Psychology

Introduction to Central
Nervous System (CNS)
By unknown
 Brain

Brain,the mass of nerve tissue in

the anterior end of an
organism.The brain integrates
sensory information and directs
motor responses;in higher
vertebrates it is also the centre of
learning.
The human brain weights
approximately 1.4kg (3pounds)
and is made up of billions of cells
called neurons.Junctions
between neurons, known as synapse, enable electrical and chemical
messages to be transmitted from one neuron to the next in the brain,a
process that underlines basic sensory functions and that is critical to
learning, memory and thought formation, and other cognitive activities.
The brain and the spinal cord together make up the system of nerve
tissue in vertebrates called the central nervous system, which controls
both voluntary movements such as those involved in walking and
speech, and involuntary movements, such as breathing and reflex
actions.It is also the centre of emotion and cognition.
Human brain is divided into three main parts:
 Forebrain
 Midbrain
 Hindbrain
Forebrain :
By far the largest region of human brain is the forebrain (derived from
the developmental prosencephalon), which contains the entire
cerebrum and several structures directly nestled within it - the
thalamus, hypothalamus, the pineal gland and the limbic system.

The brain is actually divided into three parts:

 Cerebrum

 Thalamus

 Hypothalamus

Along with some other structures which includes cortex, limbic system,
basal ganglia and reticular system.

a. Cerebrum and cerebral cortex:

In the iconic shape of the human brain, the majority of what’s visible is the
cerebrum with its wrinkly, pinkish-grey outer appearance. It makes up
around 85% of the brain and consists primarily of grey matter, divided into
two hemispheres.

The cerebrum is where most of the important brain functions happen,

such as thinking, planning, reasoning, language processing, and
interpreting and processing inputs from our senses, such as vision, touch,
hearing, taste and smell.

The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, and in each
hemisphere it is traditionally divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal,
occipital and temporal. Communications between the two hemispheres
are maintained by a fibrous bridge called the corpus callosum, which is
formed in utero.

Beneath the surface of the hemispheres are large knots of neurons

called basal ganglia, which specialize in programming and executing
motor functions. When basal ganglia are affected by diseases such as
Parkinson’s, patients have tremors and uncontrolled movements.

Cerebral cortex is further divided into two branches:

 The left hemisphere of the cerebral is the larger of two
halves ,contains a higher portion of grey matter. It controls
spontaneous speaking and writing, directs formulation of replies to
 complex commands, directs recognition of word, controls memory of
words and numbers, orchestrates sequences of movement, involved
in feelings of anxiety and responsible for negative emotions in
response to unpleasant events.
 The right hemisphere involves in processing of visually presented
information, skill in visual arts; drawing and painting is associated
with the right hemisphere more than the left. It can direct repetitive,
but not spontaneous , verbal utterances, direct response to simple
commands, directs recognition of faces, controls memory of shapes
and music, function in map interpretation, functions in mental
rotation of images, controls emotional responsiveness and
responsible for self-generating positive and expensive emotions.
Areas of cortex
There are three major areas of cortex:
 Sensory area
 Motor area
 Associative area
 Sensory areas receive sensory information. The main sensory areas
are the primary auditory cortex, primary somato-sensory cortex, and
primary visual cortex.
 Motor areas control muscle movement. Some motor areas include the
pre-motor area (PMA), supplementary motor area (SMA), and primary
motor cortex (MI).
 Association areas
involved in complex
functions like learning,
decision making, and
complex movements.
Some association areas
include:
 Limbic association
area: Located in the
parahippocampal
gyrus. Links emotion
with sensory inputs.
 Posterior association
area: Located at the
junction of the occipital,
temporal, and parietal lobes.
 Anterior association area: Located in the prefrontal cortex.

b. Thalamus:
The thalamus is a paired gray matter structure of the diencephalon located
near the center of the brain. It is above the midbrain or mesencephalon,
allowing for nerve fiber connections to the cerebral cortex in all directions —
each thalamus connects to the other via the interthalamic adhesion.
Thalamus is body's information relay station. All information from body's
senses (except smell) must be processed through thalamus before being
sent to brain's cerebral cortex for interpretation. Thalamus also plays a role
in sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning and memory.
In the visual system, the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the dorsal
thalamus is the gateway through which visual information reaches the
cerebral cortex.
c. Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus, a structure deep in brain, acts as body's smart control
coordinating center. Its main function is to keep body in a stable state called
homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing autonomic nervous
system or by managing hormones.
It performs the critical function of maintaining homeostasis by regulating
blood pressure, temperature, sleep, mood, hunger, and thirst.
Foods rich in polyphenols may help improve the functioning of the
hypothalamus. Several vitamins, including vitamin C, thiamine, and vitamin
B12, may also aid the functioning of the hypothalamus. The main sources
of these nutrients Include a variety of fruits and vegetables.
d. Basal ganglia:
The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical nuclei in the brain that are
responsible for many complex processes. They are located deep within the
white matter of the brain, beneath the cerebral cortex.
The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible
primarily for motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning,
executive functions and behaviors, and emotions.
Blood supply to the basal ganglia is primarily supplied by the lenticulostriate
arteries, which are branches of the middle cerebral artery. The
lenticulostriate arteries are prone to hemorrhage in patients with
uncontrolled hypertension.
e. Limbic system:
The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in behavioral and
emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviors one needs for
survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight
responses.
The primary limbic system function is to process and regulate emotion and
memory while also dealing with sexual stimulation and learning. Behavior,
motivation, long-term memory, and our sense of smell also relate to the
limbic system and its sphere of influence.
The thalamus, hypothalamus (production of important hormones and
regulation of thirst, hunger, mood etc) and basal ganglia (reward
processing, habit formation, movement and learning) are also involved in
the actions of the limbic system, but two of the major structures are the
hippocampus and the amygdala.