

The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions, and information to organizational members. However, much information gets
lost as it is passed from one person to another. Moreover, the message can be distorted if it travels a great distance from its sender to the ultimate receiver down through
the formal school organization hierarchy (Tourish, 2010).

 Upward Communication

The behaviorists have emphasized the establishment of upward communication flows. In a school organization, this refers to communication that travel from staff
member to leader. This is necessary not only to determine if staff members have understood information sent downward but also to meet the ego needs of staff. Five
types of information communicated upward in a school organization are as follows (Canary, 2011).

1.Problems and Expectations:

These messages describe serious problems and exceptions to routine performance in order to make the leader aware of difficulties.

2. Suggestions for improvement.

These messages are ideas for improving task- related procedures to increase the quality or efficiency of organization members.

3. Performance reports

These messages include periodic reports that inform the leader how individual organization members and departments are performing.

4. Grievances and disputes

These messages are employee complaints and conflicts that travel up the school organization hierarchy for a hearing and possible resolution. If the grievance procedure
is backed up by the presence of a collective bargaining agreement, organization members are even more encouraged to express true feelings.

5. Financial and accounting information

These messages pertain to costs, accounts receivable, interest on investments, tax levies, and other matters of interest to the board, central administration, and building-
level administrators.

Ideally, the organizational structure should provide for both upward and downward communication flows. Communication should travel in both directions through the
formal school organization hierarchy. Unfortunately, communication from the bottom does not flow as freely as communication from the top. Some barriers to
effective upward communication in a school are as follows (Cheney, 2011).

1. Administrators fail to respond when staff members bring up information or problems. Failure to respond will ultimately result in no communication.
2. Administrators tend to be defensive about less-than-perfect actions. When staff members see this defensiveness, information will be withheld.

3. The administrator's attitude plays a critical role in the upward communication flow. If the administrator is really concerned and really listens, then upward
communication improves.

4. Physical barriers can also inhibit upward communication flow. Separating an administrator from her staff members creates common problems.

5. Time lags between the communication and the action can inhibit upward communication. If it takes months for the various levels of administration to approve a staff
member's suggestion, upward communication is hindered.

The following are some methods of improving the effectiveness of upward communication in a school organization (Keyton, 2011):

1. The open-door policy.

Taken literally, this means that the administrator's door is always open to staff members. It is an invitation for staff to come in and talk about any problem they may
have. In practice, the open-door policy is seldom used. The administrator may say: "My door is always open," but in many cases both the staff member and the
administrator know the door is really closed. Typically, this does not occur in a learning organization (Reason, 2010; Senge, 2006).

2. Counseling, attitude questionnaires, and exit interviews.

The leader can greatly facilitate upward communication by conducting nondirective, confidential counseling sessions; periodically administering attitude surveys; and
holding exit interviews for those who leave the organization. Much valuable information can be gained from these forms of communication.

3. Participative techniques.

Group decision making can generate a great deal of upward communication. This may be accomplished by the use of union-management committees, quality circles,
suggestion boxes, site-based councils, and the like.

4. The ombudsperson.

The use of an ombudsperson has been utilized primarily in Europe and Canada to provide an outlet for persons who have been treated unfairly or in a depersonalized
manner by large, bureaucratic government (Hyson, 2010; International Ombudsman Institute, 2009; Kucsko-Stadlmayer, 2009). More recently, it has gained popularity
in American state governments, the military, universities, and some business firms. Xerox Corporation inaugurated the position in 1972, and General Electric followed
shortly thereafter (Malik, 2010). If developed and maintained properly, it may work where the open-door policy has failed.

5. The union contract.

A prime objective of the union is to convey to administration the feelings and demands of various employee groups. Collective bargaining sessions constitute a legal
channel of communication for any aspect of employer-employee relations. A typical provision of every union contract is the grievance procedure. It is a mechanism for
appeal beyond the authority of the immediate supervisor.

6. The grapevine.
Although leaders may be reluctant to use the grapevine, they should always listen to it. The grapevine is a natural phenomenon that serves as a means of emotional
release for staff members and provides the administrator with significant information concerning the attitudes and feelings of staff members.

In short, the upward flow of communication in a school organization is intended to provide channels for the feedback of information up the school hierarchy. Some
deterrents may prevent a good return flow, but there are ways to promote more effective administrator-staff communications.

Horizontal Communication: Upward and downward communication flows generally follow the formal hierarchy within the school organization. However, greater
size and complexity of organizations increase the need for communication laterally or diagonally across the lines of the formal chain of command. This is referred to as
horizontal communication. These communications are informational too, but in a different way than downward and upward communication. Here information is
basically for coordination — to tie together activities within or across departments on a single school campus or within divisions in a schoolwide organizational system.
Horizontal communication falls into one of three categories (Canary, 2011):

1. Intradepartmental problem solving.

These messages take place between members of the same department in a school or division in a school-wide organizational system and concern task accomplishment.

2. Interdepartmental coordination.

Interdepartmental messages facilitate the accomplishment of joint projects or tasks in a school or divisions in a school-wide organizational system.

3. Staff advice to line departments.

These messages often go from specialists in academic areas, finance, or computer service to campus-level administrators seeking help in these areas.

In brief, horizontal communication flows exist to enhance coordination. This horizontal channel permits a lateral or diagonal flow of messages, enabling units to work
with other units without having to follow rigidly up and down channels. Many school organizations build in horizontal communications in the form of task forces,
committees, liaison personnel, or matrix structures to facilitate coordination.

External communication flows between employees inside the organization and with a variety of stakeholders outside the organization. External stakeholders include
other administrators external to the organization, parents, government officials, community residents, and so forth. Many organizations create formal departments, such
as a public relations office, to coordinate their external communications.

6. Informal Communication: Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication channels. It’s just a ca -

sual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and fam-
ily. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. Informal communication is done orally and using
gestures.Informal communication, unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff
grievances as people express more when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

Modes of communication: Modes of communication are described below.

 1. Interpersonal communication
2. Intrapersonal communication
3. Presentational Communication

Interpersonal communication Intrapersonal communication Presentational communication

Two-way communication with active One-way communication with no recourse One-way communication intended for an
negotiation of meaning among individuals to the active negotiation of meaning with the audience of readers, listeners, or viewers
writer, speaker, or producer

Reader,
 Spontaneous listener or viewer interprets what
the author, speaker, or producer wants the
receiver of the message to understand.
 Usually involves exchange of information
Presentation
of information; not exchange
 No direct opportunity for the active
negotiation of meaning exists

 Meaningful
Participants observe and monitor one Interpretation differs from comprehension To ensure the intended audience is
another to see how their meanings and and translation in that it implies the ability successful in its interpretation, the
intentions are being communicated and to read, listen or view “between the lines,” “presenter” needs knowledge of the
make adjustments and clarifications including understanding from within the audience’s language and culture
accordingly cultural mindset or perspective
Speaking and listening (conversation) Writing
 Reading of authentic texts (websites, (messages, articles,

stories and other literature, articles, signs) advertisements, flyers, brochures, short
stories, reports, scripts, Power Point
presentations);
 Listening to authentic texts (speeches,
 Reading and writing (text messages,
messages, songs, radio news, ads)
messages on social media, letters)
 Speaking (telling a story, giving a speech,
 Viewing of authentic materials (videos, TV or radio news, drama presentations
movies, presentations, TV shows, including skits, presentation to jury)
commercials, news, plays)

Letter Writing

With the advent of emails and modern technology, the concept of writing Letters has taken a back seats but the style persists and people use it while writing emails.
Letters are a form of verbal and written communication, which contains information or message, send by one party to another, to convey the message. It is sent by one
party to another, to provide certain important information.
Objectives of letters writing

 A Letter bridges communication gap between two or more parties.

 A Letter can create awareness, inform or provoke a thought in the receiver or the mass.
 A well-written letter is a good way to express one’s feelings.
 A heartfelt letter acts as a personal memoir and may be preserved by the receiver.

Business Letter

 A business letter is a formal way of communication between two or more parties.

 Business letters can be informational, persuasive, motivational, or promotional.

 A business letter can…

o tell an employer why you want the job.

o tell a company that you don’t like their service.

o ask someone for information.

o tell someone in government what you think.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LETTERS

1. Letters represent your company’s public image and your competence.

2. Letters are more personal than a report, yet more formal than memos or e-mail.

3. Letters constitute an official legal record of an agreement.

4. Letters provide a wide range of corporate information.

ELEMENTS OF A GOOD LETTER

 The most important element of writing a good letter is your ability to identify and write to your audience.

 If you are addressing your letter to the department of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms that only engineers would under -

stand, even if your letter is addressed to an engineering company, chances are that the personnel in human resources does not have an engi -

neering background.

 The next element is that you make sure your present your objective in a clear and concise manner. Don't be vague about your objective.

 Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a complaint letter, remain polite and courteous,

simply state the problem(s) along with any other relevant information and be sure to avoid threats and slander.

Styles Format Business Letter

The Styles of Business Letters (Layouts of Business Letters) have undergone changes over the period of time. In the old times, the style was followed strictly. But
recently liberty has been given to the business people to follow their own styles. Although no room was allowed for deviation form the standard form an effective letter
during old days, the letters written then was more effective. There are still many business houses which use the old layout. But things have become much easier and
business people have taken liberty in their approach towards adopting the layout of their business letters.

1. Full Block Style: Full block format is considered the most formal of the three styles. In full block format or style, every line is left justified. The dateline is placed
two to six line spaces below the last line of the heading or letterhead. The inside address placement varies depending upon the length of the letter. A common spacing is
four line spaces below the date line. The salutation is placed two lines below the attention line (if an attention line is provided). The first line of the body is placed two
lines below an attention line or two to four lines below the last inside address line. When using full block, paragraphs are single spaced, with a double space between
paragraphs.

2 Block Style: The block style is also known as the Full block style. In this style, all elements of the letter are justified to the left.This business letter style is
becoming very common, for the obvious reason that typing in this manner is easier, especially on a computer.
3. Semi Block Style: Semi-block format or style is frequently called modified semi-block because it is a slightly less formal modification of full block format. This
letter style places the date line in alignment with, or slightly to the right of dead center. Another option for placing the date line in semi-block is flush right. Similar to
full block, semi-block places the inside address, salutation and any end notations flush with the left margin. However, unlike full block, each body paragraph of semi-
block is indented five spaces. The complimentary close and signature block are aligned under the date.
 4.
Indented Style: Indented style is somewhat more complicated than other popular styles of business writing. In indented style, new paragraphs in a piece of writing
are indented that is, they begin about 1.5 centimeters to the right of the left margin. Other parts of a business letter are moved farther to the right half of the page.
Indented style is one of the older formats for business writing currently in use, though other formats are becoming more popular. Indented style is a format that many of
today’s business people were trained to use.

5. Simplified Style: Simplified format or style unlike full block and semi-block has fewer internal parts. This format is also the most widely used format in
professional correspondence. Simplified format is focused and professional without unnecessary formality. Simplified format places all internal parts in left alignment;
however, the traditional salutation is replaced with an all-caps subject line that is also placed flush with the left margin. Body paragraphs are left aligned and single
spaced within and double spaced between. In simplified style, the writer’s name and title, if necessary, are aligned with the left margin and typed in all caps at least five
spaces below the last line of the body or message of the letter.
Hanging Indentation Style: A hanging indented letter style is when a paragraph is indented so that the first line hangs over the rest. Normally you would see a
first line indent. This is when the first line is moved to the right and the rest of the paragraph starts at the margin. The most common place hanging indents are used is
on a bibliography reference page. When typing you can change the indentation by either formatting the paragraph or changing the page margins.

.Types of Letters: Letters are categorized into two types

Informal Letters

These are also known as personal letters, usually written to family, friends, relatives, neighbors or to acquaintances. These letters may or may not have a concrete
reason of writing. They may be written just to share an experience, enquire about someone’s how about, updating someone with a general incident etc. In these letters
we cover personal letters (letters to family, letters to relatives, love letters and letters to elderly people) and social letters (letters to friends, social invitations,
congratulatory/apology letters, letters of condolence/sympathy, thank you letters).
Purpose of Writing an Informal Letters

The main purposes of writing an informal letter are;

 to express feelings and emotions.

 to stay in contact with family and friends.

 to send invitations, replies, thanksgiving etc.

 to make personal complaints.

 to communicate by expressing sympathy, feeling

 congratulating someone etc.

1. Formal Letters

These letters are written to discuss business, apply for services, make requests, file/register complaints etc. The foundation of these letters and categorization depends
upon what is being discussed in the letters. The Letters are short and to the point. The formulation of formal letters, letters of application, official letters and letters to
the Editor.

Format of a Letter
 A letter is Composed of various elements that may change depending upon the nature of the letter. The main elements of a letter are given below

Senders; address is the mailing address of the sender. It is an essential part of both, formal and informal letters. It is also known as the return address as it acts as a back
up address incase the letter gets damaged or unaccepted.
 It is omitted only if the letter, is being written/typed on a letterhead or stationery already imprinted with the same.
 Senders; address follows a typical format of writing as given below that consists of the designation of the sender (optional) followed by the name of the or-
ganization, building numbers, street/area, state/town, pin code and name of the country (if corresponding internationally).
 In case of a business letter, a reference number may also be included depicting that the letter is written in response to a particular enquiry, letter, file,
record etc.

 Note Designation of the sender, name of the organization and reference number are not included in the formation of sender’s address of informal letters for

obvious reasons.
 Line 1 Designation of the sender (optional) (formal letters)
 Line 2 Name of the organization (formal letters)
 Line 3 Building number, street/area (formal letters)
 Line 4 State/town (pin code-optional)
 Line 5 Country (if corresponding internationally)
 Line 6 Reference number (if applicable)

Formal letter Informal letter

The Manager 23, Gulberg
ABC Pvt. Ltd Lahore-00000
23, Gulberg Pakistan
Lahore-00000
 Pakistan
Ref no 229/3A/20XX

Date

Succeeding the space after the return address comes the date on which the letter is written/sent. One may opt any format out of the two stated below to record the date
in the letter.

 DD/MM/YY : 24th August, 20XX

 MM/DD/YY : August 24th, 20XX

Receivers’ Address

 Receivers’ address is the corresponding address of the person to whom the letter is being sent. It is placed after the date in formal letters. Since personal

letters are sent to acquaintances or known people, receivers’ address is only mentioned on the envelope carrying the letter.

 If the letter is being addressed to someone whose title/post/name of the official and name of the organization is known, then the sender must start with the

receivers’ designation and name of the organization followed by the building numbers, street/area, state/town, pin code (optional) and country (if corre-

sponding internationally) as formatted tittle

 Line 1 Name of the official/professional title

 Line 2 Name of the organization
 Line 3 Building number, street/area
 Line 4 State/town (pin code-optional)
 Line 5 Country (if corresponding internationally)

The Manager
EcotechPvt Ltd
19/B2 Gulberg
Lahore – 0000
Pakistan

Subject

 A Subject determines the purpose of writing in the brief. It help the recipient to deal successfully with the aim of yours letter. It is preceded with the word

subject and is placed directly after the receivers’ address.

 It is part of formal business letters which are written either in reference to an earlier in reference to an earlier correspondence or to someone with whom

the sender is usually in contact. You must have written a subject at least once while applying for leave concession, filing a complaint, executive a deal etc.

It should clear, Concise not than 10 words.

Salutation
  The salutation is a customary greeting to the recipient of the letter. It varies depending upon the intimacy/relationship between the sender and the receiver.

It usually begins with the word ‘Dear’ followed by the title (Ms/Mrs/Mr/Dr) if know and the first name of the person.

 Incase the gender and name of the recipient is not known you must address the person as Dear Sir/Dear Madam, Since the salutation is professional in for-

mal letters. The salutation used in personal or informal letters is friendly.

 You may greet the receiver as ‘Dear/Dearest’ followed by their first name/nick name. it is advisable to greet your elders with respect such as Dear

Grandma/Dear Grandfather etc and not use their names.

Salutation for Informal and Formal letters

For Informal Letters

(a) For Blood Relations (older) Respected

(b) For Blood Relations (Youngers) My dear, dear

(c) For Intimate Friends and Relatives Dear, My dear

For Formal Letters

(a) Editors, Post Masters, police Officers Sir/Madam

(b) Government Officials etc Sir/Madam

(c) Principals and head of institutions Respected Sir/Madam

(d) present or Prospective Employer Sir/Madam

(e) shopkeeper, Businessmen, Manager Sir/Madam

(f) Strangers and Acquaintances Dear Sir/Madam or Dear Sir/Madam Ms

Body

 The body is the most important elements of the letter. It can said to be the destination of journey as it lays the reason behind your writing. It includes the

message the sender wants to convey. While the body of a personal letter can be long and detailed containing as many feelings, experiences, advices, news

etc on a personal front built in formal letter it is best to use short, clear, logical paragraphs to state your subject.

 There can be three sub-parts of the body of a formal letter for letter drafting as follow, an introductory paragraph stating the main point, middle paragraph

justifying the importance/need of writing with supporting points and a concluding paragraph restating the purpose and requesting for some action. The

paragraphs of the body must be indented depending upon the style chosen.

 Be sure to skip a line between the salutation and introductory paragraph and also between the concluding paragraph and closure. Margins must be left on

all four sides of the letter. It creates attractive appearance of the letter.

Concluding Line

 It comes at the end of the body of the letter, always begin as a new paragraph. It is determined by the writer’s relation with the addressee.
 (a) For friends ‘with best regards’, ‘with best wishes’

(b) for parents and elders ‘with love and respect’, ‘with respect and affectionate regards’

(c) For younger relatives ‘with love’, ‘Best wishes’, ‘with best wishes’

(d) For official letters ‘thanking you’, ‘with best regards’

Complimentary closure

 It is a polite way to end your letter with respect. The traditional rule of Etiquette in Britain in that a formal letter starting with ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ must end
with ‘Yours faithfully’, While a letter starting with ’Sir/Madam’ must end with ‘You sincerely’.
 In informal or personal letters, you may close the letter with ‘Yours Lovingly’, ‘Your truly’, ‘Your affectionately’ so on and depending upon your relation
with receiver.

For Informal Letters

(a) For friends and acquaintances ‘Your sincerely’, ‘Sincerely yours’

(b) for relatives and friends ‘Yours affectionately’, ‘yours loving’ etc

For Formal Letters

(a) Principals, Headmasters etc ‘yours obediently’

(b) Editors, Government officials, Shopkeepers, private firms etc ‘Yours faithfully’, ‘Your truly’

(c) Strangers ‘Your faithfully’

(d) For employment from one official to another, complaints or requests to officials ‘Your faithfully’

 Note: only the first letter of the first word in the complimentary closure is capitalized and all the other words are written/typed in small case.

Signature Line

 It is the last part of the letter where the sender signs off with his/her first and last name. The signature line may also included a second line in formal letters
for the title/post of the sender, if appropriate.

Comparison Chart

Formal Letter Informal Letter

A formal letter is a letter, scripted in the formal talk, in the stated A letter written in a friendly way, to someone you known with, is
format, for official purpose. called an informal letter.

Format

Written in prescribed format only. No prescribed format.

Objective

Professional communication Personal communication

Contractions and Abbreviations

Avoided Used

Written in

A formal letter writes in the First person – Business letters, third First person, second or third person.
person – some others.

Written to

Business, college/institute, employer, organizations, etc. Friends, family, acquaintances, etc.

Sentence

Long and complex Short and simple

Size

Concise Large or concise

Different types of formal letters

Basically, they all have the same layout styles, salutation and endings. However, the information that you include in these letters differ. Here is a closer look at different
types of formal letters.

Inquiry letters

These letters are used to request more information about a product or service. You must clearly explain what information you are seeking. You may also ask for further
details in the form of catalogs, brochures etc.

Sales Letters

Sales letters are used to promote new products and services. A sales letter must clearly state the advantages of using the specific product you are trying to promote.
Ideally, a sales letter must highlight an important problem and then explain how that problem can be solved by using your product. All sales letters must include a call
to action.
These letters are written to tell about a product to the customers with an intention of selling it. A sales letter helps in the sale promotion and presenting introductory offers. It
makes it easy to understand the facts and figures and also strengthen the partnership and the joint ventures. While writing a sales letter one must keep in mind the following
points:

 The language must be formal

 Only use easy and clear language

 Avoid slang and use of abbreviations

 The content must be clear, concise and understandable

 Avoid adding extra details or information

 Pay attention towards the targeted audience

 Provide details, features, uses of a newly launched product

Acceptance letter

An acceptance letter is one that is written when you want to accept a job, a gift, an invitation, an honor, a resignation etc. You may have verbally accepted the job or
gift. Still it is a smart idea to formally accept the offer with an acceptance letter.

Replying to an Inquiry

This is the kind of letter that you may have to write very often. Customers who make inquiries about your products or services are definitely interested in buying them.
When you reply to these inquiries you have to provide as much information as possible. Your reply should prompt the client to take the desired action: it could be
subscribing to a service you provide or purchasing a product you offer.

Making a Claim

We are not always satisfied with the quality of a product or service we purchase. In that case, we will need to make a claim against unsatisfactory work. A claim letter
must clearly express your dissatisfaction. It must also state what action you expect the service provider to take.

Adjusting a Claim

Your company may be offering the best products and services. Nonetheless, from time to time you may be called upon to adjust a claim. This type of letters must
address the specific concerns of dissatisfied customers.

Apology letters

Business apology letters should be typed on a computer. Use a serif font, such as Times Roman. Once you have typed the letter, print it on good quality, white paper.

Cover Letters
A cover letter is one that is sent along with your CV when you are applying for a job. The purpose of a cover letter is to elicit a positive response from your prospective
employers by highlighting the plus points in your resume.

Letter of Complaint

Suppose you placed an order of some items. The quality promised and the quality of the items received is not the same. What will you do? You either want to replace
them or want your payment back. How can you do so? This is where the letter of complaint comes into play. While writing this type of letter,

 One must clearly provide the details of the problem faced

 Tell what action you want to be taken

 Provide information like the date of arrival of orders, order number, or the details of the previous complaint (if any)

 Give a deadline to respond within

 Attach a copy or a specimen of the invoice or any other receipt

 Use polite yet assertive words regarding complaint issue

 Never excuse or make any allegation by self

Reply to a Letter of Complaint

Suppose sometime you received a complaint and you want to reply to it. It is most important to try to look after such complaints as they may cost you your/
organization’s reputation. How will you do so? How can you provide better customer services? It is important for you

 toClearly address the problem and the trouble costs to the customer

 Apologize for the error on your side

 Clearly state the course of actions you will take for the arisen issues and the time until you will do so

 Assure the customer for no more future grievances and troubles

 Be very clear and specific about every detail

Promotion Letter

This type of letters mainly refers to the one of promoting new developments and up-gradation. The promotion can be of anything new opening of a new branch or
show-rooms, new schemes, or any other promotional discounts. For any promotional letter, it is very important to

 Use clear, definite terms

 Proper use of punctuation and correct spellings

 Avoid slang, fancy terminologies of jargon

 Clearly discuss the promotion

 Avoid the use of abbreviations

Order Letter

When a buyer needs to order some goods, he writes an order letter to the seller. The three main parts of this letter are

 The details of the items or the goods being ordered must be clearly stated. It must have complete information like the quantity of the goods, model number (if pos -
sible), etc.

 The information related to the shipping must also be clearly given. The mode of shipping, shipping location and the desired date for the goods to be shipped must
be clearly stated.

 The inquiry related payment whether it is the mode of payment, date of payment or terms and conditions regarding payment should be clearly mentioned.

Recovery Letters

There are sometimes when a company or an organization needs to collect money from a client or a customer. The intention behind writing recovery letters is to recover the
money form the customer without bothering or annoying the client. This type of letter includes detail information regarding the amount of unclear payment, last date of payment
of the amount, the detail of the legal action in case of non-payment of the dues. Although it is a recovery letter, one must always keep in mind

 The remainder must be in the polite language

 The detailed information and the reasons must be clear and understandable by the client

 The language should be formal.

 Provide the detail of legal action in case of non-payment of further delay in clearing the dues.

Acknowledgment letters are a professional courtesy, meant to acknowledge the receipt of something, or to acknowledge a fact or an error. It usually entails a short
detail of the day something arrived and a note of thanks.

Bad news letters:

As opposed to the good news letter, a bad news letter, such as dismissal and rejection letters, need to be handled carefully. While you need to maintain the concise and

professional tone of a business letter, you also need to be sensitive to the reader's feelings. In a bad news letter, instead of conveying the bad news to the reader

outright, you need to place it in the middle of the text.

Key Points of Better Letter Writing

 1. Selection of Correct Words: Words are the writer’s tools and the writer need to put the right word and right expression with precision. It should however be
remembered that right words become relevant only in the right context. For example an emotional or flowery language has to be fully avoided in a business
letter.
2. To the Point content: Nothing more is harmful to good communication than confused state which may result in not conveying the exact point. Before writing
a letter one should ne sure of what one wants to convey. All the facts and methodically. One should not be vague about one’s objective.
3. Conciseness: Formal letters must be concise. In formal letters specially one must not write unnecessary sentences. To the point information or enquiry is pre -
requisite of a business correspondence. Long illustrations and elaboration must be avoided all costs.
4. Courtesy: A letter reveals its writer’s personality and character. One must remain totally professional while writing a letter. Even while writing a complaint
letter, care should be taken that it is couched in polite and civilized language. Good judgment determines what and how a point has to be conveyed.
5. Correct Use of Punctuation Marks: Use of punctuation marks, use of capital letters, commas or colons is must to make our writing effective. Sometimes
placement of comma or full stop at a wrong place may change the meaning of the sentence can steal the effectiveness of a good letter. Hence utmost attention
should be paid to punctuation while writing.
6. Style: The conversational style is the most suitable one for letter writing. It is best to write in a simple, clear style maintaining a logical sequence of ideas. Ev -
ery sentence should grow out of the preceding one. There should be no abrupt jumping from one idea to the another.

Elements of a Letter at a Glance

Informal Letters

1. Senders’ address
2. Date
3. Salutation
4. Content required can be long and detailed
5. Concluding line
6. Complimentary closure
7. Signature line

Formal Letters

o Senders’ address
o Date
o Receivers’ address
o Subject
o Salutation
o Content-Specific, to the point
o Concluding lines
o Complimentary closure
o Signature along with designation or title

Writing a Formal Letter

Formal letter writing is undoubtedly one of the most challenging types of letter format. When putting it together, often you are addressing a person or organization with
whom you are not familiar and the quality of your content, including spelling and grammar will be strongly scrutinized.

Sender's Address: The sender's address usually is included in letterhead. If you are not using letterhead, include the sender's address at the top of the letter one line
above the date. Do not write the sender's name or title, as it is included in the letter's closing. Include only the street address, city, and zip code.

Date: The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is completed over a number of days, use the date it was finished in the date
line. When writing to companies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based convention for formatting a date places the month
before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the page. Depending which format you are using for your
letter, either left justify the date or tab to the center point and type the date.

Inside Address: The inside address is the recipient's address. It is always best to write to a specific individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have
the person's name, do some research by calling the company or speaking with employees from the company. Include a personal title such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr.
Follow a woman's preference in being addressed as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman's preference in being addressed, use Ms.

Mr. - for a male Mrs. - for a married female Miss - for an unmarried female Ms. - for a female whose status is unknown or would prefer to remain anonymous Dr. -
for a person with the status of a doctor

If there is a possibility that the person to whom you are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually, people will not mind being addressed by a higher
title than they actually possess. To write the address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the country in all-capital letters on
the last line. The inside address begins one line below the sender's address or one inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format you are using.

Salutation “Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you know the person and typically address them by their first name, it is acceptable
to use only the first name in the salutation (for example: Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and last/family name followed by a colon. Leave
one line blank after the salutation. If you don't know a reader's gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as their job title followed by the receiver's name. It is also
acceptable to use the full name in a salutation if you cannot determine gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.

Body: For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each paragraph within the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph.
When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly opening and then a statement of the
main point. The next paragraph should begin

justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification with background information and supporting details. The closing
paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.

Closing: The closing begins at the same vertical point as your date and one line after the last body paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (for example: Thank you)
and leave four lines between the closing and the sender's name for a signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the closing; otherwise, there is
no punctuation after the closing.

Enclosures: If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this simply by typing Enclosures one line below the closing. As
an option, you may list the name of each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many documents and need to ensure that the
recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good idea to list the names.

A Note about Format and Font

Block Format: When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The most common layout of a business letter is known as
block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs.
Font :Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the font. The generally accepted font is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial
may be used. When choosing a font, always consider your audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want to use Times New Roman. However,
if you are writing to a more liberal company, you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.

Punctuation: Punctuation after the salutation and closing - use a colon (:) after the salutation (never a comma) and a comma (,) after the closing. In some circumstances,
you may also use a less common format, known as open punctuation. For this style, punctuation is excluded after the salutation and the closing.

Types of Formal Letters

● Write a Request Letter ● Writing a Letter of Interest (job) ● Writing a Complaint Letter ● Writing an Apology Letter ● Writing a Letter of Appeal ● Writing an
Invitation Letter ● Writing a Resignation Letter ● Requesting a Letter of Recommendation ● Interview Thank You Letters ● Write a Farewell Letter ● Writing a
Reference Letter

Formal Letter Writing Workshop #1—Request Letter

A request letter is a letter requesting either information or a favor. There are a variety of things you can request when writing a request letter. A good request letter will
usually be concise and to

the point. A hard-copy request letter should be written in the business letter format, while an email should be sent in the same format but without the heading (your
return address, their address, and the date).

Request Letter Writing

● In the opening paragraph, briefly introduce yourself and let the recipient know why you are writing to them. ● In the next paragraph, tell the recipient what you are
requesting of them along with any pertinent details that would help them to fulfill your request. If you need your request filled by a certain date, be sure to let them
know in this paragraph. ● In the closing paragraph, thank the recipient for their time/consideration and provide your contact information (if applicable). Example

764 Cheery Lane Clearwater Falls, FL 23619

September 27, 2015

Mr. Louis Henderson Store Manager The Corner Cafe 273 Main Street Clearwater Falls, FL 23619

Dear Mr. Henderson:

My name is Cathy Pettis and I'm the chair of the Clearwater Falls Elementary School Fundraising Committee. The committee is planning to hold a fundraiser next
month to raise funds for this year’s field trips and we're looking for donors to help out with providing goods for the fundraising event.

If The Corner Cafe is willing to help donate some coffee and cups, we would greatly appreciate it. Our fundraiser will be held on the morning of October 18th and
we're expecting around 200 people to show up.

Thanks for your time and consideration, if you need to contact me with any questions, feel free to call me at 555-555-5555, I'm available to speak between 10am-5pm
on weekdays.

Sincerely,
Signature

Cathy Pettis

Formal Letter Writing Workshop #2—Letter of Interest

Letters of interest are written to express your interest in working for a particular company in a specific field. Your letter may be written either in response to a job
opening or just to investigate

possible employment.. However, make your letter stand out from the crowd using the following tips:

1. Before you write, do your homework. Research the background of the company and familiarize yourself with their products and/or services. 2. Be sure to find out the
name of the individual who does the hiring. Address your letter to his/her attention and use her/his name in the salutation. Simply writing “To Whom It May Concern”
and “Dear Sir or Madam” could be considered be lazy or rude. 3. Start your introductory paragraph with the reason you are interested in pursuing employment with
this company. Try not to start the first sentence with “I”. (See sample letter of interest.) Also, explain what prompted your inquiry, such as a classified advertisement, a
media article or interview, or a referral from an employee. 4. In the next paragraph(s), give specific examples of your qualifications. Don’t hesitate to indicate the
reasons why you would be an asset to the company. Illustrate your skills, strengths, and achievements in a professional, yet personable way. Stay away from strings of
abbreviated credentials. These, if you have them, should be on the resume you’ll enclose with the letter. Direct the reader to your resume and any other enclosures. 5. In
your final paragraph, thank the individual for his/her time in considering you as a new employee. Indicate a precise time when you will contact him/her by phone to
follow up on your letter. Also, be sure to let the individual know how to contact you.

A hard-copy interest letter should be written in the business letter format, while an email should be sent in the same format but without the heading (your return
address, their address, and the date). Keep your letter short, no more than a single page. Remember to check it thoroughly for errors in spelling, grammar and to be sure
it addresses each point you wanted to m

SAMPLE CV / RESUME

MUHAMMAD IQBAL
S/O
Muhammad Sajid Ali
DOB:
NIC:
E-MAIL: miqbal@yahoo.com CELL: 0344-0000000
ADDRESS: Dr. Idrees Street, GT Road Gakkhar City, Gujranwala.
OBJECTIVE I look forward to joining an institution providing me challenging and favourable environment in the field of education. Learning is
my main objective and to
pursue a career as a teacher is my ambition.
ACADEMIC CREDENTIALS MPhil Applied Linguistics (Coursework)result awaited 2017
National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad
○ Subjects studied: General Linguistics; Applied Linguistics;
Educational Psychology; Research Methodology;
Language, Thought & Creativity; Rhetoric;
Academic Writing
st
MA (English) 1 div. 2014
University Of the Punjab, Lahore
○ Subjects studied: Classical & Modern Poetry; Novel; Drama; Prose;
American Literature; Literary Criticism
st
BA 1 div. 2012
University of the Punjab, Lahore
○ Subjects studied: English Language; English Literature;
Economics
st
FSc 1 div. 1010
Quaid-e-Azam Divisional Public School, Gujranwala
○ Subjects studied: Pre-Medical subjects
st
Matriculation 1 div. 2006
Govt. High School No.1 Gakkhar Mandi, Gujranwala
○ Subjects studied: Science subjects

MAJOR SUBJECTS Linguistics:

○ Applied Linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics
○ Semantics ○ Pragmatics
English Literature:
○ Poetry ○ Drama ○ Novel
Business Communication / Communication Skills
Educational Psychology

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IELTS / TOEFL

COMPETENCE ○ Scored ‘8-band’ in IELTS examination

TEFL / TESL
nd
○ Am enrolled in the Diploma TEFL programme (2 semester) at AIOU, Islamabad
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Organized my own academy from April 2015 to September 2016 and taught English to
MA English (Poetry, Novel)
BA
FA/ FSc
Successfully conducted five sessions of English Language Course at my own academy
As a Principal and English Teacher at Elite Public School, Gujrat from March 2015 to January 2016

th
OTHER ACCOMPLISHMENT Got through GAT-General test conducted by NTS on 7 January 2017 by securing an accumulative score of 57 and a
percentile score of 82.59; the percentile score in English remained 94.50

EDUCATIONAL DISTINCTIONS Have the distinction to score ‘8-band’ in IELTS examination held in January 2017. My picture and comments both were
th
advertised in the daily Jung of 18 February 2017 as well.
Stood first in my school at matriculation level in 2006.
Was declared the best student of the year at school in 2006.
CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES Have been a brilliant debater and speaker. Won a number of speech and debate contests
Got one of my essays, Quaid-e-Azam, Muaasreen ki NazarMein, published in the Annual 2006-2007 issue of “THE
EXCELLENCE” / “SABQAT”, the journal of QDPS&C, Gujranwala
Had been the president of Bazm-e-Adab society at school
Acted in a play staged on the annual day of PIPS, Gujranwala in 2003. The picture of a scene including myself was published
in the 2004 prospectus of the institution.

CURRENT UNDERTAKING Presently I am enrolled for MPhil leading to PhD in Applied Linguistics at NUML, Islamabad.
nd
In addition to this my MA TEFL programme is in continuation, 2 semester, from AIOU, Islamabad.

COMPUTER SKILLS MS-Word

MS Power Point

INTERESTS Net Browsing

Reading

REFERENCES Dr. RIAZ HASSAN

Dean Quality Enhancement &
Research and Publication Cells
NUML, Islamabad.
E-mail: riasyed@gmail.com
Telephone (off.): 051-000000 Ext. 114
Dr. KHALID MAHMOOD SANJARANI
Assistant Professor,
Department of Urdu,
GC University, Lahore.
E-mail: dr.khalidsanjarani@gcu.edu.pk
Cell No. 0300-000000
 Report Writing

A report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It provides feedback to the managers on various aspects of the organisation. A report presents information
needed for reviewing and evaluating progress, for planning future course of action and for taking decisions. Every organisation has a system of routine periodical
reporting on the progress and the status of different activities. Besides, management assigns some special studies for the purpose of taking decisions.

Special Reports may be written by an individual or by a group of persons to whom the task has been assigned. The report is submitted to the authority that assigned it.

Reports are written for various purposes. They may be required to review performance, keep a check on a continuing activity, plan for the future needs of the
organisation, survey the market, submit standardised information, etc.

Types of Reports

Reports may be routine or special. Routine reports are periodical and are usually prepared by fIlling in printed forms, to convey information about the progress or

status of work/tasks. They are submitted at regular intervals or soon after the completion of the task.

Special reports are required when a special situation or problem arises. An individual or a committee of persons who have knowledge and understanding in the field
/subject, is appointed to investigate and study a specific problem, collect information related to it, and make suggestions to help the management to take a decision.

The following diagram gives an idea of the types of reports:

Routine Reports

Routine reports are usually forms in which blanks have to be filled in or multiple choice statements are to be ticked. Report forms must be prepared carefully to ensure
that the management gets complete information.

The following are routine reports:

(a) Progress reportgives information about the progress of a project or a task which is in the process of being completed, such as construction of a building or

manufacture of products or monthly test reports of the students or implementation of a scheme. This report is also prepared by filling in a standard form periodically.

(b) Inspection reportis submitted as soon as an inspection is carried out.

It is necessary for detecting any irregularities or deviations from standard practice, in day-to-day work; for example, internal audit reports. Inspection of machinery,
buildings, and property may be done at regular intervals. Audits and inspection of work and systems may be done by surprise check in order to ensure that they work
properly at all times.

Printed forms and guidelines for checking may be provided by the authorities; otherwise, experts in the field, like engineers, auditors, etc. use their own guidelines and
formats for inspection reports.

(c) Performance Appraisal report is periodical and is usually prepared by filling in a form. It is meant for assessing and recording the performance of an employee.

Every supervisor has to fill in an assessment report for each of the subordinates, annually. Performance appraisal helps the superiors to assess performance of
individual employees. It also helps employees to get feedback on their performance. On the basis of these reports, decisions about promotions and other benefits are
taken.

(d) Periodical report is prepared at regular intervals on the working of a section or a department. The information required is of a routine nature and can be easily
tabulated; hence it is prepared by filling in a form.

Special Reports

Special reports are written in a schematic format which varies slightly according to the requirements of the organisation and the subject of the report.

(a) First Information Report (F.I.R.) is required when there is a disaster like fire, building collapse, robbery or accident in an organisation. It is prepared by a
responsible person on-the-spot or the person in charge, for submission to a higher authority; for example, the branch manager prepares it for submission to Regional
Office or Head Office. The report has to give all the information which is available immediately after the incident occurs. It must state what happened, about what time,
who first noticed it, and what steps were taken immediately. Italso states the extent of destruction or loss of life, property, important papers, etc. as can be estimated
immediately.

A First Information Report is always written by an individual.

(b) Investigation Report is written after making a thorough study and inquiry. An investigation is made when there is a problem and the management needs to find out
the causes of the problem, and needs suggestions for solving it. For example, falling sales, declining deposits in a bank, many customer complaints, losses in a branch,
etc.

A committee may be appointed to find out the causes of the problem, and suggest measures to solve it and prevent it from occurring again. It requires collection of facts
which are not always easy to get. The collected information has to be analyzed; conclusions have to be drawn and recommendations may have to be made.

Since such reports require a great deal of work, thinking, discussion and consideration, they are usually assigned only to a committee of competent and experienced
persons. A simple investigation of a small problem may be assigned to an individual who has knowledge and experience in the field.

(c) Feasibility or Survey Report is required when an organisation intends to launch a new product in the market, introduce a new service, or make any major changes
that may affect the company's customers. The proposed field or area has to be surveyed, and its conditions observed and recorded. The factors are examined and
recorded based on the purpose of the survey. The purposeof this report may be to consider the suitability of a site for a factory, to evaluate the feasibility and financial
viability of a proposal, to survey the market, to estimate damage.
For some purposes only a physical survey and inspection of the area may suffice; for others, availability of essential requirements in the area, attitude of the local
people, State Government's policies, possible expenses, etc, will be needed.

A survey may be made by an individual or by a committee, depending on the size of the survey. For example, if a factory is to be established, the survey involves a
great deal of work, and a committee would be appointed; if damage to a piece of machinery is to be surveyed for the purpose of estimating the loss, an engineer can do
it alone.

(d) Project Report is written after a proposal takes shape, and when the preliminary survey has been completed. It describes the proposal as it is projected into the
future, showing the cash flow and expected results. It is used for planning and also for convincing others, especially sanctioning and funding authorities like
government departments and banks.

A project report may be prepared on assignment by the management of a company or by a person on his own initiative, with a proposal for which he wants to get
approval or sanction or funding. For example, an entrepreneur prepares a project report in order to get it approved by various authorities.

(e) Laboratory Report is written to record observations made in a laboratory test and to draw conclusions from the observationsmostly for patients. It requires exact
details of the equipment and material used, and procedures followed so that the experiment can be repeated in the same conditions. Its purpose is to observe, record and
verify existing conditions and scientific processes.

(f)Analytical Report, in addition to giving the information, discusses and analyzes the information on the basis of theories and other related knowledge. It needs an experiment or a
test whose results are analyzed. Analysis requires breaking up into components, examining each component and studying the organisation of the components into the whole.

Reports by Individuals

A Report may be assigned to one person. A report written by an individual follows the same logical presentation as the committee report.

If the report is short, say two or three pages, it is written in letter form with numbered and sub-titled paragraphs. It is addressed to the person or the body that has
assigned the report. It does not need the complete inside address as it isin internal communication and is typed on the organisation's letterhead and continuation sheets.
It is dated on the day of submission or a day earlier. The salutation is Sir, or Sirs, or Madam, as required. The complimentary close is Yours faithfully. If the report has
enclosures, they must be indicated.

In the last paragraph, the report usually records acknowledgement of the help received in making the study.

Reports by Committee

A Report by a Committee is prepared by the members of the committee who are assigned the task. It is actually written by one person, usually the Secretary or the
Convener, with inputs from the others members. The style is formal and it may be written in the passive voice. The words we or our are not used; the committee is used
when necessary.

A report by a committee is never written in the form of a letter; it must always be presented in schematic form with sub-headings. The report is typed on plain paper
and submitted with a letter of transmittal.

The Letter of Transmittal is typed on the organisation's letterhead. It is addressed to the appointing authority, and has the date of submission of the report.

It is signed by the convener/ chairperson of the committee. The letter states the topic of study, that it has been completed and the report is being submitted. It
acknowledges any special help received and ends with a courteous message, offering to undertake further study, if required.
 Structure of a Report

A report is divided into sections with headings so that the collected information can be presented in a form that is easy to read and refer to. A covering letter usually
accompanies the report.

Reports are read by different persons for different purposes. Some are interested only in the findings and/or conclusions; some may want to know only the
recommendations; yet others may want to check the procedure followed for data collection; mostly people might want to know with what terms of reference the report
writer was working. All these details have to be included and presented in a logical format.

A report may be written by an individual or by a committee. Both are formal and must follow a logical order. A report by an individual may be a little more personal in
tone, while a committee report is impersonal in tone.

You might be asked to write long and detailed reports of different types for your classroom assignments. However, in your examination, generally, you would be tasked
to write a short report of 1-2 pages on any social issue. The following sample report has been given to provide you an understanding of the necessary sections and
format of a short report on a social issue.

Sample Report

Write a report to the Director, Social Welfare Department, Islamabad to apprise him about the malice of begging in the Main Bazar of Gujrat.

To: The Director, Social Welfare Department, Islamabad

From: XYZ, Staff Reporter, The Nation, Islamabad

Subject: Beggars and begging in the Main Bazar of Islamabad.

Date: 11-01-2010

Dear Sir,

Introduction

I was asked by the Director, Social Welfare Department of the Government of Pakistan to report on the beggars found begging in the Main Bazar of this city. This
assignment was designed to categorize the beggars and to suggest how the social evil of begging can be eradicated.

Report

I visited the Main City Bazar andobserved the situation regarding beggars and begging. Observations are, as follow:
a. There are three categories of beggars in this over-crowded market. The first one is the able-bodied male and female beggars. They are approximately of the age of
forty onwards and are found begging in the name of religion and humanity. They sometimes recite verses of Holy Quran and sometimes sing religious/ devotional
songs. As a consequence, God-fearing people give alms instead of asking these beggars to work.

b. The second category is that of the invalid male and female beggars. These are the beggars who mostly have broken their arms or legs themselves or their keepers
have done this. They sit on carts pulled by their able-bodied companions or walk on crutches or crawl or just sit on the road sides. Passersby pay such beggars liberally.

c. The third category is of the child beggars. There are thousands of boys and girls begging from car drivers, motor-cyclists and pedestrians. They are seen shamelessly
coming close to people asking for alms time and again.

Suggestions/Recommendations

The radio, TV and newspapers should start a campaign against begging and explain how beggars can work profitably in different fields. Disabled beggars should be
lodged in special institutions where some kind of work like stitching or sewing can be provided to them. Or, funds can be collected from the government and rich
people to meet their expenses. Child beggars can be adopted by childless parents and made to study or learn special skills in special schools.

Conclusion

From my observations of beggars and begging, I found that begging is an ever increasing social evil and it should be eradicated from society as soon as possible. The
Social Welfare Department can play a vital role in this regard and I hope that my investigation will pave a smooth way for them to bring considerable improvements.

Yours Sincerely,

XYZ