Name _________________________________________

Date __________________________________________

Biology Essay Preparation –

Key Paragraphs
 Checklist and hand in schedule

Date set Hand in

No. Paragraph titles Done
(w/c) (w/c)
1 Carbohydrates (Y12)
2 Lipids (Y12)
3 Proteins (Y12)
4 Enzymes (Y12)
5 Transcription (Y12)
6 Translation (Y12)
7 Membrane structure (Y12)
8 Diffusion (Y12)
9 Immune system (Y12)
10 Vaccines (Y12)
11 Heart structure and cardiac cycle (Y12)
12 Blood vessel structure and function (Y12)
13 Transpiration and Xerophytes (Y12)
14 Cohesion-tension theory (Y12)
15 Translocation (Y12)
16 Light dependent reaction (Y13)
17 Light independent reaction (Y13)
18 Succession (Y13)
19 Nitrogen cycle (Y13)
20 Control of gene expression (Year 13)
21 Cancer
22 In vivo cloning (Y13)
23 In vitro cloning/PCR (Y13)
24 Gene probes and genetic screening (Y13)
25 Genetic fingerprinting (Y13)
26 Control of blood water level (Y13)
27 DNA Structure (Y12)
28 DNA Replication (Y12)

29 Mitosis and Cell Cycle (Y12)

30 Meiosis (Y12)

31 Osmosis (Y12)

32 Active Transport (Y12)

33 Cotransport (Yr12)

34 Tissue Fluid (Y12)

35 Haemoglobin (Y12)

36 Digestion (Y12)

37 Absorption (Y12)

38 Cell Organelles (Y12)

39 Types of Cells – Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic (Y12)

40 Gas Exchange in Insects and Plants (Y12)

41 Gas Exchange in Fish (Y12)

42 Gas Exchange in Humans (Y12)

43 Glycolysis (Y13)

44 Krebs Cycle and Link Reaction (Y13)

45 Oxidative Phosphorylation (Y13)

46 Mutations (Y13)

47 Natural Selection (Y13)

48 Speciation (Y13)

49 Receptors (Y13)

50 Nerve Transmission (action potential and resting

potential) (Y13)
51 Synapse/Neuro-Muscular Junction (Y13)

52 Muscle Contraction (Y13)

53 Control of Heart Beat (Y13)

54 Control of Blood Sugar Level (Y13)

 Biology essay preparation –

Key paragraphs

You need to write a paragraph about each of the following topics, according to the schedule in the
front of this booklet.

You should only write 6-8 sentences for each paragraph as this is all you will have time for in
the exam so try to write accurately and concisely. Key words for each topic are provided below to
help you – try to include some/all of these in your paragraphs.

Your paragraphs will be checked for accuracy and returned to you. You then need to learn the
paragraphs so that in the exam you will simply be selecting which ones to use, deciding which
aspects to emphasise and considering how to make appropriate links between them according to
the specific essay title.

1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules that consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, and
……… Monosaccharides and ……… are simple carbohydrates
(sugars). Monosaccharides are the monomers from which larger
carbohydrates are made - e.g. ………., fructose and galactose. Two
common isomers of glucose are ………. and ………. glucose. The OH
group is ………. C1 on alpha glucose but ………. C1 in beta glucose.
Disaccharides are formed when a ………. reaction between 2
monosaccharides forms a ……….. bond - e.g. ……… (2 x alpha
glucose), ………… (alpha glucose + fructose), and ……….. (beta
glucose and galactose). The ………. enzyme ………. lactose into beta
glucose and galactose. People who are unable to produce lactase
enzyme are considered lactose intolerant and cannot ………. lactose.
Polysaccharides are formed by many monosaccharides joined together
– e.g. starch (energy store in plants), cellulose (structural component of
………. cell walls), and glycogen (energy store in ……….). Reducing
sugars like glucose can donate ………... . Non-reducing sugars like
sucrose cannot donate electrons. The Calvin Cycle in plants involves
…….. carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and producing ………
sugar. ……….. is a pentose sugar found in RNA molecules and
deoxyribose is a pentose sugar found in ………. molecules.

Ribose glucose DNA below above condensation plant

glycosidic Sucrose Lactose lactase hydrolyses alpha
digest Oxygen animals electrons beta fixing hexose
disaccharides Maltose

2. Lipids A triglyceride is a type of lipid that consist of a ………… molecule

joined to ………. fatty acid tails via a ………. reaction which forms an
 ………. bond. The fatty acid tails can be ………. (all carbons saturated
with hydrogen), or ………. (Carbon-Carbon double bond present so
carbons not fully saturated with hydrogen). Phospholipids are another
type of lipid that consist of a ………. head and ……….. fatty acid tail
region. Phospholipids are the main component of the phospholipid
………. than makes up………….. The fluid nature of phospholipids and
their association with proteins, …………, glycolipids, and glycoproteins
is described as the ……….. ………. model.

hydrophilic cholesterol three saturated ester hydrophobic

bilayer fluid mosaic glycerol condensation unsaturated
cell membranes
3. Proteins Proteins are formed from amino acid ………. . Amino acids are made
mainly of carbon, ………. , oxygen, and ………… . A dipeptide is
formed through a ………. reaction between two amino acids which
forms a ……… ……….. . ………… are formed from many amino
acids bonded together. The sequence order of amino acids is known
as the ………. structure of a protein. The ……….. structure is formed
through hydrogen bonding between amino acids which causes folding
into ………. helices or …….. sheets. The ………. structure is the
overall 3D structure of a polypeptide brought about by ………. bonding,
………. bonds, and ………. bridges formed between amino acid R
groups. The ………. structure describes proteins that consist of two or
more polypeptide chains held together by hydrogen/ionic/disulphide
bonds. DNA base sequence order in a ………. determines the order of
amino acids in a protein. Different gene sequences form different
proteins such as enzymes, ………. (immunoproteins), ……….
(transport proteins), actin, and myosin (muscle proteins). ………..
change the sequence of DNA bases in a gene which can lead to an
altered amino acid sequence and protein structure causing ………
…………

gene alpha antibodies disulphide nitrogen primary non-

functionality hydrogen monomers condensation beta
hydrogen Polypeptides quaternary Mutations secondary
tertiary haemoglobin ionic peptide bond

4. Enzymes Enzymes are ……… proteins and biological ……… which lower the
……… ………….. of specific reactions. The lock and key hypothesis is
an outdated model which suggest that enzymes have a ……… shape
active site that is ………. to one substrate. After a successful ………..,
an …… ……… ………. forms leading to a reaction. The more recent
model is the ……. ……… …… which states that enzyme active sites
are not completely complementary to a substrate, but the active site
changes ………... to fit a substrate as it binds. The stress and ……….
of this shape change …..……. bonds in the substrate, leading to a
reaction. Enzyme activity is affected by ………. and …….. which can
cause the enzyme to inactivate and denature. This change in ……….
structure changes the shape of the active site and reduces the number
E-S complexes formed. ………. inhibitors are similarly shaped to
 substrates and block the …… ….….. reducing E-S complexes formed
(increasing substrate ……….. reduces inhibitor effect). Non-
competitive inhibitors bind to ………. sites and cause a change in
tertiary structure which changes the shape of the active site and
reduces E-S complexes formed (increasing substrate concentration
doesn’t ………. inhibitor effect).

• Amylase, ………., and ………. are digestive enzymes which

break down large food molecules into smaller soluble
molecules.
• ………… hydrolyse peptide bonds ………. proteins, whilst
…………. …..…….. peptide bonds at the ends of protein
molecules.
• DNA ……….., helicase, and RNA polymerase are nuclear
enzymes which have a role in ………. and………. .
• Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is a kinase enzyme that
phosphorylates fructose-6-phphate during ………. .
• RUBISCO is a plant enzyme which catalyses the fixation of
atmospheric CO2 to .……….. .

reduce RuBP replication polymerase lipase shape

maltase exopeptidases hydrolyse catalysts complementary
collision pH globular tertiary Endopeptidases
temperature distorts allosteric Competitive concentration
transcription glycolysis fixed activation energy force
active site within enzyme-substrate complex
induced fit model
5. Transcription Transcription occurs in the ……… . DNA ………. unwinds the DNA at a
gene. RNA polymerase assembles free RNA ………… against a
………. strand of DNA through …………. base pairing. RNA
polymerase links together the RNA nucleotides forming a new ………
………. …….…. . ……….. bonds form between the bases of the
DNA template strand and new RNA strand. The new RNA strand
formed is called ……….. . This pre-RNA then goes through post-
transcriptional processing (splicing) which removes non-coding ………
regions and binds together coding ……… regions. The processed
mRNA is called ………. mRNA and leaves the nucleus through nuclear
…….. to enter the cytoplasm. ……… …..… are a range of proteins
that …………. the transcription of genes – this is the most common
form of ………. ……….

exon gene control Transcription factors intron Hydrogen

pre-mRNA sugar phosphate backbone pores regulate
mature nucleotides nucleus template helicase
complementary
6. Translation Translation occurs in the……… when an ……. molecule attaches to a
……… . Specific ……… molecules are bound to bound to specific
…….. ..…… in a process that requires enzymes and ATP.
Complimentary tRNA ………. bind to mRNA ………. through
complementary base pairing (called codon-anticodon pairing). Amino
acids brought in by tRNA molecules form……… bonds with each other
creating a ………. …….. This will be the……….. structure of the protein
formed. Translation stops at a …… ….. where the ribosome
detaches from the mRNA and the formed polypeptide chain is ………. .
The genetic code determines the order of bases on the mRNA and
ultimately the …….. of amino acids which determines the …….. and
.…….. of proteins.

released stop codon anticodons order

amino acids structure ribosome codons
polypeptide chain cytoplasm mRNA function tRNA
peptide primary
7. Membrane The structure of cellular membranes is described by the…….. ………
Structure ……….. The membrane is fluid and contains a mosaic of different
molecules. The membrane is primarily made of ………. arranged in a
……... The phospholipid’s ………. ……… are exposed to the inside
and outside of the cell, whilst the ………. ………. form a hydrophobic
core region making the bilayer impermeable to most substances.
………… is embedded within the bilayer and provides some ………..
and rigidity. There are glycolipids and glycoproteins that serve as
cellular recognition molecules and ………. ………. . There are
several proteins embedded within the bilayer:

• Protein channels – allow for transport of molecules across the

membrane by ……… ………. and osmosis.
• Some protein channels are gated and open/close in response to
a factor such as ……… ……… in voltage gated channels.
Stretch-mediated gated channels open and close in response to
mechanical ……… on membranes and are found in ………
tissue.
• Protein carriers – allow for transport of molecules across the
membrane. In some cases by facilitated diffusion and in other
cases by ……… ……… when …….. is hydrolysed.

facilitated diffusion sensory ATP bilayer

hydrophobic tails stress hormones receptors membrane
potential phospholipids active transport fluid mosaic model
Cholesterol stability hydrophilic heads

8. Diffusion Diffusion is described as the movement of particles from an area of

……. concentration to an area of ……. concentration. It is a ……..
process and stops when ……… is reached; meaning the
concentrations become …….. and the ………. …………. is lost.
 ……….. diffusion describes the movement of small ……. ……
molecules down the concentration gradient directly through the ……….
………… . ………… diffusion allows large and polar molecules to
diffuse across the cell membrane. This requires the help of protein
……… /protein ………… but does not require …….. . …………..,
concentration gradient, membrane ………. …….., and diffusion ……..
are the main factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

A simplified version of …….. …….. shows the impact of some of these

factors on diffusion rate:
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Rate of diffusion = 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒

concentration gradient low Fick’s Law surface area

channels phospholipid bilayer high equilibrium
passive non-polar distance carriers Temperature even
Facilitated Simple ATP

9. Immune Cells have membrane bound proteins which immune cells use for self
System and non-self-recognition. Non-self cells have cell surface ……… which
trigger an immune ……….. The non-specific immune response
involves ………. which engulf pathogens by ………... The pathogen
ends up in a vacuole called the ………. which fuses with ………. and
leads to destruction by the action of ………. enzymes. In the specific
response, antigens from the digested pathogen are attached to ……..
…….. and presented on the cell membrane of the phagocyte that
initially engulfed the pathogen (becomes an ……… ………. ………
(APC)).

• T Helper cells with……….. receptors bind to MHC bound ………

on an APC.
• T helper cells activate and release ……….. T helper memory
cells are also formed.
• Complementary B lymphocytes respond to T helper cytokines
by differentiating into ……. cells which produce ……… specific
to the pathogen’s antigens. B memory cells are also formed.
• Complimentary ………. T lymphocytes bind to antigens
presented on the surface of …….. body cells. When exposed to
T helper cytokines they activate into active cytotoxic T
lymphocytes which release ……… and destroy the infected cell.
Cytotoxic T memory cells are also formed.
• T suppressor cells are important in …….. ……. lymphocytes,
preventing the immune response becoming ……… and
damaging to the body.
• ……… …….. are produced during a ……… response and allow
for ……… ………... The memory cells remain in the blood and
mean the next exposure to the same pathogen is met with a
more …….., more ……….. producing, and ……… ……..
immune response (…………response).
 immunological memory perforin rapid
MHC proteins plasma overactive antigens response
longer lasting infected cytotoxic cytokines
antigen presenting cell primary hydrolytic secondary
complementary Memory cells down regulating antibodies
antibody antigens phagocytes lysosomes phagosome
endocytosis

10.Vaccines Vaccination involves administering ……… or an ……… pathogen into

the body. These trigger a primary immune response. This response
results in ……… production but is relatively …….. Illness is not
experienced as the pathogen introduced is not ……. and unable to
cause ……….. Memory cells are produces during the primary response
and remain in the …….. Once memory cells are formed the person is
considered ……. If the same antigen is encountered again, the
memory cells divide ……..., antibodies are produced in large quantities
in a short time, and the pathogen is dealt with quickly before it can
cause………. This is known as the secondary response.

Booster vaccines are administered to cause additional immune

responses which replace ……… …….. that may have been lost over
time. This ensures a ……… secondary response will still occur and
……… the …………. of becoming ill.

……… ……… is achieved when a majority of a population is immune

to a particular disease. The few who are ………… are unlikely to come
into contact with …….. individuals and are in effect protected/shielded
from the disease. The …….. struggles to propagate through the mostly
immunised population and may become ………..

infected eradicated memory cells pathogen

reduce strong unvaccinated antigens likelihood
Herd immunity illness rapidly immune
attenuated illness antibody slow functional blood
11. Heart and The heart is split into …… internal chambers. The …… walled left and
Cardiac Cycle right …… and the more ……….. walled left and right ……….. . The
atria and ventricles are separated by ………….. (AV) ……… which
prevent ……… of blood from the ventricles back into the atria. The
heart muscle is supplied with blood through ……. ……… which
immediately branch from the ………. During ………, the atria and
ventricles are relaxed, and the atria fill with blood from the ………
……… and …… ……. During ……. systole, the atria contract and atrial
………. increases. The AV valves …… and the ventricles fill with blood.
Atrial systole stops and the AV valves …….. . …………. systole then
begins, ventricles contract and ventricular pressure sharply ……... The
…….. valves force open and blood exits the ventricles through the
aorta and ………. ………. . Once the blood has been ……., the
ventricle pressure falls and the semilunar valves close. The artery walls
……… at this point to maintain high blood pressure. During ventricular
 systole the atria were …….. and filling with blood in preparation for the
next ………. ……...

pulmonary artery atrial thin recoil open

pulmonary veins pumped relaxed rises close four
vena cava semilunar Ventricular ventricles coronary
arteries cardiac cycle diastole pressure aorta atria
valves backflow atrioventricular muscular

12. Blood Vessels …….. carry blood away from the heart to ……... Arteries have a …….
smooth muscle layer to vasoconstrict and ……., a thick ……. later to
……. and …….. and maintain pressure, thick walls to resist ………,
and no valves since high pressure makes backflow unlikely.

Arterioles are small arteries which control the flow of blood from
arteries to ………. They have thicker smooth muscle than arteries so
they have more ………. force to vasoconstrict and restrict blood flow
into capillaries (preventing them from ……..). They have a thinner
elastic layer than arteries as ………. is lower, and they are not required
to expand/recoil as much.

Capillaries link arterioles and venules. They are the location of ……….
in tissues. They are thin walled (one cells thick) for a ………. …………
……….., they are numerous and highly branched giving a large …….
for diffusion, they have a narrow diameter to easily spread through
tissues, they have a narrow lumen which forces red blood cells against
the ……………… lining creating a shorter diffusion pathway, and they
have …… (fenestrations) between endothelial cells which allow fluids
and ………. ………… ……….. to escape.

Veins carry blood from venules (smaller veins) back to the heart. They
don’t have a thick muscle layer as they do not need to ……… or dilate,
a thin elastic layer as pressure is low and recoil not needed, thin walls
to be easily ……….. when and aid blood flow (thin walls unlikely to
burst due to low pressure), they also have ………. …….. to prevent
blood backflow when veins are compressed. Venular pocket valves
only open when there is a high to …….. ……. …….. towards the heart
– this way they only allow blood to flow ……. the heart. ………. of
skeletal muscles around veins helps …….. venular pressure.

endothelium gaps short diffusion pathway

maintain constrict white blood cells capillaries
Arteries contractile SA flattened bursting pocket valves
exchange rupturing Contraction pressure low pressure
differential towards stretch recoil arterioles vasodilate
elastic thick
13. Transpiration As water moves up through a plant, it reaches the leaves and eventually
……… through the ……... . This evaporation through the stomata is
and Xerophytes
called ……….. and can be measured with a volumetric……….. The
distance travelled by a trapped ….. …………. is measured. The …… of
water taken up by the plant can be measured using πr2l which is a
measure of the ……….. of the capillary tubing and the ……….. the air
bubble was displaced. This value is used to work out the volume of water
lost per unit time. Higher ……….. increases transpiration rate due to
increased diffusion rate. Higher ……… …….. increases transpiration
rate as stomata respond by opening to take in …… which in turn
increases evapotranspiration. Increased ……… decreases transpiration
rate due to reduced water vapour ……….. ……... . Increased ……….
……… increases transpiration rate due to ……….. water vapour
diffusion gradients. …………… plants are specially adapted to survive is
…… habitats. They have thick ………. …….. to resist evaporation from
leaves, some have ……. ……… (reduce water vapour gradients), some
have …….. ……… (reduce water vapour gradients), some have few
stomata (reduce diffusion), and some have ……. instead of leaves
(reduce diffusion) – all of which serve to reduce the opportunities for
water vapour to …….. out of the ………….. .

sunken stomata spines wind movement CO2

transpiration curled leaves dry stomata air bubble
humidity volume evaporates light intensity temperature
leaves distance Xerophytic diffuse potometer waxy
cuticles diffusion gradients maintained area

14. Cohesion- Water evaporates from the leaves via the open stomata due to
…………. As cells lose water, their ……….. ……… lowers, and a water
Tension Theory
potential gradient is created which draws water out of the ……… . This
drawing of water creates …………. in the xylem. The ……… ………..
relies on this tension and the properties of ……… ………… As water
molecules are ………., they form ……….. ………. with each other. The
………… ………… between water molecules means they ……… to
each other and are pulled up the xylem as a ……. (against gravity).
The cohesive forces also mean that water adheres to the ……… of the
xylem vessels helping it ……. upwards.

Tree trunk ………… are larger in the …….. as this is when

transpiration rate is ……. The temperature is generally higher and light
intensity is higher (so ……. open to take in CO2 for …………..). The
…………. of water within …… tissues (xylem) is therefore ………
during the day compared to ……… …….., so tree trunks are wider in
diameter.

xylem water potential greater volume day

transpiration pull photosynthesis tension adhere
polar transpiration cohesive forces water molecules
 edges diameters column ascend stomata higher
night-time stem hydrogen bonds

15. Translocation Translocation is the movement ………. and assimilated nutrients from
a …….. to a ….. . For example, the movement of ………. and products
of ……… from ……. to other ……… tissues in a plant. At a source,
there is a high ………… of solute which is transported (by co-……….
and ………. ………..) from ……… …….. to ……. ……… elements of
the ………. . The …….. …….. of the sieve tubes is lowered causing
water to enter them by ……… from the xylem vessels. The ……….
…….. in the phloem ……… at the source end.

Solutes then move through the phloem until they reach a sink
(respiring tissues). At a sink, the solute is ………… from the phloem.
This ……… water potential in the phloem. Water then leaves the
phloem by osmosis and ………… to xylem vessels. The hydrostatic
pressure in the phloem………… at the sink end. In this way, a ……..
…… is ……… between the source and sink.

pressure gradient increases companion cells

facilitated diffusion photosynthesis concentration
sink osmosis sieve tube maintained transport water
potential increases decreases returns phloem
hydrostatic pressure respiring solutes removed leaves
source sucrose

The light dependent reaction of photosynthesis takes place in the

_________ membrane of the chloroplast. Light __________ is
absorbed by _________ in the photosystems. Electrons are
_________ , raised to a higher energy level and lost from the
chlorophyll (__________). Electrons pass along the _____________
at ___________ energy levels. Energy is used to pump
____________ across the thylakoid membrane.
Light dependent Water splits at photosystem II into __________, _________ and
16 _______ (photolysis). The electrons replace those lost from
reaction
chlorophyll. Oxygen is released as a by-product.
NADP combines with ________ from chlorophyll of photosystem I and
protons from __________ to produce __________.
Protons diffuse across ____________ and this produces ATP from
ADP + Pi.
The two products of the LDR are ___________ and ___________
and these move the stroma of the chloroplast to be used in LIR.
 Chlorophyll molecule, thylakoid membranes/grana in chloroplasts,
energy, electron excited, photolysis, oxygen, electron, proton, electron
transfer chain, decreasing energy levels, reduced NADP/NADPH,
ATP, photophosphorylation, photoionisation, oxygen, ATP synthase
In the stroma, RuBP combines with ______ to produce ______
molecules of __________. This C-fixation is catalysed by the enzyme
_________.
GP is _____________ to TP using reducing power from _________
and energy from _____________ from the LDR.
Light independent Most of TP is used to regenerate ____________. This also requires
17 ATP. 2 out of 12 molecules of TP are used to produce ____________
reaction
and other organic molecules such as _____________.

Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), carbon dioxide (CO2), RUBISCO,

glycerate-3-phosphate (GP), reduced NADP, ATP, triose phosphate
(TP), carbohydrate (glucose), stroma of chloroplast, Calvin cycle,
LDR, amino acids, starch, glycerol, cellulose
Succession is the process by which a community changes over time.
__________ species are the first colonise at the start of succession
when conditions are __________. These change the ____________
conditions to allow other species to _____________. Changes in
abiotic conditions include the formation of ____________ from dead
organic matter via _______________ by ________________. During
succession the species that are present change due to
________________. Over time soil depth increases, as does
_________ concentration allowing larger plant species to colonise,
creating shade. _______________ and biomass increase. An
increase in plant species enables a greater diversity of animal species
due to a greater variety of ____________ and _____________. The
18 Succession end point of succession is the ______________ community. This is
stable due to a more complex food __________.
During primary succession no ________ is present. Secondary
succession is succession following a ______________, with soil
present.
A _______________ is a community maintained by management of a
habitat.

Hostile, pioneer species (lichens and mosses), colonisation, food web,

saprobionts, decomposition, competition, disturbance, slow growing
trees (oak), climax community, niches, habitats, food sources,
biodiversity in plants and animals, human influence, abiotic, soil,
nutrients, plegioclimax
During the nitrogen cycle, _________________ break down
_____________ in dead organic matter and release
19 Nitrogen cycle _______________. ________________ are involved in nitrification,
where ammonia is first oxidised to ____________ and then to
___________. This happens under aerobic conditions.
 Nitrate can be taken up by plants and the N can be used to produce
_________.
Ammonification also happens when ______________ convert
________________ gas into ammonia. N-fixing bacteria live freely in
the soil but are also found in root ____________ of _____________,
in a ___________________ relationship with the plant.
N2 gas can be lost from soils via the process of _________________,
involving denitrifying bacteria, which convert ____________ to N2.
This happens under anaerobic conditions, such as ______________
soils.
Farmers oxygenate soil via ploughing to encourage nitrification. They
also use ____________ fertilisers to increase nutrient content.
Nutrient content of fields goes down over time as plants take up
nitrate and are ________________, not allowing for decomposition to
take place. Excessive use of fertilisers can lead to
__________________.

Nitrogen fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, root nodules, legumes,

nitrogen (N2), mutualistic relationship, gene, nitrogenase, nitrification,
nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), nitrifying bacteria, aerobic conditions,
water-logged soils, denitrification, denitrifying bacteria, anaerobic,
ammonification, saprobionts, extracellular digestion, artificial
fertilisers, eutrophication, ammonia, protein
All cells have all genes but not all genes are ____________, so not all
proteins are made all the time. Cells become specialised when genes
are __________ on or off.
This can be regulated by a number of mechanisms, either at the stage
of __________________ or __________________ during protein
synthesis.
Transcription can be controlled via ___________ factors. These are
proteins that bind to ___________ regions of genes, allowing
_________________ _______________ to bind and initiate
transcription. Sometimes transcription factors need to be activated
first (e.g. via ___________). Transcription factors are cell and gene
Regulation of gene specific (only present in certain cells, only complementary to specific
20
expression promoter regions).
Transcription is also regulated via ____________ changes (heritable
changes to the DNA-histone complex). Hyper ____________ of
histones causes DNA to coil ____________ around histones making
promoter regions accessible to transcription factors and RNA
_____________ (= transcription happens)
Hyper__________________ of DNA of a gene or promoter region
causes DNA to coil _____________ around histones, making the
promoter region inaccessible to transcription factors and RNA
polymerase (= transcription cannot happen). The protein is not made.
Gene expression is also regulated at the stage of _____________.
This involves a process called RNA _____________. siRNA is a
 small, ___________- stranded molecule of RNA. This becomes single
stranded and combines with an enzyme capable of cutting mRNA.
The ssRNA and enzyme bind to specific mRNA via _____________
___________ ____________ and the enzyme destroys the mRNA (=
translation cannot happen). The protein is not made.

Expressed, translation, transcription factors, epigenetic, switched,

RNA polymerase, double-stranded, transcription, promoter, tightly,
complementary base pairing, oestrogen, RNA interference
Cancer is a ____________ disease with multiple causes. Cancer can
occur when cancer genes ___________.For example,
______________ ______________ genes normally code for
_____________ which slow down the cell cycle. A mutation in a
tumour suppressor gene is a change in ____________ sequence,
leading to a change in ________________ ____________
__________(primary structure) of the polypeptide. This changes the
______________ structure and renders the protein non-functional.
Therefore the cell cycle is not slowed down and cells divide out of
control, leading to ___________ tumours.
21 Cancer Cancer can also be linked to _____________ changes. When a
tumour suppressor gene or its promotor become
hyper____________, this leads to the DNA curling tightly around the
histones. The promoter is therefore not accessible to the
________________ factor and __________ ______________ cannot
bind. _____________ does not happen and the protein which
normally slows the cell cycle is not produced, causing malignant
tumours to form.

Malignant, transcription factor, amino acid sequence, methylated,

tumour suppressor gene, proteins, base, genetic, mutate, tertiary,
epigenetic, RNA polymerase, transcription
In vivo cloning is used amplify (make copies of) genes or DNA. In vivo
means in _______________ _____________, generally bacteria.

Isolating genes
First the gene needs to be isolated by one of three mechanisms:
1) The gene can be cut out of the DNA using _____________
____________. These cut at specific ____________
_____________ ______________ on either side of the gene
22 In vivo cloning
leaving __________ ____________ with unpaired bases.
2) ______________ _____________ can be used to produce a
strand of DNA complementary to the mRNA of a particular
gene. This _____________ can then be made double stranded
with the help of the enzyme ______________ ___________.
3) Using a _________ _________, a computer that builds up the
gene from known sequences via __________________.

Inserting the gene into a vector

Once the gene is isolated a ____________ needs to be added to
ensure transcription factors and RNA polymerase can attach to allow
the gene to be expressed. A ____________ also needs to be added
to stop transcription.

To insert the gene, cut a ____________ (vector) with the same

____________ _____________ as the one used to cut out the gene.
This creates _______________ sticky ends between the plasmid and
the gene and these will join by ____________ ___________
_________. Design plasmid to contain two __________
____________ (e.g. antibiotic resistance), one with the enzyme’s
recognition site to allow later identification of ‘correct’ bacteria.
Mix the cut plasmid and gene with DNA ____________ to insert the
gene into the plasmid (this will repair the backbone). This plasmid is
now recombinant (i.e. made up of DNA from more than one species).

Transforming bacteria
Bacteria become transformed when they take up foreign DNA, i.e. the
__________ plasmids.
To allow this to happen, mix bacteria with the plasmids, _______ ions
and _________________ shock.

Identification of transformed bacteria

Not all plasmids will take up the gene and not all bacteria will take up
a recombinant plasmid.
To identify those with the plasmid, __________ ___________
(antibiotic resistance, GFP, enzyme markers) are used.
a) Antibiotic resistance – use the technique of ____________
___________. Kill bacteria without plasmids using one of the
_______________. Those with a plasmid will be
_____________. Then ____________ the colonies onto new
agar plate and use second antibiotic. This will kill the
transformed bacteria. Refer back to the first plate to find the
colonies with the recombinant plasmid.
b) GFP – bacteria with the plasmid will not fluoresce
c) Enzyme gene marker – bacteria with the plasmid will/will not
cause a colour change.

Cloning of bacteria
Transfer transformed bacteria into new ___________ ____________.
Cells will divide and replicate the __________ _____________ and
therefore the foreign gene.

Antibiotic, promoter, resistant, restriction enzymes (endonucleases),

sticky ends, palindromic recognition site, reverse transcriptase,
mRNA, DNA ligase, DNA polymerase, cDNA, plasmids, recombinant
plasmids, marker genes (antibiotic resistance, fluorescent markers
and enzyme markers), gene machine, complementary base pairing,
 living organisms, oligonucleotides, growth medium, terminator,
complementary, calcium, temperature, replica plating, blot
PCR stands for ___________ ____________ ____________.
This process uses a _________________ to make copies of
genes/DNA (in vitro cloning). The following ‘ingredients’ must be
added to the PCR mixture:1) ___________ _____________(gene to
be copied); 2) ___________ ______________ (building blocks to
make the second strand of DNA); 3) _____________ (short single
stranded fragment of DNA which provide a starting point for DNA
synthesis); 4) ________ _____________ (the thermostable enzyme
that catalyses the formation of the second strand of DNA

These are placed into the thermocycler for the following process:
1) Temperature increased to _________ in order to break H-
In vitro cloning =
23 bonds and separate strands of DNA
PCR 2) Temperature lowered to ____________ to allow ___________
to anneal.
3) Temperature increased to _______________ which is the
optimum temperature of taq polymerase

This cycle is repeated many times until the reaction runs out of either
________ __________ or ____________. The amount of DNA
__________ at each cycle.

Thermocycler, DNA fragment DNA (Taq) polymerase, primers, free

floating DNA nucleotides, DNA template, 95˚C, 55˚C, 72˚C, breaking
hydrogen bonds, annealing primers, DNA synthesis, polymerase
chain reaction, doubles
Genetic probes can be used to locate genes as part of ___________
_________ e.g. for genes associated with diseases (e.g. mutated
tumour suppressor or _______________).
Genetic probes are short single stranded fragments of DNA that are
designed to be ____________ to a target gene. They also have one
of two possible _______________., i.e. _______________ or
_______________. Flourescent probes can be seen under ________
___________, radioactive probes can be seen using _____________
Gene probes and _____________.
24
genetic screening
For genetic screening:
Design a labelled probe complementary to target gene (e.g. mutation).
Make DNA of test person ____________ ______________ to allow
probe to anneal by ______________ _________________ (DNA
hybridisation).
Use UV light or x-ray photography to determine whether the probe
has attached to the DNA (i.e. the gene is present).
 Screening can be used to develop _________ ____________ and is
often followed up by ___________ _______________.

complementary base sequence, anneal, radioactive labels,

fluorescent labels, identification of gene mutations, heterozygous,
genetic counselling, homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive,
UV light, X-ray photography, tumour suppressor genes, oncogenes,
genetic screening, complementary, personalised medicine, single
stranded, complementary base pairing
Genetic fingerprinting is used as a _________ __________ (for crime
scenes), to establish ___________ _______________ (for breeding),
medical diagnosis and __________ _____________.

First DNA is extracted and amplified using _________ (see above).

DNA is then cut using specific _____________ _____________ which
cut on either side of _________ (the unique non-coding regions of
DNA).
The DNA fragments (VNTRs) are then separated using _________
___________. This technique separates DNA fragments according to
size using an electrical current. The invisible bands on the gel are
transferred onto nylon membrane. This is called _________
____________.
DNA fragments are made single stranded using an ___________
Genetic solution.
25
fingerprinting Labelled DNA __________ are added which will bind to target VNTs
via _______________ ______________.
The bands of DNA are made visible using either _________
__________ or ______________ _________________, dependent
on the type of probe used.

Patterns of bands can be compared to match DNA (crime scene), find

similarities (genetic relationships – for paternity testing or breeding).

Non-coding DNA, VNTRs (variable number tandem repeats),

forensics tool, genetic relationships, extraction, PCR, digestion,
restriction endonucleases, separation, gel electrophoresis, Southern
blotting/nylon mesh, hybridisation, gene probes, development, X-ray
film for radioactive labels and UV light for fluorescent labels, probes,
alkali, paternity testing, complementary base pairing,
Osmoreceptors in the ______________monitor the water potential of
the blood. They detect a fall in the water potential of blood flowing
through hypothalamus; the cells inside will lose water by
Control of blood __________causing them to shrink. This change stimulates the
26
water level neurosensory cells to secrete _______________. ADH passes along
axons of the neurosensory cells, which end at the posterior
__________ _________; this releases ADH. This travels in the blood,
the target cells are in the ________________of the nephrons in the
 kidneys. This increases the permeability to water of the plasma
membranes on endothelial cells in walls of the collecting duct. This is
achieved by receptors on plasma membrane of the colleting ducts
bind with ADH molecules. ___________ is made by the activation of
adenylate cyclase. The cAMP acts as a ___________ __________.
cAMP allows ______________to be inserted in the collecting duct
membranes. These increases the membranes permeability to water.
More water is reabsorbed by osmosis into the capillaries or the
________. Fluid in collecting duct becomes more concentrated so a
smaller volume of more concentrated urine is produced. The water
potential in the blood rises.

ADH, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, osmoreceptors, cells of distal

convoluted tubule and collecting duct, protein receptors, secondary
messenger, Vasa Recta. phosphorylase, aquaporins, permeability of
collecting ducts, volume, thirst, concentration of urine, osmosis,
collecting ducts, cAMP
27 DNA Structure
DNA consists of 2 ______________________ chains that runs anti-parallel,
to form a double ____________. Each ______________ is made from-
________________, a phosphate (group) and an organic/nitrogenous
________. The nucleotides join via _______________ reactions to form
_________________ bonds and they make a _______________backbone.
The 2 strands are held by ______________ bonds. These _____________
bonds are between _______________ base pairs i.e. between adenine and
_________________ then cytosine and ________________. The genetic
______ is based on the _____________ of bases and is read in __________
in DNA (or _____________ in mRNA). The genetic code is degenerate,
universal and non-overlapping. ___________________means that each
amino acid has more than one codon or triplet. ____________________
means that each base is only in one codon or triplet.
____________________ means that the triplets or codons are the same in
different organisms.

Key Words - polynucleotide, nucleotide, condensation reaction, double

helix, hydrogen bonds, complementary base pairing, genetic code,
sequence of bases, triplets, codons, universal, punctuated, non-overlapping,
degenerative, deoxyribose, base, phosphodiester, thymine, guanine

28 DNA Replication
DNA replication is _______________________. First DNA _______________
breaks the ____________________ bonds between the strands and the
DNA unwinds. This occurs along the _____________DNA molecule. _______
strands acts as templates. Free/activated _______ nucleotides pair up, with
the template strand. This is via ________________base pairing. _________
 pairs to Thymine and __________________ pairs to Guanine. Hydrogen
bonds reform. Adjacent nucleotides are joined via __________________
bonds, in ___________________ reactions catalysed by _____________.
Each new molecule has one old/_____________ strand and one
new/__________ strand.

Key Words – whole, both, DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, cytosine semi-
conservative replication, phosphodiester bond, DNA, parent, hydrogen
bonds, complementary base pairing, adenine, condensation reaction,
daughter

29 Mitosis and Cell

Cycle Mitosis maintains the ________________________________and produces
genetically identical daughter cells. In ____________, specifically ___ phase
the DNA replicates. In ___________, DNA supercoils (in eukaryotes around
________________) and ________________ so chromosomes visible, later
it becomes clear that the DNA has already replicated into 2 sister
___________ held by a ______________. __________________
homologous chromosomes align on the ____________. In _____________,
the _____________ divide and the ___________________ fibres contract so
the sister ________________ pulled apart. In ________________ the
chromosomes reach the poles and ____________ and unwind. This is
followed by a _________________which is a division of the cytoplasm. This
results in ______ genetically _____________ daughter cells with the ______
number of chromosomes as the parent.

Key Words – cytokinesis, S phase, identical, chromatids, interphase,

prophase, metaphase, relax, histones, anaphase, telophase, chromosome
number, two, equator, same, spindle, condenses, centromere(s)

30 Meiosis
Meiosis produces ______________, daughter cells that are genetically
different from each other and it ________ the chromosome number. It is
usually 2 nuclear divisions resulting in the formation of 4 __________
daughter cells from a single __________parent. The halving of the
chromosome number occurs because of events in ______________ and
_______________; it is important that this happens so that the
chromosome number can be restored at _______________. In
____________, _____________ chromosomes separate and in
_____________ sister __________ separate. The genetic variation is
generated in ___________ and ________________. In _______________,
_______________ occurs, this involves the exchange of alleles between
_______________chromosomes, it is a random event and leads to unique
____________combinations. The point of crossing over is called a
____________. In ________________, independent ___________________
occurs, this is where homologous chromosomes randomly align either side
 of the equator and this can also lead to unique _______________
combinations. Independent assortment is predictable using the equation
___, where n is the number of homologous pairs. Usually after meiosis,
fertilisation of gametes occurs. ___________ fusion of gametes also
generates variation and can be predicted using the equation ____.

Key Words– (2n)2, diploid, prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1,

anaphase 2, chiasma, crossing over, halves, unique allele combinations,
homologous independent assortment, 2n, random fusion of gametes,
variation, haploid, sister chromatids

31 Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of ________ from an area of __________ water
potential to an area of _____________ water potential across a
____________________ membrane. Water potential is the ability of a
solution to __________ water and it is measure in ____ or _____. Pure
water has a water potential of ________ and adding solute,
___________the water potential. A ________________ has a lower water
potential, a ______________ has a higher water potential and an
______________ has the same water potential. Animal cells or
___________ placed in ______________solution will deform and in
hypotonic solution will ______. Plant cells in hypertonic solution will be
____________ and in hypotonic solution they will become ___________.
Potato chips in a ____________ solution loss mass and in a
________________ solution gain mass.

Key Words - water potential, solute, lower(s), isotonic, hypertonic,

hypotonic, 0Nm-2, donate, turgid, flaccid, kPa, partially-permeable
membrane, lyse, water, higher, Nm-2.

32 Active
Transport Active transport is the movement of molecules or ions from an area of
_____ concentration to an area of _________ concentration, _______the
concentration gradient. To do this ______ must be ______________ to
release energy (so the enzyme ATP _____________ is present). Specific
_________________proteins must also be present in the plasma
membrane. They are specific as they are a ____________________shape to
the molecule or ion that is being moved across the membrane. The _______
of active transport is affected by the rate of __________________________
(________ availability or use of metabolic inhibitors) as active transport
___________ ATP and _________________ produces ATP.

Key Words – carrier, ATP, low, oxygen, rate, complementary, high,

hydrolysed, against, hydrolase, aerobic respiration, requires.
33 Co-transport
 Is movement of _______ molecules or ions using a _________________.
Examples include the cotransport of _____________and Na+ in the Ileum
and the cotransport of ____________ and H+ between the companion cell
and the sieve tube element. In the ileum, ________ and Na+ move from
lumen into _________________ sharing a _____________protein both
down their ______________________ gradients. ____________ then
moves from the epithelial cell to the blood by _______________________.
Na+ are _____________________ from epithelial cell to ____________.
This sets up and maintains a ___________________________ so Na+ can
continue to enter the ____________________from the ileum via
cotransport carrying ________ with them. In the first part of translocation
_______________ moves from source into ______________________ by
facilitated diffusion. This is because the source is producing excess sugars by
_________________. The _____________ is co-transported with H+ (using a
_______________) from the _________________________into the sieve
tube element both move down their ____________________________. H+
are then ______________________from the sieve tube element into the
____________________, this again is to maintain a concentration gradient
so that the cotransport can continue.

Key Words – blood, facilitated diffusion, epithelial cell, photosynthesis,

shared carrier, companion cell, two, sucrose, glucose, concentration,
actively transported, concentration gradient(s)

34 Tissue Fluid
Tissue fluid consists of blood plasma (and all that it carries) minus the large
______________ proteins. Tissue fluid is formed at the _____________ end
of the capillary because of the ________ hydrostatic pressure that forces
_____ molecules through the pores (_________________) in the capillary
walls or ______________. The ______ hydrostatic pressure is caused by the
action of the left ____________(heart) and the decrease in blood vessel
lumen size. This is opposed by only a weak _________________pressure as
the difference in water potentials between tissue fluid and blood plasma is
__________ at this end of the capillary. Cells exchange materials with the
tissue fluid, using the amino acids for ____________ synthesis, using the
glucose and oxygen for ______________respiration from which they
produce carbon dioxide and __________. At the ____________end of the
capillary, the hydrostatic pressure has _______________as the volume of
the plasma has decreased and there has been ____________or resistance
against the capillary wall. The _________________ pressure is
_____________ as there is a larger difference in water potentials; inside the
capillary lumen the plasma proteins _________ the water potential and in
the tissue fluid water potential is higher as solutes have been __________by
the cell and water __________. Tissue fluid is returned to the capillary as
water moves back in by ______________(down a water potential gradient)
 carrying with it dissolved material (such as carbon dioxide). Some tissue
fluid __________ into the lymphatic system to form _________. This will
eventually return to the circulatory system via the sub-clavian duct draining
into the ___________.

Key Words – used, added protein synthesis, arteriole end, aerobic, venule
end, high, fenestrations, water, endothelium, osmotic pressure, plasma
proteins, small, friction, sub-clavian duct, ventricle, small, drains, reduced,
higher, lower, osmosis, lymph, vena cava

35 Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is found in _____blood cells. ____________ is transported by
______________; one molecule can carry____ molecules of oxygen.
Haemoglobin has a ___________________structure, as it is made of 4
_______________ chains. It also contains haem groups which contain
________. ______________ is when oxygen combines with the
haemoglobin and ________________is when oxy-haemoglobin breaks
down to give _____________ and haemoglobin. An
__________________________curve is S-shaped. _____________________
binding explains the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve, when one
molecule of __________binds to the haemoglobin it distorts __________,
changes the _____________ structure of the molecule so its affinity for
oxygen increases and the second, third and fourth molecules are
___________ to add. A range of factors can shift the oxygen dissociation
curve to the _________or _________. The ________ effect is the effect of
carbon dioxide concentration on the dissociation of oxy-haemoglobin.
Many animals are adapted to their ___________________ by possessing
different types of ____________________ with different oxygen transport
properties. If the oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to ________it indicates
______________ affinity for oxygen. Examples of where this occurs include
_________ organisms, active animals and the _______ effect (high carbon
dioxide or low pH). If the oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the
__________ it indicates an ___________ affinity for oxygen. Examples
include _______ organisms, living at altitude, living in a hole, __________
haemoglobin and ________________.

Key Words – oxygen, Bohr, quaternary, haemoglobin, myoglobin, four,

oxygen dissociation curves, co-operative binding, loading, unloading, Fe
ions, red, small, bonds, easier, polypeptide, tertiary, left, right, foetal
haemoglobin, environment, decreased affinity, increased affinity. large

36 Digestion
During digestion, large __________, molecules are hydrolysed to smaller
___________ molecules that can be absorbed across the cell membrane.
The _________________ bonds in carbohydrates are hydrolysed by
_____________. _____________(produced in the __________________
 and ______________) hydrolysis starch to ___________. Membrane-bound
disaccharidases include ____________, _____________and lactase (are all
produced by the ____________________of the Ileum).
__________ hydrolyses maltose to α-glucose. ____________ hydrolyses
sucrose to α-glucose and ___________. ____________ hydrolyses lactose to
α-glucose and _________________. These disaccharidases are membrane-
bound to ensure that the other carbohydrases have completed their
___________ (as enzymes are ____________and only work on
______substrate). The ____________ bond in proteins and polypeptides is
hydrolysed by ______________. _____________________hydrolyse the
__________ bonds in the middle of a polypeptide to produce
_____________ polypeptides. ________________ hydrolyse the
____________ peptide bonds to produce both _____________________and
dipeptides. Having both _____________ and _____________________
together is more effective and produces faster hydrolysis because the
______________________ produced more ends (larger surface area) for the
__________________ to work on. Membrane bound ________________
(produced by the _________________ of the Ileum) hydrolyse dipeptides
into ________________. These are membrane bound to ensure that the
other peptidases have completed their _________. Triglycerides and
___________ are first _______________ by _________ (produced in the
liver), this creates ____________ and a larger surface area for __________
to work on. Bile salts have regions that are hydrophilic and regions that are
_________________. Lipase (produced by the ___________) hydrolyses the
_____________ bonds in triglycerides to produce _________________ and
mono-glycerides/glycerol.

Key Words - hydrolysis, actions, hydrophobic, amylase, maltose, sucrose,

smaller, lactase, one, endopeptidase, exopeptidase, dipeptidases, lipase,
fatty acids, glycosidic bond, bile, salivary glands, pancreas, epithelial cells of
the ileum, specific, lipids, insoluble, soluble, carbohydrases, maltase,
fructose, ester bonds, galactose, peptide bond, peptidases, terminal, amino
acids, micelles, emulsified

37 Absorption
___________ and amino acids are absorbed by _________________.
Glucose or ___________________and __________________ are co-
transported from the gut _________ to __________________by a shared
_____________ both down their concentration gradients. __________ or
amino acids then pass from epithelial cell to _________ by
____________________. Sodium ions move from epithelial cell to
__________ via _________________, this uses ____ and a carrier. This
______________________ is important as it maintains the concentration
gradient so the ___________________ continue to move into the epithelial
cell from the gut ___________ carrying with them ______________ or
 amino acids. ___________ contain bile salts and ______________ or mono-
glycerides. These make fatty acid or ____________________ (more) soluble
(in water) and __________the fatty acids or mono-glycerides to
___________________ of the ileum and maintain a high(er) concentration
of __________________ or mono-glycerides here. The fatty acids or mono-
glycerides are absorbed by ___________________.
Once across the membrane the _________________ reform in the epithelial
cells. The ________________ are joined with proteins (produced by the
__________________) making __________________ and put into vesicles
at the __________________. The triglycerides then pass into a
___________________(branch of the lymphatic system) via vesicles and
________________.

Key Words – ribosomes, lacteal, facilitated diffusion, blood, simple diffusion,

gut lumen, active transport, co-transport, amino acids, fatty acids, Golgi
Body, mono-glycerides, shared carrier, sodium ions, carry. glucose,
epithelial cells of the ileum, ATP. Micelles, triglycerides, chylomicrons,
exocytosis.

38 Cell Organelles
Organelles are found in _________________but not
__________________cells. Examples include the cell-surface membrane,
______________ (containing chromosomes, consisting of protein-bound,
linear DNA, and one or more nucleoli), mitochondria, ________________ (in
plants and algae), Golgi apparatus and Golgi vesicles, __________________
(a type of Golgi vesicle that releases lysozymes), _______________, rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER),
_______________ (in plants, algae and fungi) and cell vacuole (in plants).
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. It contains a dense structure
called the ____________________ and is surrounded by the nuclear
______________, a structure composed of two membranes, which has
pores in. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is made up of a number of
flattened sacs called cisternae, which are continuous with the nuclear
envelope. The _____ is called so because it has a lot of ________________
on its outer surface. The ____ however, does not have ribosomes. The RER
transports proteins that are synthesised in the ribosomes, and the
SER synthesises ________. The Golgi Apparatus is a stack of membrane
bound flattened sacs, and are responsible for the ______________of
proteins received from the ER. These proteins are then transported
in ____________ around the cell. Lysosomes are made in the Golgi
Apparatus and are membrane bound spherical sacs (vesicles) which
contain _________________ which contains enzymes used to break
hydrolyse materials (important in phagocytes). Mitochondria are round
_____________membrane bound organelles responsible
for ____________respiration. Their inner membrane is folded inside to
 form ____________, which are folded in the matrix - the central part of a
mitochondrion. During aerobic respiration, _____ is produced in the
mitochondria. Found only in plants including algae and
some protoctists, __________________ are responsible for photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain two fluid separated membranes and the inner
membrane is folded into a network of flattened sacs called _____________
that are stacked into grana (one Granum, two Grana). The
__________________ contain chlorophyll in which the process of LDR
occurs. The ________________ is where the LIR reaction occurs.

Vesicles are membrane bound sacs that are used to store or _____________
substances around the cell. Vacuoles are essentially larger than vesicles.
They are membrane bound organelles that have no specific
_____________ and contain water with a number of different
compounds within it. Their function varies greatly depending on the type of
cell they are part of. In plant cells they are important in maintaining
__________ pressure. Ribosomes are small spherical organelles, composed
of _____ subunits, which can be found on the RER (and also in the
cytoplasm and in mitochondria and in chloroplasts). Ribosomes are made
from ______ and protein and are involved in ___________. The cell
membrane is made of the ___________________ model (phospholipid
bilayer and proteins) and controls what goes in and out of the cell. The cell
wall is external to the cell membrane and provides support in plants it is
made of _________ (a polysaccharide) and in bacteria it is made of
__________ (a glycoprotein).

Key Words – aerobic, eukaryotic, nucleolus, prokaryotic, thylakoids, shape,

modification, cell wall, cell membrane, transport, nucleus, mitochondria,
lysozyme, chloroplasts, two, murein, ATP, ribosomes, RER, SER,
lysosomes, cellulose, Golgi Apparatus, nuclear envelope, lipids, vesicles,
double, cristae, stroma, turgor pressure, rRNA, translation, Fluid-Mosaic
model.

39 Types of Cells
Types of cell include ________________ and __________________.
___________________ have a membrane-bound nucleus, ___________
ribosomes and membrane bound _________________.
_____________cells have no membrane-bound nucleus (instead the ____ is
free in the cytoplasm), no membrane-bound organelles and ____________
ribosomes. In terms of ______ structure, in eukaryotes it is longer,
___________, associated with ______________ in chromosomes and has
introns. _____ in prokaryotes is shorter, ____________, not associated with
_____________ in chromosomes and they have no introns. Eukaryotic cells
divide by ___________ and meiosis and ________________ cells divide by
_______________. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
 They also differ from eukaryotic cells in having a cell wall that contains
murein, a __________________. In addition, many prokaryotic cells have:
one or more ______________ a capsule surrounding the cell and one or
more flagella. Cells can be viewed using ______________, these include the
light microscope, scanning electron ______________________ (_____) and
transmission ________________________ (______). The _______has the
highest resolution.

Key Words – organelles, prokaryotic, eukaryotic, mitosis, glycoprotein, light

microscope, resolution, electron microscope, TEM, SEM, linear, histones,
larger, DNA, smaller, circular, binary fission, plasmids

40 Gas Exchange
in Insects and Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown by gas exchange include
Plants across the body surface of a ____________________ organism, by the
leaves of __________________________plants (mesophyll and stomata)
and in the ______________ system of an insect (tracheae, tracheoles and
__________). Gas exchange in plants occurs in spongy _______________
layer of the leaf, where air spaces _______________ internal surface area.
Leaves broad and thin in shape, which _________________ surface area for
_____________ and gives _____________ diffusion distances. Stomata
_________ and close to balance gas exchange with water loss.
________________ are plants adapted to reduce water loss, they have a
thick ___________ cuticle, sunken stomata, have ____________ and show
leaf curling. In insects, air enters through ________________. It then passes
through the trachea and ____________. There is an oxygen diffusion
gradient in the trachea so oxygen diffuses into the cells.
The body has a waterproof exoskeleton of __________ to reduce water loss.
Ventilation replaces air in trachea and maintains a __________________
gradient for diffusion in larger terrestrial insects (__________________).
The spiracles can close, to reduce water loss. All cells are close to the
tracheoles, to give _____________diffusion distances. In addition, the
___________________run directly into muscles and contain a fluid, when
the insect is ____________ this moves into the muscles increasing the
surface area for diffusion.

Key Words – increase, tracheoles, spiracles, plants, shorter, spongy

mesophyll, stomata, single-celled, open, chitin, abdominal pumping,
dicotyledonous, tracheal system, diffusion, xerophytes, waxy cuticle, hairs,
concentration gradient, active.

41 Gas Exchange
in Fish Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown by gas exchange across the
___________ of fish (gill _______________ and gill ______________
including the counter-current principle). Air has ___ oxygen and water has
 less than ___ (which _________________with increasing temperature), so
the gas exchange system in fish has to be very efficient. All descriptions of
features must link to _____________. The gills contain stacked gill
________________ covered with lamellae, this _______________the
surface area for diffusion. The lamellae are very _______; this
________________ the diffusion distances. Fish _______________ their
gills; this maintains a ____________________________for diffusion. Fish
have a __________________ in their gills (as opposed to a parallel current)
where blood and water flow in ________________directions; this maintains
a _______________________________ for oxygen diffusion across the
____________ gill surface, _____________________ is never reached.
Some small ____________fish, have no gills as they have a large enough
surface area: volume ___________to obtain oxygen across their whole
surface.
Fish _________________ links to gill structure; very _________ fish have
thinner lamellae and more of them, this is because they require more
____________ for more ______________________________ to make more
ATP for muscle contraction so that they can be more ___________.

Key Words - gills, gill lamellae, thin, diffusion, opposite, decreases, ratio,
oxygen, gill filaments, counter-current, aerobic respiration, 1%, 21%, young,
increases, ventilate, concentration gradient, whole, equilibrium, activity,
active

42 Gas Exchange
in Humans Gas exchange in human includes the gross structure of the human gas
exchange system includes the alveoli, ________________, bronchi,
____________ and lungs. The essential features of the alveolar
________________ as a surface over which gas exchange takes place.
_________________and the exchange of gases in the lungs. The mechanism
of __________________ to include the role of the __________________
and the _____________________ interaction between the external and
internal _____________________________ in bringing about pressure
changes in the ______________ cavity. Oxygen passes from the alveoli,
across the ___________________ (squamous), across the
__________________ of capillaries and into the _________. Alveoli are
folded to ____________ the surface area for diffusion, they have thin
squamous epithelium for ___________ diffusion distances and humans
_______________ their gas exchange surfaces to maintain a
___________________________ for diffusion. The ____________carries air
into the thorax, it branches into bronchi which they further branch into
_________________, each ending with an alveolus. In ______________ and
breathing in (inspiration) the external intercostal muscle ___________,
whilst the internal intercostal muscles _____________ (________________
action), the diaphragm _______________ down, the ________ move up and
 out, the volume of the thoracic cavity ______________, the pressure in the
thoracic cavity ______________and air moves in from a higher
_____________________ to a lower __________________________. In
breathing out (expiration) the external intercostal muscles _________ and
the internal intercostal muscles ______________, the diaphragm relaxes up,
the ______ move down and in, the volume of the thoracic
_______________, the pressure in the thoracic ____________________and
air moves ______ from a higher _____________________ to a lower
________________________. The pulmonary ventilation rate (____) can be
calculated using the equation _____ = ______________________ ×
breathing rate. ________________ and ________________ are specific risk
factors linked to the incidence of lung disease or chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (________) includes a range of lung-based
diseases, such as ________________, chronic bronchitis and
___________________ ·

Key Words - ventilation, short, antagonistic, diaphragm, internal intercostal

muscles and external intercostal muscles, air pollution, ribs, bronchioles,
trachea, epithelium, endothelium, breathing, thoracic, blood, increase,
smoking, tidal volume, asthma ventilate, concentration gradient, relax,
emphysema, contract, ribs, decreases, increases, internal pressure, external
pressure, out, PVR, COPD

43 Glycolysis
Glycolysis is involved in _______________ and ______________ respiration.
Involves a series of reactions each catalysed by a different enzyme (which
only occur in the ___________________ of the cell). ___________enters
the cell by facilitated diffusion, ____________ or active transport. Before it
is split glucose is phosphorylated (means adding ______________), this uses
up two molecules of ____, makes the glucose more reactive and produces
______________________. The _________________ immediately
_________ to form ____ molecules of _____________________ (TP), each
with_______ carbon atoms. The glycolytic pathway continues to
_____________the TP to produce two molecules of ____________ (each
with___________ carbon atoms). In the process _______ (a coenzyme) is
reduced by the addition of hydrogen/__________/hydrogen ions (that
originally came from the ________________). In the later stages of
glycolysis, 4 _______ joins 4Pi to produce 4 ________. In this way the net
gain of ATP in glycolysis is ___ ATP. In ______________ respiration,
_____________ is actively transported into the ______________ to the Link
Reaction. In __________________ respiration in humans the ____________
is converted to ________________________, in the process _____ is
regenerated. In ________________conditions in yeast the _____________
is converted to ________________and __________________, in the
process ______ is regenerated. Glycolysis is known as the ___________of
glucose as it loses hydrogen in the process.
 Key Words - glucose, oxidation of glucose, triose phosphate, pyruvate,
NAD, ATP, two, cytoplasm, anaerobic respiration, lactic acid, ethanol,
carbon dioxide, aerobic respiration, glucose phosphate, cotransport, oxidise,
phosphate, glucose phosphate, splits, 3, protons, ADP, matrix

44 Krebs Cycle and

Link Reaction ______________ (produced from ________________ travels into the
mitochondria by ________________________, as both the Link Reaction
and Krebs cycle happen in the ______________ of the mitochondria. Firstly,
in the Link Reaction, _____________ is _____________ to acetate, in the
reaction hydrogen/___________/hydrogen ions are lost, which are picked
up by ________ to form _______________. Also in the reaction carbon is
lost from ____________________ in the form of ___________________,
this is an example of both a decarboxylation reaction and an oxidation
reaction, so that acetate (a _____carbon containing fragment) is formed.
Secondly in the Link Reaction, the acetate reacts with ______________
(CoA) to produce _______________________ (Acetyl-coA) (another ___
carbon fragment), which can then enter the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle is a
series of reactions including _____________ (loss of hydrogen) and
_____________ (gain of hydrogen), in which the ____________ group (2C)
is completely broken-down to _____________________. Acetlycoenzyme A
is a ____C fragment which combines with a ______C acceptor molecule
(organic acid) to make a_____C molecule. This is decarboxylated (loss of
_________________) in a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions involving
several more intermediate compounds to regenerate the _____containing
molecule. The intermediates include ______containing molecules. In the
process ____ is also generated by ____________________phosphorylation.
Dehydrogenation (the loss of hydrogen) also occurs at several stages in the
Krebs cycle to produce _______________and ________________
(coenzymes that have gained hydrogen/____________/hydrogen ions),
these will then travel to the inner mitochondrial membrane for the process
of ______________________________. Each molecule of glucose gives
_____ pyruvate molecules and so the Krebs Cycle gives a net gain of _____
ATP. It also acts as a way that other __________________________ can be
used, __________________ are converted into acetylcoenezyme A which
can enter the Krebs Cycle and ________________ are deaminated to
organic acids that also can enter the Krebs cycle.

Key Words – reduction, matrix of the mitochondria, carbon dioxide, reduced

NAD, co-enzyme A, acetyl co-enzyme A, 4-carbon acceptor molecule,
protons, 5-carbon molecule, 6-carbon molecule, intermediate, NAD, fatty
acids, reduced FAD, ATP, substrate-level phosphorylation, active transport,
glycolysis, pyruvate, oxidised, two, oxidation, acetyl group, oxidative
phosphorylation, respiratory substrates, amino acids.
45
Oxidative The reduced _____ produced as a result of oxidation in the other stages of
Phosphorylation respiration (_______________, Link reaction and _____________cycle)
passes to chains of ______________molecules on the __________
membrane of the mitochondria. The inner mitochondrial membrane is
______________ into _____________ to increase the _________________
for oxidative phosphorylation. The carriers make up the _______________
transport/transfer chain. The ______________molecules are ___________
which are embedded in the membrane. The _____________molecules are
at ____________________ energy levels. Hydrogen/__________/hydrogen
ions and electrons are lost from the coenzymes. The electron and the
proton travel separately. The _______________ are passed along the
electron transfer chain from carrier 1 to carrier 2 and so on (each is
___________ as it gains the electrons and ____________ as it loses the
electrons), they are said to be reduced and oxidised in turn. As the
____________ are passed along the chain they _____________ energy.
Some of the energy is lost as _________ (as aerobic respiration is strongly
exothermic) but some of this energy is used to ________protons (H+) across
the inner mitochondrial membrane from the ___________ to the inter-
membrane space. This results in the build-up of a proton ____________
across the inner mitochondrial membrane i.e. there is a ___________
concentration of protons in the intermembrane space than there is in the
______________. The protons diffuse back into the ____________ through
a protein channel which is associated with _________________, in a
process known as chemiosmosis. Their energy is used to ___________ the
production of ________ from ADP and Pi. At the end of the electron transfer
chain, molecular __________ is used, as the proton and electron join with it
to form ________. ____________ is known as the _____________electron
acceptor. The majority of _____ in aerobic respiration is made by the
process of oxidative phosphorylation.

Key Words - cristae, folded, surface area, carriers, decreasing energy

levels, Glycolysis, oxidised, Krebs cycle, reduced NAD, oxygen, protons,
water, terminal electron acceptor, release ATP, oxidative phosphorylation,
intermembrane space, ATP synthase, surface area, matrix, carrier
molecules, inner, electron transport/transfer chain, proteins, decreasing
energy levels, electrons, reduced, heat, pump, proton gradient, higher, drive.

46 Mutations
Chromosome mutations include changes in chromosome
______________e.g. Downs syndrome and occur as a result of
______________ in meiosis. Gene mutations are changes in the ________
sequence in a chromosome. These then cause changes to the sequence of
________________ in a protein; its primary structure. This then changes the
position of the hydrogen, ______________and disulphide bonds; which
 effectively alters the _____________ structure of the protein. A change in
the _________________ structure may result in a protein with different
_____________. If the protein is an enzyme then a change in the
____________structure will change the shape of the _________________
so that the substrate is no longer a ____________________ shape, the
substrate cannot bind and no ____________________ complexes form; this
often results in a non-functional enzyme. The mutation leans to a new
_____________ in the gene pool or population. Mutations can arise
spontaneously during DNA ______________ and include base ___________,
base _______________ and base __________________. Substitution
mutations involve one nucleotide being _______________ for another e.g. a
change of AAA to AAC would cause _________ to change from ____ to
_____ and the amino acid to change from Phe to Leu. Substitution
mutations do not lead to ___________________. Deletion and addition
mutations involve ________ or _________ of a nucleotide, they cause a
___________________, here the reading frame shifts and the entire
_______ sequence down-steam of the mutation will be read differently, the
primary structure of the protein is dramatically _______________ and this
usually results in proteins that do not function. Some gene mutations do not
affect the _______________ of the organism for a number of reasons; the
genetic code is ________________ (so amino acid sequence may not
change), the mutation is in an _____________ (so amino acid sequence may
not change); the amino acid may be changed but there is no effect on
_________________ structure or the new allele is _______________ so
does not influence phenotype. Most gene mutations are ____________ but
the can have positive effects as they result in change in polypeptide that
positively changes the ____________________ of the protein and may
result in an increased ____________________ success or may result in
increased ______________chances. _______________________ can
increase the rate of gene mutation examples include ________________
radiation such as _____________and gamma rays.

Key Words – E-S complexes. ionic, addition, recessive, deletion, properties,

substitution, frame shifts, mutagens, non-disjunction, high energy radiation,
UUG, tertiary structure, codons, non-functional enzyme, reproductive
success, base, intron, mutagenic agents, degenerative code, number, amino
acid, active site, complementary shape, allele, DNA replication, base
sequence, changed, UUU, gain, loss, changed, phenotype, harmful, survival
chances, X-rays

47 Natural
Selection Individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of
________________ in ________________. This can be due to
_________________and environmental factors, although the primary source
of genetic variation is ________________. Meiosis and the random
______________ of gametes during sexual reproduction produce further
 genetic variation. The ________________ produces an
_____________________ which confers an advantageous characteristic to
the __________________ of the organism, this is known as a
________________. All organisms in a population are subject to a
____________________ this can be predation, ________________ and
competition. The individuals with advantageous _______________conferred
by advantageous ______________ i.e. those with a ________________ are
more likely to ___________________and produce more offspring and pass
on their favourable __________ to the next generation, this is known as
_________________________. If this ________________________ is
repeated over several generations then there will be an ____________ in
the favourable ___________________frequency within a ________ pool.
There are ____ types of selection, ______________, disruptive and
_______________. An example of directional selection is
________________ in bacteria, an example of stabilising selection is
_________________and an example of disruptive selection is seen in males
in Coho salmon. Disruptive selection leads to _____________.

Key Words – antibiotic resistance, increase, variation, speciation,

phenotypes, advantageous allele, 3, mutation, selective advantage,
selection pressure, genetic, gene pool, fertilisation, disease, reproduce,
differential reproductive success, stabilising selection, directional selection,
human birth weights.

48 Speciation
Speciation happens as a result of _____________________. There
are two types of speciation, _____________ and ______________
and what differs between then is the ________________________.
Reproductive ________________of two populations can result in the
accumulation of differences in their ______________. As the
populations are isolated ____________ is stopped. Different
______________________ arise by _________ in the isolated
populations, conferring different advantageous characteristics in the
_______________. In both types of speciation, the
_____________________are different in the separated populations;
in ______________speciation the different selection pressures may
be caused by different _________, biotic or abiotic factors. In the two
isolated populations, ____________ individuals survive to reproduce
as a result of these differing ___________________ are passed on. If
this __________________________ is repeated over several
generations, the allele frequencies in the isolated populations will
__________ but in different ways i.e. different favourable
_________________ will _____________ in frequency in the isolated
gene pools. New species arise when these genetic differences lead to
an inability of members of the populations to ____________ and
produce __________ offspring. In this way, new species arise from
_____________ species. In ______________speciation the isolating
 mechanisms is physical/geographical e.g. river, _________, mountain
range. In ________________speciation the isolating mechanism is
not geographical/physical, the organisms ________in the same
environment but are _______________ in some other way e.g.
seasonal, temporal, behavioural.

Key words – differential reproductive success, habitats, interbreed, fertile

offspring, mutation, gene flow, isolating mechanism, change, allopatric
speciation, disruptive selection, sympatric speciation, phenotypes, isolated,
gene pools, reproductive separation, advantageous alleles, selection
pressures, different, increase, existing, glacier, live.

49 Receptors
Detect changes to internal and external environments. Allow organisms to
respond to changes and increase their chances of survival
(__________________________). They ________________ mechanical
energy from stimulus (pressure) into a ______________________, which is
transmitted to brain to process this information.
Receptors are _________ to certain stimuli. _________________________
are in the skin and respond to external pressure (touch) this is due to special
_____________________
channels in their membranes, which are deformed by pressure to allow
_____________ to move through to create a _____________________.
Rods and Cones (in retina of eye) are _____________________ and detect
light. Rods and cones are sensitive to different ______________________;
rods are sensitive to ____ light intensities and cones are not this can be
explained by their _________________ across the retina in relation to
bipolar neurones and the processes of _____________________________.
In terms of the sensitivity of Rods and Cones to colour, rods are not
sensitive to colour (_________________) and cones are sensitive to colour
(_______________________), this is explained by the different pigments
that they contain, rods contain _____________- (of which there is only one
form) and cones contain ______________ (of which there are 3 forms). In
terms of visual acuity (accuracy) of rods and cones, rods are not accurate
(show _________________________) and cones are accurate
(_________________________), explained by their ________________
across the retina in relation to bipolar neurones and the processes of
____________________. ___________________ in the walls of
__________________________ detect increase in carbon dioxide level (pH),
they send action potentials to the _______________________, which sends
more action potentials in _________________ nerves and fewer action
potentials in _____________________nerves to increase the activity of the
________ and increase the rate of the heart; a drop in blood pressure
detected by __________________ in the walls of the carotid artery and the
aorta can also bring about this response. __________________ in the walls
 of ________________________ detect decrease in carbon dioxide level
(pH), they send action potentials to the ____________________, which
sends less action potentials in __________________ nerves and more
action potentials in _____________________nerves to decrease activity of
the ______ and decrease the rate of the heart; a rise in blood pressure
detected by ________________________ in the walls of the carotid artery
and the aorta can also bring about this response.

Key words – low, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, generator potential,

Pacinian corpuscles, rods and cones, aorta and carotid artery, distribution,
medulla oblongata, para-sympathetic nerves, specific, good visual acuity,
stretch-mediated sodium ion (Na+) gated-channels, SAN, sodium ions (Na+),
rhodopsin, iodopsin, summation and convergence, natural selection,
transduce, sympathetic nerves, light intensities, poor visual acuity,
monochromatic, trichromatic, baroreceptors,

50 Nerve
Transmission The resting potential of ____mV is achieved due to
(action potential ______________________ permeability, electrochemical gradients and
and resting movement of sodium and potassium ions.
potential) In terms of electrochemical gradients there is a _______________
concentration of potassium ions ___________and higher concentration of
sodium ions _______________ (the neurone), so potassium ions
___________ out and sodium ions ___________ in. In terms of membrane
permeability, the K+ channels are ________ and the Na+ channels are
______________. So at rest, K+ ions move _______ of the axon down their
electrochemical gradient. The membrane is _________________ and this is
maintained by the Na+/K+ pump using ________________________ to move
3 Na+ ____ of the axon and 2K+ ___ the axon. When stimulated a nerve
becomes ______________, the potential difference reverses to ____mV,
and an action potential is generated. This is due to a change in membrane
permeability; stimulation has ____________ the K+ channels and
_____________ the Na+ channels, Na+ move ______ the axon down their
electrochemical gradient. This passes to the next section of the axon via
________________, inducing the next Na+ channels to open. In non-
myelinated nerves the _________ of the axon is depolarise, whereas in
myelinated nerves, _______________ conduction occurs and the action
potential jumps between the ________________________ (the whole axon
is not depolarised). Depolarisation is followed repolarisation (where the Na +
channels _______ and K+ channels __________and K+ move out of the axon)
then in the _________________________(the Na+/K+ pump use active
_______________ to move 3 Na+ out of the axon and 2K+ into the axon) has
to occur before a new action potential can pass. This produces __________
impulses (they do not add together) and limits the frequency of impulse
transmission (so there is a maximum number in a given time, which is why
 sometimes no difference can be perceived between medium and large
stimuli).

Key Words – whole, discrete, close(d), differential membrane permeability,

open(ed), -70mV, active transport, +40mV, refractory period, saltatory
conduction, polarised, diffuse, depolarised, higher, inside, outside, out, into,
local circuits, in, Nodes of Ranvier,

51 Synapse/Neuro-
Muscular Depolarisation of _____________________membrane occurs as an action
Junction potential arrives. At the synaptic knob of the pre-synaptic neurone,
______________________ open and Ca 2+ enters. Ca 2+ causes the
_________________to move to then fuse with the ___________________
membrane. This releases acetylcholine (_________________) into the
synaptic ______________. Acetylcholine ___________ across the
______________ cleft. Acetylcholine attaches to ________________ on the
_____________________ membrane, as it is a complementary shape to
these, this causes ____________________ to open. Na+ enters the
postsynaptic neurone leading to depolarisation and an
_____________________ being generated here. This then passes along the
post-synaptic neurone. In an NMJ the __________________ attaches to the
muscle membrane (sarcolemma), this causes the __________________ to
open and an ____________________ is generated. The action potential
spreads into the muscle fibre via the _____________________ (T-tubules)
and is carried to the ________________________. Here the action potential
causes _____to be released and this triggers muscle _________________.

Key Words - pre-synaptic membrane, post-synaptic membrane, synaptic

vesicles, neurotransmitter, receptors, enzyme, diffuses, synaptic cleft,
sodium ion channels, calcium ions channels, T-system, Ca 2+, sarcolemma,
sarcoplasmic reticulum, action potential, contraction.

52 Muscle
Contraction Contraction of skeletal muscle involves the __________(thin) filaments
sliding over the _____________(think) filaments; this is called the
__________________________hypothesis. ___________ molecules form
thick filaments and ________ molecules form thin filaments. The
appearance of the ______________changes as the muscle contracts, these
changes can be linked to the _________________________ hypothesis. In a
sarcomere when ___________, the I-band and H-zone are larger as not all
the actin and myosin overlaps. When contracted the __________slides over
the myosin; the sarcomere length, I band and H-zone all get ___________,
but the A-Band stays the ___________ as this is determined by the length of
the thick filament which does not change. An action potential causes
 ___________________ to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
Calcium ions bind to ________________ molecules, stimulating them
to change shape. The ____________________ proteins change position on
the ____________ (thin) filaments and myosin _____________________
are exposed on the actin molecules. The globular ________ of the myosin
molecules bind with these binding sites, forming __________________
cross-bridges between the two types of filament. ATP _____________ is
found in the myosin heads. The myosin heads hydrolyse ____ to release
energy and flex (through 45 degrees), they pull the actin filaments towards
the centre of the ________________, causing the muscle to __________ a
very small distance, this is known as the __________ stoke. ATP
hydrolysis occurs at the myosin heads again, releasing the __________
required for the myosin heads to release the actin filaments by breaking the
_____________________________cross-bridges. ____ is again hydrolysed
to release ___________ used to move the myosin heads back to
their original positions this is called the _____________ stroke. If stimulation
continues, the ________ heads then bind to new binding sites on the
_______ filaments, closer to the Z disc. In the _____________mechanism,
the __________ heads move again, pulling the __________ filaments even
closer the centre of the ______________, causing the sarcomere
to shorten once more and pulling the Z discs closer together. The myosin
heads hydrolyse _______ once more in order to detach again. As long as
_________________ is not blocking the myosin-binding sites (i.e. the muscle
remains __________________) and the muscle has a supply of ____, this
process repeats until the muscle is fully contracted. The action of the
__________________ partner of the muscle pulls the thin filaments back out
from the centre of the __________________, once relaxation occurs, i.e.
stimulation ceases.

Key Words - ATP, ATP hydrolase, power stroke, calcium ions, heads,
energy, tropomyosin, myosin, actin, binding sites, actinomyosin cross-
bridges, sliding-filament hypothesis, ratchet mechanism, stimulated,
sarcomere, shorter, relaxed, same, contract, recovery stroke, antagonistic
partner

53 Control of Heart
Beat Cardiac muscle is ______________, meaning it can contract and relax
without receiving signals from the nervous system. The _______ and the
right sides of the heart beat simultaneously. The ___________________
(SAN), positioned in the wall of the right _________, sends out regular
waves of electrical ____________ to the left and right atrial wall causing the
cardiac muscle here to _____________. The electrical waves are then
passed onto the ___________________________ (AVN), in the __________
between the atria and the ventricles. There is a ___________________ here
to ensure that the atria contact __________ the ventricles and ____ the
 blood passes from atria to ventricles. The wave of electrical activity then
passes to the bundle ________, which carries it to the ____________ of the
ventricles. The bundle ___________splits into the _______________ tissue
or fibres, which spreads up into the __________ muscle of the ventricle
walls. This causes the contraction of the left and right _____________ from
the __________________ up, important so that ________the blood leaves
the heart. The rate at which the _____________________SAN produces
waves of electrical activity is controlled unconsciously by the
_____________________and the ___________________nervous system.
Chemoreceptors in the walls of ______________artery and aorta detect
increase in carbon dioxide level (pH), linked to increase in exercise
(respiration), they send action potentials to the __________________,
which sends more action potentials in __________________ nerves and
fewer action potentials in ________________________ nerves to increase
the activity of the ____________________________SAN and increase the
rate of the heart; a drop in blood _________________detected by
__________________ in the walls of the _____________ artery and the
aorta can also bring about this response. Chemoreceptors in the walls of
_________________ artery and aorta detect decrease in carbon dioxide
level (pH), they send action potentials to the ___________________, which
sends less action potentials in ____________________ nerves and more
action potentials in _____________________ nerves to decrease the
activity of the ____________________SAN and decrease rate of the heart; a
rise in blood _____________________ detected by ________________ in
the walls of the _____________ artery and the aorta can also bring about
this response.

Key Words – pressure, autonomic nervous system, bottom, cardiac muscle,

contract, left, Sino-atrial node (SAN), right atrium, before, all, septum,
baroreceptors, electrical activity, myogenic, atrioventricular node (AVN),
short delay, bundle of His, Purkinje tissue, ventricles, medulla oblongata,
carotid, sympathetic nerves, parasympathetic nerves.
54 Control of Blood
Sugar Level Insulin is a ________________ released from β-cells of the
________________________ produced when blood glucose concentration
__________ in order to lower the concentration back to its optimum via
_______________________. When insulin binds to an insulin
_____________ on a target cells, vesicles of glucose ______________ fuse
with the plasma membrane to allow ____________ glucose to enter the
cell. ______________________are activated which covert glucose into
glycogen (________________________). This ______________ the glucose
concentration inside the cells so more glucose can move in from the blood
by ___________________________, so lowering blood glucose level.
Glucagon is a ___________________ released from α-cells of the
__________________ in response to ______ glucose concentration in order
to _____________ the concentration back to its optimum by
___________________. When glucagon binds to _______________ on its
target cells it can do two things; activates _____________which hydrolyse
glycogen into glucose (___________________) and activate ___________
that convert glycerol (from lipids) and amino acids into glucose
(______________________). The concentration of glucose in the target cell
_________________ and it moves into the blood by __________________
to raise blood glucose level. Adrenaline is released by the adrenal glands in
times of ______________ and ________________ blood glucose
concentration in anticipation of increased activity. Adrenaline binds to
adrenaline ________________on target cells and activates _____________
which hydrolyse glycogen into glucose (_________________), this raises the
blood glucose level inside the cell, which then moves into the blood by
_______________________, hence raises blood glucose level. Both
glucagon and adrenaline are thought to work by the ___________________
model. Here the action of the hormone binding to its ______________ on
the target cells membrane activates an _____________ in the membrane
called _________________________. This converts _____ into cAMP, which
acts as a second messenger to activate _______________. The
____________________________ activates the ______________ which
converts glycogen into glucose. Diabetes mellitus is a condition where the
concentration of glucose in the blood cannot be ________________
effectively. It can lead to hyperglycaemia after __________ and
hypoglycaemia after _____________. ____________diabetes is caused by
an autoimmune attack on the β-cells of the pancreas or is genetic, so the
body cannot produce _____________. It can be treated by ___________
injections. ________________diabetes is caused because the body does not
produce enough ______________ and the insulin
________________become less responsive. It can be treated by lifestyle
changes (losing _____________ and exercising), drugs to stimulate
________________ production and reduce glucose absorption.

Key Words – weight, meals, controlled, stress, more, ATP,

gluconeogenesis, enzymes, receptor, Islets of Langerhans (pancreas),
hormone, lowers, rises, negative feedback, glucose transporters, facilitated
diffusion, insulin, glycogenesis, low, increase(s), glycogenolysis, secondary
messenger model, adenylate cyclase, protein kinase, exercising, Type 2,
Type 1