BAC104-SMU History of India From Earliest Times Up To 600AD

BAC104
History of India from

Earliest Times up to 600AD
Edition: Summer 2011
S M U
SIKKIM M ANI PAL UNIVERSI TY
Directorate of Distance Education
B1441
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY (SMU DDE)
Dean
Directorate of Distance Education
Sikkim Manipal University (SMU DDE)
BOARD OF STUDIES
Chairman Dr Ramesh Murthy, Director, SMU DE

HOD Arts and Humanities
SMU DDE Dr Gayathri Devi, Dean, SMU DE
Additional Registrar Dr Shivram Krishnan, Professor & HOD, A&H, SMU DDE
SMU DDE
Srinath P.S., Additional Registrar, Student Evaluation, SMU DDE
Controller of Examination
Ashok Kumar K., Additional Registrar, SMU DDE
SMU DDE
Dr Vijay Kumar Tiwary, Assistant Professor, University of Delhi
Prof. Ramesh Murthy
Principal Academics Dr Nirja Sharma, Assistant Professor, University of Delhi
Manipal Universal Learning Pvt Ltd
Authors:
Dr Nirja Sharma: Units (2.1–2.2.1, 3.1–3.2, 4.6–4.11, 5.1–5.2, Units 6–14)
Copyright © Nirja Sharma, 2011
Vikas® Publishing House: Units (Unit 1, 2.3–2.10, 3.3–3.9, 4.1–4.5, 5.3–5.12)
Copyright © Reserved, 2011
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History of India from Earliest Times up to 600AD
Contents
Unit 1
The Earliest Societies 1–15
Unit 2
Indus Valley Civilization I 17–35
Unit 3
Indus Valley Civilization II: Art, Decline and
Post-Harappan Traditions 37–46
Unit 4
Vedic Age 47–57
Unit 5
Post-Vedic Age 59–70
Unit 6
Mahajanapadas: Rise of Magadha and the Nanda Dynasty 71–95
Unit 7
Foreign Invasions 97–113
Unit 8
The Mauryan Empire 115–136
Unit 9
Mauryan Administration 137–148
Unit 10
Post-Mauryan North India 149–163
Unit 11
Post-Mauryan South India 165–181
Unit 12
Gupta Dynasty 183–210
Unit 13
Administration, Society and Economy under the Guptas 211–225
Unit 14
Rise of the Vardhanas 227–240
SUBJECT INTRODUCTION
History of India from Earliest Times up to 600AD

The culture and history of India is undoubtedly dynamic, unique and intriguing.
It is amongst the first civilizations to have come into existence. Historical records
trace the beginnings of this great nation to the Indus Valley Civilization, which
was one of the oldest known civilizations in the world. Not only was it an
architectural marvel, it is said to have possessed amenities comparable to our
modern-day towns in terms of drainage, street lighting, hygiene facilities, etc.
It was plundered and invaded time and again but the people welcomed
the new cultures. As a result, the nation today is the most diverse.
In this book, History of India from Earliest Times up to 600AD, the text
deals with Indian history from the pre-Vedic age right up to the rise of
Harshavardhana. It comprises fourteen units:
Unit 1 – The Earliest Societies: Discusses the literary and archaeological
sources that have given us information about ancient history. It throws light on
the Paleolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic ages
Unit 2 – Indus Valley Civilization I: Discusses the extent of the Civilization
and describes its characteristic features, religious beliefs and practices.
Unit 3 – Indus Valley Civilization II: Art, Decline and Post-Harappan
Traditions: Describes the urban decline of the Indus Valley Civilization and
post-Harappan traditions.
Unit 4 – Vedic Age: Discusses Vedic polity and settlement patterns and also
explains the social stratification and emergence of the caste system
Unit 5 – Post-Vedic Age: Discusses the political organization, social
stratification, technological and economic development and settlement patterns
of the age.
Unit 6 – Mahajanapadas: Rise of Magadha and the Nanda Dynasty:
Describes the rise of the mahajanapadas, the emergence of cities and territorial
states and the rise of Magadha.
Unit 7 – Foreign Invasions: Provides information on Achaemenian invasions
and rulers. Describes the campaign of Alexander the Great.
Unit 8 – Mauryan Empire: Details the early life of Chandragupta Maurya and
the economy under his reign. The unit also discusses the early life of Ashoka
and the battle of Kalinga.
Unit 9 – Mauryan Administration: Discusses the features of the Mauryan
administration as well as the socio-economic changes under the Mauryan empire.
Unit 10 – Post-Mauryan North India: Describes the Sunga dynasty and the
Kushana empire in detail.
Unit 11 – Post-Mauryan South India: Discusses the Sangam Age and the
Satavahanas along with the Pallava and Chalukya dynasties.
Unit 12 – Gupta Dynasty: Discusses the political conditions that prevailed after
the Kushanas. Describes the conditions under the early Guptas and goes on to
describe the disintegration of the empire.
Unit 13 – Administration, Society and Economy under the Guptas: Details
the features associated with the Gupta administration as well as the social,
religious and economic conditions that prevailed in the empire.
Unit 14 – Rise of the Vardhanas: Traces the founding of the Vardhana dynasty
and the rise of Harshavardhana.
Objectives of studying the subject

After studying this subject, you should be able to:
• Describe the extent of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Describe the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Discuss the Vedic polity, settlement patterns and social stratification of
the Vedic and Post-Vedic age
• Summarize the rise of the Magadha and the Nanda dynasties
• Describe the foreign invasions
• Describe the rise and fall of the Mauryan Empire
• Discuss the state of India in the post-Mauryan period
• Describe the administration, society and economy under the rule of the
Guptas
• Describe the rise of Harshavardhana
History of India from Earliest Times up to 600AD Unit 1
Unit 1 The Earliest Societies

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Literary and Archaeological Sources
1.3 Pre-Historic Paleolithic Cultures
1.4 The Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Cultures
1.5 Advent of Food Production
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Terminal Questions
1.9 Answers
1.10 Further Reading
1.1 Introduction
Information about the past is based on several sources, each contributing a

part in our attempt to visualize the complete picture. There are two primary
types of source material: literary and archaeological. For a comprehensive
understanding of historical events, it is essential to analyse both literary and
archaeological sources, wherever possible.
The first human beings appeared 2.5 million years ago and made tools
and weapons from sticks and stones. This was the beginning of the Stone Age
when the early man, bearing the closest resemblance to us appeared. The
Stone Age ran from about 2 million years ago to about 10,000 years ago. As far
as we know, true humans first appeared in Africa.
This unit will explore the various sources of history.
In addition, you will also study the characteristics of Paleolithic, Mesolithic
and Neolithic cultures in this unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe the literary and archaeological sources of history
• Classify the different phases of the Paleolithic Age
Sikkim Manipal University Page No. 1

• Compare the Mesolithic and the Neolithic Ages

• Explain the transition of man from food gatherer to food producer
1.2 Literary and Archaeological Sources
There are many ‘sources’ through which we come to know about our past. They
can be divided into:
• Archaeological evidence
• Literary evidence
Archaeological Evidence
Archaeologists and historians study the remains of past civilizations. Archaeology
is the study of the remains of our past like monuments, tools, pottery, coins,
weapons, paintings and other artefacts. Thus, archaeology provides us direct
evidence from the past, which serves as clues to reconstruct the bygone time.
Most of our information about pre-historic man, the Indus Valley people
and other ancient civilizations is based upon archaeological findings.
Archaeological findings usually have the following forms:
• Inscriptions
• Coins
• Monuments
• Artefacts
Inscriptions
In ancient times, the rulers engraved important messages for people on rocks,
pillars, stone walls, clay tablets and copper plates. These writings are known as
inscriptions. The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. A study of these
inscriptions throws light upon the language of the people, names of the rulers,
the years they ruled, their military achievements, the religious and social
conditions of the people and many other details. For example, the edicts of
Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of the Emperor Ashoka
of the Mauryan dynasty (269 BC to 231BC). An edict was a formal announcement
of the ruler to inform the public. The Ashokan edicts on pillars give us information
about the extent of his empire.

Coins
The study of coins is called numismatics. Coins are made of metals like gold,
silver and copper and are therefore not easily destroyed. They have the names
and images of rulers stamped upon them. They give information such as the
date of accession and death of the ruler. For example, Roman coins discovered
in India gives us an idea about the existence of contacts with the Roman empire.
The principal source of information of the Bactarian; Indo-Greeks and Indo-
Parthian dynasty is numismatics. The coins of these dynasties throw light on
the improvement in the coin artistry of India. Portraits and figures, Hellenistic
art and dates on the coins of the western satraps of Saurashtra are remarkable
sources for reconstructing the history of this period. The history of the
Satavahanas is ascertained from the Jogalthambi hoard of coins. The circulation
of coins in gold and silver during the Gupta empire provides a fair idea of the
economic condition during the rule of the Guptas.
Monuments
Ancient buildings like temples, palaces and forts are known as monuments.
They give us information about the life and times of the people. For example,
the carvings on the panels of Qutub Minar tell us about the reign of the early
Delhi Sultans, and the carved panels on the walls and railings of the Sanchi
Stupa tell stories from the life of the Buddha.
Artefacts
An artefact is something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work
of art, specially an object of archaeological interest. The ancient artefacts help
historians form a picture of cultural and religious life of ancient societies. For
example, the artefacts of Harappan civilization with motifs relating to asceticism
and fertility rites suggest that these concepts entered Hinduism from the earlier
civilization. The stone tools, pottery, buttons, jewellery and clothing found at
various sites provide information about the life of early man.
Literary Evidence
It took humans a long time to develop the art of writing. Before paper was
invented, people wrote on palm leaves and the bark of birch trees. These written
records which include both religious and secular literature, are called
manuscripts.
The Vedas, the oldest recorded text of the Aryans, and the Buddhist texts
are written sources, which tell us about the past. But since these scripts are
associated with rituals or religious practices of the past, these are called religious
sources. Other examples are the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Gita and

the Puranas. However, there could be books written in the past, e.g., accounts
of foreign travellers who came to India and wrote about Indian society. The
literature not connected with the religion of the times is called ‘secular’. For
example, the Arthashastra, which was written by Kantilya. This book deals with
legal issues and state craft.
Activity 1
You know the ancient story of Ramayana. List at least ten points about the
social life, tools and religious practices of the period it belongs to.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.

(a) Written records which include both religious and secular literature
are called ____________.
(b) The study of coins is called __________.
2. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(a) Archaeologists and historians study the remains of past civilizations.
(b) Vedas, the oldest recorded text of the Aryans, and the Buddhist texts
are oral sources, which tell us about the past.
1.3 Pre-Historic Paleolithic Cultures
Early man lived in agreement with the environment and his surroundings for
long. He used the material that could be obtained and handled conveniently to
prepare tools and weapons. He began using stone and later used metals to
prepare his tools and weapons. Civilization did not develop everywhere
simultaneously. The periods of its development differ from civilization to
civilization. In our country, it commenced long ago.
The Paleolithic Age is divided into three phases in accordance with the
type of stone tools used by the people and according to the nature of climatic
change. The different phases of the Paleolithic Age are classified as follows:
(i) Early or lower Paleolithic
(ii) Middle Paleolithic
(iii) Upper Paleolithic

The lower Paleolithic or the early Stone Age covers the greater part of
the Ice Age. The early Stone Age may have begun in Africa around two million
years ago, but in India it is not older than 600,000 years. The region of Bori in
Maharashtra is considered to be from this age and is said to be one of the
earliest. During this age, people used hand axes, cleavers and choppers. The
axes found in India are more or less similar to those of Western Asia, Europe
and Africa. Stone tools were used largely for chopping, digging and skinning.
When the climate became less humid, the people of the lower Stone Age
principally became food gatherers. They took to small game hunting and
consumed fish and birds. The early or lower Stone Age in India may be associated
with the Homo sapiens (i.e., scientific name of man). Early Stone Age sites
have been found in the valley of river Son or Sohan in Punjab, now in Pakistan.
Several sites found in Kashmir, the Thar desert and the Belan valley also show
features of the lower Paleolithic Age.
The middle Paleolithic industries show the basic technological features
common to the Mousterian (tool culture) of Western and Central Asia. The tools
are generally small, light and based upon flakes struck from cores which, in
some cases, are carefully shaped. These flakes were transformed into finished
tools. There was also a marked change in the choice of raw material. Silica and
minerals, chiefly chert, agate, jasper and chalcedony, became the most common
media of working in most parts of the country. These enabled the middle
Paleolithic man to prepare beautiful tools with better edges. In some regions,
particularly, Chennai, the Deccan and Kutch, the material employed by the lower
Paleolithic groups continued to be used during the middle Paleolithic Age. In
such cases, the material seemed to be finly grained and carefully selected.
The Upper Paleolithic or the Late Stone Age is the third and last
subdivision of the Palaeolithic age (40,000 to 10,000BC). It is said to coincide
with the appearance of behavioural modernity (a time when Homo sapiens began
to rely on symbols to express cultural creativity). This period was marked by the
appearance of many new flint industries and several figurines and other artefacts
reflecting art and rituals. It was also marked by the appearance of a wide range
of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons and blades.
1.3.1 Characteristics of the Paleolithic Age

Life of the Paleolithic man or Homo habilis was hard. Homo habilis was a food
gatherer and depended entirely on nature for food. He ate fruits, roots, nuts,
flesh of animals and even insects. He did not have a fixed place to stay. He
wandered like a nomad from place to place. He lived in caves and hollows of

trees to protect himself from wild animals and harsh climate. He used animal
skins or the bark of trees and leaves to cover his body.
Tools
The tools used by man during the Paleolithic Age were pebble tools, which
were quite crude. He made tools using flint, a kind of stone that chips easily.
The tools of this age can be divided into two categories: core tools and flake
implements.
Core tools were made by chipping and shaping large stones. They were
usually pear shaped with sharp edges, like hand axes, which were held in the
hand and used to cut trees, dig the earth and shape sticks. Some of these have
been found in South India. Flake implements were tools made from smaller
pieces of stone and were used as choppers and cleavers to chop meat and skin
animals.
1.3.2 Discovery of Fire

Early man feared fire that broke out in the forests due to lightning. Later, he
discovered how to produce fire himself. The discovery of fire was probably
accidental. Perhaps, one day, he picked up pieces of flint to chip and shape
them into tools. He was fascinated by the sparks made by striking two pieces of
flint against each other. He repeated his action and perhaps some dry leaves
caught fire. In this way, one of the greatest discoveries of mankind was made.
Homo Sapiens Rubbed Two Stones Together to Make Fire

Once humans had discovered how to make fire, they began to use it for various
purposes, listed as follows:
• To frighten off wild animals, they kept fire burning at the mouths of the
caves at night and slept inside in comfort.

• They used it to keep themselves warm in winter.

• They used fire to cook the flesh of animals. They found that cooked food
was easy to chew and digest.
• By the light of fire, they could work inside the caves at night.
Tools of the Palaeolithic Age
Activity 2
Imagine early man with no knowledge of fire or its uses. How would this
have affected the life and progress of early man?

(a) The Paleolithic Age is divided into five phases.
(b) Middle Paleolithic industries show the basic technological features
common to the Mousterian industry (tool culture) of Western and
Central Asia.
(a) The lower Paleolithic or the early Stone Age covers the greater part
of the _______.
(b) _________ were made by chipping and shaping large stones.

1.4 The Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Cultures
In 9000BC began an intermediate stage in Stone Age culture, which is called the
Mesolithic Age. The Mesolithic people survived by hunting, fishing and food
gathering; however, at a later stage, they also domesticated animals. The first
three occupations were a continuation of the Paleolithic practice, whereas the
domestication of animals developed later in the Neolithic culture. Thus, the
Mesolithic Age marked a transitional phase in the mode of subsistence leading
to animal husbandry.
1.4.1 Characteristics of the Mesolithic Age

Mesolithic Age is characterized by microliths or tiny tools. It is believed that the
bow and arrow came into regular use with the introduction of microlithic
technology based on microblades which were produced by pressure techniques.
The fact that the people of the Mesolithic Age had a developed aesthic sense is
attested by the discoveries of a very large number of cave paintings across the
country. These paintings are a mine of information for the reconstruction of the
Mesolithic man’s way of life and contemporary environment.
In time, early man tried to find ways and means to make his life more
comfortable and secure and fulfill his basic requirements of food. During this
period, which is called the Mesolithic Age, he learnt to make more sophisticated
tools using bones and horns along with stone. Since these materials were more
flexible and lighter than stone, they could also make a larger variety of things
like bows and arrows and fishing hooks. Heavy tools gave way to smaller and
more refined ones like arrowheads and spearheads. For most of this period,
men continued to be food gatherers. It was probably towards the end of the
Mesolithic Age that they learnt about cultivation. Men observed that when seeds
fell on the ground and received water, they grew into plants that bore grains.
Thus, another means of getting food, besides hunting and gathering, was now
available to them, i.e., growing crops or agriculture.
1.4.2 The Neolithic Age

The period between 9000 and 3000BC saw remarkable technological progress
in Western Asia. Man developed the art of cultivation, weaving, pot making,
house building, writing, stock raising and the like. The Neolithic Age in the Indian
subcontinent began around the seventh Millennium BC. Some important crops
including wheat and barley came to be cultivated in the subcontinent, Villages
were established in this part of the world. All these were indicative of a

revolutionary change in the mode of subsistence. People no longer depended

on hunting, fishing and food gathering because cultivation and cattle husbandry
provided them with food. With new means of food and shelter, they were on the
threshold of cultivation.
Refined Tools
The Neolithic man began to make a variety of stone tools with the help of a
grindstone. They were sharper, well polished and had handles fixed to them. In
this period, man began to use tools made of basalt, which was harder and
stronger, and could be shaped and polished. Bones were also used to make
needles, blades and other tools. Because of this improved variety of tools, this
period is called the Neolithic Age or New Stone Age.
Tools Used in the Neolithic Age
Art
Early man also learnt to paint the walls of his cave dwellings with scenes showing
dancing figures and animals. In this way, art developed. For example, the
paintings in Bhimbetka Caves in Madhya Pradesh.
Pottery
When man became a food producer, he felt the need for containers to store the
surplus grain. Containers were also required to store milk and water and cook
food. At first, man wove baskets from wild grass and plastered it with wet clay.
But these were not good enough, as liquids could not be stored in them. Later,
man learnt to bake the pots over fire to make them waterproof.
Invention of the Wheel
One of the greatest inventions of Neolithic man was the invention of wheel.
Early man observed the way logs rolled easily. This must have given him the

idea of fitting wheels to his sledges and carts. The invention of the wheel made
travelling quicker and more comfortable. Apart from this, the wheel was used
for making pottery, spinning and weaving. Man began to use cotton and wool to
make clothes, along with animal skin, barks and leaves.
Religious Beliefs
The Neolithic man, like the Paleolithic man, was afraid of natural phenomena
like lightning, thunder, storms and forest fires which could do him immense
harm. So, he began to worship the forces of nature like the sun, rain, thunder
and fire to appease them.
When he took to cultivation, he came to regard soil too as the life-giver,
and thus began to worship earth. Some animals, like the cow, came to be
regarded as holy. Death was considered a journey from which one never returned.
Hence, the dead were buried and their belongings were placed in the grave or
in large vessels called urns. They also marked the burial places with huge blocks
of stones or megaliths.
5. Choose the right answer from the given options.

(a) In _________ BC began an intermediate stage in Stone Age culture,
which is called the Mesolithic Age.
(i) 3000 (ii) 5000
(iii) 6000 (iv) 9000
(b) The Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent began around the
________ Millennium BC.
(i) Second (ii) Third
(iii) Seventh (iv) Ninth
(a) Mesolithic Age is characterized by _________ or tiny tools.
(b) One of the greatest inventions of Neolithic man was the invention of
the _______.

1.5 Advent of Food Production
Vere Gordon Childe was an Australian archaeologist and philologist who

specialized in the study of European history. He termed the transition from hunting
and gathering of food to food production as Neolithic Revolution. It was held
some time back that the art of domestication of animals and food production
developed at one part of the world. Now, it has been proved on the basis of
archaeological finds that transition from food-gathering to the food-producing
economy came about independently at different periods in different parts of the
world. Handmade pottery was an essential evidence of food-producing
settlements.
The earliest evidence of food production in the Indian subcontinent is
found from the ceramics at Mehergarh in the Kachi plain on the Sind Baluchistan
border. Here has been traced a continuous progress of development of
agriculture and settled life, which around 3000BC,blossomed into the early stage
of the Indus civilization.
By the end of the Mesolithic Age, the living conditions of prehistoric man
had changed. No longer did he wander after herds of wild animals or look for
fruits to pick. Now, he entered the domain of cultivation. He realized that by
sowing seeds of wild cereal plants, such as rice and wheat, he could grow his
own food. Once he sowed the seeds, the plants had to be taken care of properly
before they produced crops. Hence, man had to give up his nomadic ways. He
started leading a settled life.
When men took to cultivation, they needed tools like axes to cut down
trees and shrubs, sickles to harvest crops and spades to dig the earth. The
Neolithic Age is the period when man used polished stone tools, cultivated plants,
domesticated animals and settled in villages. However, as the term Neolithic
age designates a stage of cultural development, it varies with geographic location.
In Southwest Asia, Neolithic cultures appeared soon after 10,000BC. Here, the
growing of plants and domestication of animals was probably started by the
Mesolithic Natufian people the later part of the Mesolithic Age. In South Asia
(Mehrgarh and Baluchistan), it is dated from about 7,000BC. Remains of food-
producing societies in Southeast Europe (Balkans, Aegean Sea region and
Italy) have been dated to around 6,500BC, while the Neolithic culture reached
Northwest Europe by around 4,500BC.
Agriculture brought about a great change in human society. For cultivation,
man needed water. So he began to settle near the banks of rivers and lakes, in

proper dwelling areas, instead of caves. He built mud houses with thatched
roofs. Gradually, a cluster of these houses developed into a village, and man
began living in a community.
Humans could now control their environment. They started growing wheat,
barley and rice. They gave up nomadic life and began to live a settled life to
produce crops. They began to settle where water was available, namely, on the
banks of rivers and lakes. So far, the wandering man had been living in caves.
The earliest man-made shelters were mud houses with thatched roofs.
A family group would construct a few houses close together, surrounded
by a common fence. Gradually, these family settlements grew into tribes and
villages. For a long time, villages developed only along river valleys. River water
was used for irrigation and domestic purposes. This was also the time when
men began to tame and domesticate animals. Dogs helped them to hunt, goats
gave milk and sheep gave meat and wool. Later, donkeys and oxen were used
to draw carts and plough fields.

(a) During the Neolithic Age, man used polished stone tools.
(b) In Southwest Asia, Neolithic cultures appeared before 10,000BC.
(a) ___________ was an essential evidence of food-producing
settlements.
(b) The earliest evidence of food production in the Indian subcontinent
is found from the ceramics at _________in Kachi plain.
1.6 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:

• There are two primary types of sources of history: literary and
archaeological.

• Literary sources refer to written accounts. Archaeological sources refer

to concrete objects from the past which have survived over the years.
These include ruins of buildings, bits of pottery, jewellery or pieces of
stone.
• The different phases of the Paleolithic Age are classified as follows:
(i) Early or lower Paleolithic
(ii) Middle Paleolithic
(iii) Upper Paleolithic
• The lower Paleolithic or the early Stone Age covers the greater part of the
Ice Age. During this age, people used hand axes, cleavers and choppers.
• Middle Paleolithic industries show that the basic technological features
were common to the Mousterian industry (tool culture) of Western and
Central Asia.
• The tools were generally small, light and based upon flakes struck from
cores which in some cases are carefully shaped and prepared in advance.
• An intermediate stage began in 9000BC in Stone Age culture, which is
called the Mesolithic Age. The Mesolithic people survived by hunting,
fishing and food gathering; however, at a later stage, they also
domesticated animals.
• The Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent began around the seventh
Millennium BC.
• Some important crops including wheat and barley came to be cultivated
in the subcontinent and villages were established in the Neolithic Age.
• People no longer depended on hunting, fishing and gathering because
cultivation and cattle husbandry provided them with food. With new means
of food and shelter, they were on the threshold of cultivation.
• The earliest evidence of food production in the Indian subcontinent is
found from ceramics at Mehergarh in the Kachi plain on the Sind
Baluchistan border.
• By the end of the Mesolithic Age, the living conditions of prehistoric man
had changed. No longer did he wander after herds of wild animals or look
for fruits to pick. Now, he entered the domain of cultivation.

1.7 Glossary
• Manuscripts: Written records, which include both religious and secular

literature
• Secular literature: Literature not connected with the religion of the times
• Palaeolithic Age: The Old Stone Age, when man was a nomadic hunter-
gatherer
• Mesolithic Age: The transitional age between the Palaeolithic and
Neolithic Ages when man began cultivation
• Microlithic technology: Technology based on tools made by microblades,
which were produced by pressure techniques used during the Mesolithic
Age
1. State the characteristic features of the Palaeolithic Age.

2. Analyse the achievements of man in the Mesolithic Age.
3. What were microliths? Explain their utility.
4. State the significance of the invention of the wheel.
5. Describe the tools used by Palaeolothic man.
6. Explain the transition of man from a food gatherer to a cultivator.
1.9 Answers
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
1. (a) Manuscripts; (b) Numismatics

2. (a) True; (b) False
3. (a) False; (b) True
4. (a) Ice Age; (b) Core tools

5. (a) (iv); (b) (iii)

6. (a) Microliths; (b) Wheel
8. (a) Handmade pottery; (b) Mehergarh
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 1.3.1

6. Refer to Section 1.5
1. Basham, A. L. 2004. The Wonder That Was India. London: Picador.

2. Possehl, G.L. 1981. Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective.
New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing.
3. Pusalkar, A.D. and R.C. Majumdar. 1951. History and Culture of the Indian
People. New York: Macmillan Co.

Unit 2 Indus Valley Civilization I

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization
2.3 Characteristic Features
2.4 Settlement Patterns and Town Planning
2.5 Religious Beliefs and Practices
2.6 Summary
2.7 Glossary
2.9 Answers
2.1 Introduction
In the preceding unit, you were introduced to the three divisions of the Stone
Age, that is, Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages. During these ages,
man used to make tools and weapons with stone. In the next stage of
development, man began to use metals. The earliest evidence of use of metals
is found at the sites of Indus Valley Civilization. It is also called the Harappan
Civilization as Harappa was the first site to be excavated. The sources of evidence
about this civilization are the artifacts, pottery, tools, ornaments and ruins of
towns. Some tablets and seals of this civilization have certain symbols engraved
on them. However, these symbols have not been deciphered till now. Therefore,
the main evidences of this civilization are archeological excavations. This unit
will introduce you to various facets of this civilization.
Objectives
• Describe the extent of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Explain the characteristic features of the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization

• Assess the settlement patterns and town planning of the people belonging
to the civilization
• Describe the religious beliefs and practices of the Indus Valley Civilization
2.2 Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization
Up to 1920, nothing was known about the Indus Valley Civilization. Construction
workers at a railway track near Harappa were using the bricks from a nearby
ruin, when it was realized that the bricks probably belonged to a very old
civilization. The railway authorities informed the Archaeological Survey of India.
In 1921, two archaeologists, Dayaram Sahani and Rakhaldas Bannerjee carried
out excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sind and at Harappa, which revealed that a
very advanced civilization far older and superior to the European had flourished
in India. This generated great enthusiasm, not only in India but in other countries
as well. Further excavations at Lothal, Ropar and Kalibangan revealed that the
Indus Valley Civilization flourished beyond the River Indus. The area that it
covered at that time was approximately 1.3 million square kilometres.
Figure 2.1 shows us some of the important sites of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It is estimated that the Indus Valley Civilization existed between
2500 and 1500BC almost at the same time as the Egyptian, Sumerian and
Chinese civilizations.
It is true that all the civilizations of the world have originated and developed
in the valleys of rivers. A common feature of all civilizations is the river, which
provided fertile soil for the civilizations to develop in its valley. When rivers flooded
the banks, the water left deposits of fine silt, which made it possible for farmers
to produce abundant crops. Floodwater was used to irrigate fields in the dry
season. Rivers provided humans with additional source of food in the form of
fish. Rivers also served as waterways for the transport of people and goods
from one place to another. The Sumerian, Babylonian and Asirian civilizations
developed on the banks of Dajla-Farat, the Egyptian civilization on the banks of
the river Nile and the Harappan civilization on the banks of the Indus.

Chanhu-Daro
Figure 2.1 Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that had

disappeared hundreds of years ago leaving its ruins. Maximum remains of the
Indus Valley Civilization have been found in the valley of river Indus, from where
the civilization derives its name. The city of Mohenjodaro was 640 km away
from Harappa. The term ‘Mohenjodaro’ means ‘the mound of the dead, which
was a local name of a high mountain located on the fields of Larkana. In the
context of the Indus Valley Civilization, author and historian Ramashankar Tripathi
states, ‘Till so far our way has been full of obstacles but now we can see the
horizons of the Indian Civilization.’ It has been established by the remains of the
Indus Valley Civilization that hundreds of years before the Aryans there was a
pre-established civilization in India.

2.2.1 Geographical Expansion of the Indus Valley Civilization

According to the Australian archaeologist and Bhilologist Vere Gordon Childe
‘The geographical area of the Indus Civilization was much more expanded than
the ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Persian Civilizations.’
The remains of the expansion of this Civilization have been found in the
North India from Ropar of Ambala district to Rangpur district in Kathiawad; from
Ahmednagar district in Maharasthra (in South India) to Ghazipur, Varanasi, Buxar
and Patna in the east. This proves that the Harappan Civilization was spread
across Punjab and Sindh, in the valleys of north-western frontiers mainly
Kathiawad, Rajasthan and Doab. Following are the chief towns of the Indus
Valley Civilization:
1. Baluchisthan: This region was important from the perspective of
trade and commerce. The main places that were extremely important
include Sukagendor (at the origin of river Dashak), Sotakakoh (at
the beginning of Shadi Kaur) and Balakot (in the east of Son Miyani
at the origin of river Vindar).
2. North-Western Border: Significant artefacts have been discovered
from this area in the Gomal valley.
3. Sindhu: Several remains have been found in the Sindhu region but
many sites have been destroyed on the banks of this river. Several
remains have been found at the sites of Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro,
Judeirjo-daro, Amri.
4. Western Punjab: This area has the most important Harappan site
which is located on river Ravi.
5. Eastern Punjab: An important site of this area is Ropar. In recent
excavations remains have been found in Sanghol.
6. Haryana: In Hisar and Banvali important remains of the Indus
Civilization have been found.
7. Doab of Ganga and Yamuna: The remains of Indus Valley
Civilization are spread across from Meerut to Aalamgir. Recently
remains have also been found at Hulas in Saharanpur.
8. Gujarat: There are several Indus Valley Civilization sites at the
peninsula of Kutch and Kathiawad and the mainlands of Gujarat.
Important sites at these perinsula are Sutkotada and Lothal,
respectively.

9. Other sites: Important remains have also been found at the sites of
Bahavalpur, Jammu and Northern Afghanistan.
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate terms.

(a) In 1921, two archaeologists–Dayaram Sahani and ___________
carried out excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sind and at Harappa.
(b) The term ‘Mohenjodaro’ means __________.
2. State whether true or false.
(a) It is estimated that the Indus Valley Civilization existed almost at the
same time as the Egyptian, Sumerian and Chinese civilizations.
(b) The city of Mohenjodaro was 40 km away from Harappa.
2.3 Characteristic Features
The cities belonging to Indus Valley Civilization were divided into lower town
area and citadel. Historians believe that there was some kind of difference
between people who lived in the lower town area and those who lived near the
citadel. Occupational groups lived in the lower town area and the nobility
comprising the king and his nobles lived in the citadel. Nevertheless, there must
have been some controlling authority, otherwise the uniformity of the town plan,
standardization of weights and measures, collection of taxes and grains would
have been impossible. You would probably get a better idea about the social
and political life of the Indus Valley Civilization once the script is deciphered.
2.3.1 Dress and Ornaments

The spindles found in the excavations reveal that the Indus Valley people knew
the art of spinning and weaving. They were perhaps the first people to cultivate
cotton to make clothes. Besides cotton, they wore woollen clothes. Men wore a
piece of cloth round their waists and a shawl over their shoulders, while women
wore a skirt and do not seem to have worn blouses. Archaeologists have
unearthed an idol of a man covered with a shawl (see Figure 2.2). The shawl
was tied under the right arm and went across the left shoulder, which left the
right hand free. A cloth similar to the dhoti worn in rural India was worn at the
bottom.

The discovery of needles at the excavation site points towards the fact
that the people of this civilization were familiar with sewing. Both men and women
wore ornaments. These were made of metal, bone, shell and beads. The Indus
people loved ornaments. The chief ornaments worn by women included
necklaces, armlets, bangles, earrings, nose-rings, rings and waistlets.
Figure 2.2 Man Covered with a Shawl
The ornaments of rich people were made of gold, silver and precious
stones whereas the ornaments of poor people were made of bones, copper
and baked clay. Sir John Hubert Marshall who was the Director General of
Archaeology in India in 1902 stated, ‘seeing the shine and design of gold
ornaments it seems that they are brought from an ornament shop of Bond
Street (London) and not from a pre-historical house of five thousand years ago.’
Figure 2.3 illustrates a bronze dancing girl.
Figure 2.3 Bronze Idol of Dancing Girl

2.3.2 Farming and Cattle Rearing

Agriculture was the chief occupation of the people. The climate and seasons
were conducive for farming and annual flooding of the rivers made the land
fertile. This facilitated the growth of crops. The chief crops were wheat, barley,
cotton, maize and millet. They also grew fruits and vegetables. Different methods
of irrigation were in use. Channels and embankments were also built to control
the flow of water into the fields. Ploughs and sickles were commonly used
agricultural tools.
Animal husbandry was also practised, and oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep,
pigs, donkeys and camels were reared. The horse, however, was unknown.
The chief occupation of the Indus people was agriculture. Crops such as
wheat, barley, corn and cotton, were cultivated here. According to Dr Basham,
the people did not know how to cultivate rice but the remains of rice at Lothal
and Rangpur have proved this conception wrong. Similarly Dr Lal has said that
the cultivation of cotton was the specialty of Indus people. Grinding machines
of wheat, barley and crushing machines and storehouses reflect their proficiency
in agriculture. Adequate irrigation facilities were developed for agriculture.
Domestication of animals
Agriculture being the chief occupation the Indus people used to domesticate
buffaloes, cows, sheep, pigs, dogs, oxen, etc. The people also earned their
living by domestication of animals, which were also helpful in agriculture.
2.3.3 Pottery and Trade

Next to agriculture, pottery seems to have been the most popular industry of
the people. They were skilled in the use of the potter’s wheel. Reddish-brown
clay was baked, glazed and decorated with various designs in black. Some
broken bits of pottery found in the excavation sites have geometric designs and
animal motifs. They speak of the excellent craftsmanship and artistic skills of
the Harappan people.
Trade, both by land and by sea, thrived in the Harappan society. A number
of seals of Indus origin have been found at various sites in Mesopotamia (Sumer).
This indicates that trade flourished between the two civilizations. In order to
measure articles, they used a stick with markings on it. They also used various
kinds of weights and measures. Figure 2.4 shows samples of the ornaments,
pottery and seals prevalent during the Indus Valley Civilization.

More than 2000 seals have been found at various sites. The seals were
made of terracotta and steatite, a soft stone. Most of the seals are rectangular
but some are circular in shape. Some of them have a knob at the back, which
contains a hole. It is believed that different guilds or individual merchants and
traders used these seals for stamping their consignments. They have a carved
picture with some inscription on the other side. These seals throw light on the
religion, customs and economic activities of the society. The animal shown in
the seal may be a sacred bull. Small-scale industries were also chief sources of
living.
Figure 2.4 Indus Ornaments, Pottery and Seal
Carpenters, potters, weavers, goldsmiths, connoisseurs, sculptors, etc.,

constitute the different professions of the time. Potters made a good living by
making earthen toys. The Indus Valley Civilization’s economy appears to have
depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in
transport by bullock-driven carts as well as boats. Most of these boats were
probably small and had flat-bottoms, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those
one can see on the Indus River today. Archaeologists have discovered a big
canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. The artefacts of this
civilization found at the sites of other ancient civilizations suggest trade links
with portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, Northern and Central
India, and Mesopotamia.
2.3.4 Social Life in Indus Civilization

On the basis of things found during excavation, it can be said that social
conditions during the Indus Valley civilization were excellent. The people of this
civilization were resourceful and affluent. Following are certain characteristics
of the people belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization:
1. Social organization: The social organization of the people was divided
chiefly into four sections. The first section consisted of the intellectuals,

brahmins, astrologers and doctors. The second section included warriors

or soldiers. Industrialists, traders, sculptors and artists belonged to the
third section. The fourth section comprised labourers, farmers, servants,
etc. The society was matriarchal, and the people of this civilization led a
comfortable and prosperous life.
2. Food: Chief food items included wheat, barley, meat, rice, peas, milk,
vegetables and fruits. People were vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian.
3. Cosmetics: Both men and women had great interest in cosmetics. Women
used to apply lipstick, perfumes, soot, powder, etc., and made different
kinds of buns and plaits. Men preferred to keep their hair long and were
clean shaven. Combs and dressing boxes were made of elephant’s tusk
and brass. The amount of goods and services common man used here
seem to be better than the other places of the contemporary civilized world.
4. Sources of entertainment: This civilization had developed several
sources of entertainment. Chess was the favourite game of its citizens.
Discovery of rattles, whistles, sound-creating elephant and clay toys points
towards the presence of several varieties of toys. Hunting, cock fighting
and music were the chief sources of entertainment. The citizens took
special care in the physical development and entertainment of their
children.
7. Scientific knowledge: The citizens used a script, which was primarily
pictorial. Unfortunately, it could not be deciphered. Stone weights were
usually of hexagonal shape but the heavier ones were spherical and sharp.
After examining the authenticity of weights and measures, it can be
concluded that the citizens were familiar with algebra, the decimal system
and geometry.
8. Medicine: Indus people had a knowledge of medicinal plants and they
used natural medicinal plants for treating human diseases. The evidences
of surgery have also been found.
9. Tools of household: Several earthen pots, knives, chisels, axes, pitchers,
plates and glasses have been found from the excavation sites. Pots were
beautified by ornamentation.
10. Last rites: Evidences show that three techniques were used to perform
the last rites for the dead. These are as follows:
(i) Absolute meditation: As per this technique, the dead were buried
in the earth.

(ii) Partial meditation: As per this technique, the dead bodies were left
in open so that they became food for birds and animals. The leftovers
were then buried.
(iii) Cremation: In this technique, the dead bodies were burnt and the
ashes were collected in pots and buried.
Activity 1
Excavations at Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, unearthed a multi-
divisional cityscape of the Harappans, remarkable for its town planning.
Study and analyse these findings at http://www.harappa.com.
3. Choose the right answer from the given options.

(a) _________ was the chief occupation of the Indus Valley people.
(i) Trade (ii) Agriculture
(iii) Cattle rearing (iv) Pottery
(b) A number of seals of the Indus origin have been found at various
sites in _________.
(i) Mesopotamia (ii) Bangladesh
(iii) China (iv) Russia
(a) Next to agriculture, pottery seems to have been the most popular
industry of the Indus Valley people.
(b) Evidences show that the Indus Valley people did not perform the
last rituals.
2.4 Settlement Patterns and Town Planning
One of the most remarkable features of the Indus Valley Civilization was
meticulous town planning. This is especially evident in the city of Mohenjodaro.

2.4.1 Architecture in the Indus Valley Civilization

Evidence of town management of this time is found from the remains of Harappa,
Mohenjodaro, Kalibanga, Lothal, etc. Towns were so well managed and
organized that it is still a matter of wonder. The roads were very broad. The
drainage system was very fine. Figure 2.5 illustrates the citadel, the Great Bath
and the city of Mohenjadaro. The remains of Mohenjodaro are proof of the
unparalleled art of the ancient cities, their cleanliness and construction. It is
quite clear from studies that cleanliness was given a lot of importance.
The citadel in The Great Bath, Mohenjodaro A bird’s eye view of

Mohenjodaro Mohenjodaro
Figure 2.5 Mohenjodaro
The shape of the city was rectangular. The roads cut each other at right
angles and divided the city into large blocks. Within each block, there was a
network of narrow lanes. The drainage system was magnificent and lights were
arranged on roads. It seems that the town planning was the work of efficient
engineers.
Art of Making Buildings
The houses, built of burnt bricks, were constructed on both sides of the roads.
There were covered drains along the roads, in which sewage from the houses
flowed. Some houses had only one or two rooms while others had several,
indicating different living quarters for the rich and the poor. The Indus people
were excellent constructors. There are other things related to architecture and
idol making, which are living examples of their efficiency. The interiors of these
buildings prove that the Indus people were definitely aesthatically inclined. Of
all the remains of the Indus Civilization, the best is the Great Bath. Its walls are
cemented. There are stairs on the corners. In order to keep the water safe and
the foundations strong, the masons worked cleverly. The system of filling and
emptying the water tank was no doubt extraordinary. There was also a system
for hot water, which was probably used by the priests. The biggest proof of the
durability of the bath is that it was constructed in 5000BC and is till today totally
intact.
2.4.2 Town Planning

Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal that all these cities were
similarly planned. They were divided into two parts—a raised area with large
buildings called the citadel at the western end and a lower town. The roads ran
at right angles, bringing out the grid pattern of the township. The citadel was
built on a raised platform, constructed with bricks and stones, about 12 metre
high and rectangular in shape, and surrounded by a huge brick wall with
watchtowers. This protected the buildings and the people from the recurrent
flooding of the river Indus. The citadel was probably the seat of the government
and overlooked the lower town. The ruler or the administrator lived here along
with the nobles. It also had public buildings such as the granaries, the assembly
or town hall and important workshops. At Mohenjodaro, which means ‘mound
of the dead’ in Sindhi, the most remarkable feature was the Great Bath. It was
situated within the citadel. It resembled a large swimming pool measuring 55 by
33 metres. A flight of steps led down to the pool at two ends. Broad corridors on
four sides with a number of rooms surrounded the pool. It is the finest specimen
of the engineering skill of the Harappan people.
In Harappa, archaeologists found the Great Granary located in the citadel.
It measured 61.5 by 15.5 metres and consisted of two similar blocks with a wide
passageway between them. Each block had six halls further divided into smaller
rooms and compartments with openings for ventilation. The largest granary
was found in Mohenjodaro. Close to the granaries at Harappa, circular brick
platforms have been found. According to archaeologists, these were used for
threshing grain. Grain was brought by boats along the rivers. The grain collected
as tax was safely stored to be used in times of crises like floods or famine. The
granaries prove that the land was fertile.
Town hall
A huge structure almost 70 metres long and over 23 metres wide with walls
about 1.5 metres thick has been excavated in Mohenjodaro. It has twenty pillars
made of burnt bricks, arranged in four rows of five each. Archaeologists believe
that this great hall may have been used as an assembly hall, a prayer hall or as
a hall for cultural shows.
Residential area and houses
Below the citadel was the residential area of the town where the merchants,
artisans and craftsmen lived. The whole area was divided into blocks by wide
roads, which formed a grid. Sun-dried and baked bricks were used for
construction of houses. They were single or double storeyed. All houses had a

courtyard around which there were rooms. Every house had a well and a hearth
for cooking. The main entrances opened onto the lanes or side alleys instead of
the main street in order to keep out dust and to ensure privacy. Within the
houses, the rooms were built around a central courtyard. Some houses also
had wells to supply water. Several pukka-kutcha and big-small buildings have
been found during the excavations of the remains. Houses were well ventilated.
The roofs of the houses were flat and made of wood. Each house had its own
bathroom with drains, which were connected to the drains in the street.
Streets
The streets and lanes ran straight from north to south and east to west, cutting
each other at right angles. They were 4 to 10 metres wide. Roads were paved
and suitable for movement of bullock carts. Ruins of lamp posts suggest that
there were street lights. Dustbins were provided at regular intervals to keep the
roads clean.
Drainage system
Another striking feature of the Indus towns was their drainage system. It was
the best drainage system known to the world in ancient times. Drains were
constructed on either side of the roads connected to a drain from each house.
They were lined with bricks and were covered with slabs of stone, which could
be removed in order to clean them. This shows that the dwellers had great
concern for health and sanitation.
5. Match the following:

(a) Mohenjodaro (i) Baked bricks
(b) Harappa (ii) Great Granary
(c) Houses (iii) Great Bath
6. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
(a) The grain collected as tax was safely stored, to be used in times of
crises like __________.
(b) The _______ was probably the seat of the government and
overlooked the lower town.

2.5 Religious Beliefs and Practices
No temples or shrines of the Harappan Civilization have been found. Our

knowledge of the religious beliefs of the Harappans is based on the information
derived from the seals and the terracotta and bronze figures. Seals engraved
with the figures of animals like the humped bull, elephant and rhinoceros suggest
that these animals were probably considered sacred. The image of a three-
headed male God sitting cross-legged and surrounded by animals, like the lion,
the rhinoceros, the buffalo and the elephant with two deer under his seat is
found on many seals. There is evidence that the peepul tree and the serpent were
also worshipped. The terracotta figure of a female deity has been identified as
that of the Mother Goddess who represented fertility and prosperity. Some statues
also bear soot marks at the base, indicating that incense was burnt as a part of
the ritual. These evidences show that Harappan people worshipped images.
Like their contemporaries—the Mesopotamian and Egyptian people—the
people of the Indus Valley used a script, which consisted of picture-like signs
called pictographs. Each sign stood for a specific sound or idea. Examples of
this script are found on the seals, most of which bear an inscription. Figure 2.6
shows the idol of the Mother Goddess.
Figure 2.6 Mother Goddess

Although the Indus Valley Civilization has declined and disappeared, its
influence on the Indian culture remains. The worship of the Mother Goddess in
image form as the symbol of female power or shakti was introduced in the Later
Vedic Age. The bullock carts still seen in Indian villages today are similar to the
carts of the Harappan cities. The realistic carving of animals on the seals can
also be seen on Ashoka’s Lion Capital at Sarnath.
The religious knowledge of the people of the Indus is based on the findings
of seals, inscriptions on copper plate, idols, etc. We do not have any knowledge
of their philosophy due to lack of clear and readable written material. According
to most historians, the Mother Goddess and Lord Shiva were the most important
deities. The primary features of their religion are as follows:
• The worship of mother goddess: Mother Goddess or Nature
Goddess was the main religious deity of the time. In one of the idols,
a plant is seen coming from a woman’s abdomen and, in another, a
woman is sitting with legs crossed. Sacrifices were also in vogue to
please the Mother Goddess.
• The worship of Lord Shiva: The tradition of praying to Lord Shiva
was also much prevalent. In one of the seals, a yogi is surrounded by
animals and has three faces with a crown of two horns. This image is
considered to be that of Lord Shiva. Historians accept Shaivism as
the oldest religion after finding its origin in the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The worship of the womb: Along with the worship of Shiva, the
worship of the lingas or the womb was also in practice. Several rings
have been found during excavations, which were made of shell, stone,
clay, etc. Structures in the shape of female organs of reproduction
have been found from the Indus area as well as Baluchistan.
• The worship of trees or nature: Coins reveal that worship of trees
was also in practice. It had two forms–(i) worshipping trees in their
natural form (ii) worshipping trees in the symbolic form, i.e., worshipping
trees while considering them to be a place of residence of God. The
Banyan tree was considered to be a sacred tree by the people of the
Indus Valley Civilization.
• The worship of animals: Animal worship was a popular practice of
the Indus people. They considered the ox, bull, snake, sheep, buffalo
and lion as holy animals.
• Other traditions: There are evidences, which prove the worship of
rivers and the sun. Idol worship was practised but historians have

differences with regard to the existence of temples. Most probably

prayers were offered at sites consisting of pillars and the sign of the
swastik. From the discovery of an idol depicting a naked woman, it is
assumed that the devadasi system was in practice.
The religious beliefs of the Indus civilization had a lot in common with
modern Hinduism. This proves that the Hindu religion is very ancient and is till
today practised with little changes. The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the
oldest civilizations of the world. Its affinity to peace is till today the central
character of our culture. The idol worship practice of is the gift of this civilization
only. It is believed that people of this civilization were happier than those of
other civilizations. The tradition of Indian culture which was started by the Indus
Valley civilization is till today constantly flowing. Indian culture is indebted to the
Indus Civilization especially in the field of religion and art.
Activity 2
Lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. It
was an important trading centre. A dockyard found at Lothal testifies to the
fact that it played an important role in overseas trade as well. Collect
information on the significance of Lothal as a trading site of the Indus Valley
Civilization from the material available over the Internet.
7. State whether true or false:

(a) The religious beliefs of the Indus civilization had nothing in common
with modern Hinduism.
(b) No temples or shrines of the Harappan Civilization have been found.
(a) There is evidence that the ________ tree and the serpent were also
worshipped by the Indus Valley people.
(b) The terracotta figure of a female deity has been identified as that of
the __________ who represented fertility and prosperity.

2.6 Summary

• The Indus Valley Civilization also called Harappan Civilization, flourished
from about 3,000BC to 1,500BC.
• Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal and Ropar were some of the important
sites of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• In 1921, two archaeologists, Dayaram Sahani and Rakhaldas Bannerjee
carried out excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sind and Harappa, which
revealed that a very advanced civilization far older and superior to the
European had flourished in India.
• Maximum remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found in the
valley of the river Indus, from where the civilization derives its name.
• The Harappan Civilization was spread across Punjab and Sindh, in the
valleys of North-western frontiers mainly Kathiawad, Rajasthan and Doab.
• The spindles found in the excavations reveal that the Indus Valley people
knew the art of spinning and weaving. They were perhaps the first people
to cultivate cotton. They wore cotton and woollen clothes.
• Agriculture being the chief occupation, the Indus people used to
domesticate buffaloes, cows, sheep, pigs, dogs, oxen, etc. The people
also earned their living by domestication of animals, which were also helpful
in agriculture.
• Next to agriculture, pottery seems to have been the most popular industry
of the people. They were skilled in the use of the potter’s wheel.
• The shape of the city was rectangular. The roads crossed each other at
right angles and divided the city into large blocks. Within each block,
there was a network of narrow lanes.
• At Mohenjodaro, which means ‘mound of the dead’ in Sindhi, the most
remarkable feature was the Great Bath. It was situated within the citadel.
It resembled a large swimming pool measuring 55 by 33 metres.
• Like their contemporaries, the Mesopotamian and Egyptian people, the
people of the Indus Valley used a script, which consisted of picture-like
signs called pictographs. Each sign stood for a specific sound or idea.

• Although the Indus Valley Civilization declined and disappeared, its

influence on the Indian culture remains.
• The worship of the Mother Goddess in image form as the symbol of female
power or shakti was introduced in the Later Vedic Age.
2.7 Glossary
• Citadel: A raised part of a city surrounded by walls for protection

• Granary: An area for storage of grains
• Seal: An engraved piece of metal used as a stamp for identification
• Pictograph: A picture representing a word or phrase
1. Discuss the extent of the Indus Valley Civilization.

2. Describe the dress and ornaments used by the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
3. What were the trade practices that were prevalent during the Indus Valley
Civilization?
4. What were the chief sources of entertainment of the Indus Valley people?
5. Write a note on the settlement patterns and town planning of the Indus
Valley people.
6. Explain the religious beliefs and practices of the Indus Valley people.
2.9 Answers
1. (a) Rakhaldas Bannerjee; (b) ‘the mound of the dead’

3. (a) (ii); (b) (i)

5. (a) (iii); (b) (ii); (c) (i)

6. (a) Floods and famine; (b) Citadel
8. (a) Peepul; (b) Mother Goddess
1. Kosambi, D.D.1996. An Introduction to the study of Indian History. Mumbai:

Popular Prakashan Private Limited.
2. Mahajan, V.D. 2010. Ancient India. New Delhi: S.Chand & Company Ltd.
3. Majumdar, R.C. 1971. The History and Culture of the Indian People,
Volume I. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
4. Sastri, K.A.N. 1988. Age of Nandas and Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidas.
5. Sharma, R.S. 1995. Perspectives in Social and Economical History of
Early India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
6. Thapar, Romila.1997. Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. USA: Oxford
University Press.

Unit 3 Indus Valley Civilization II: Art, Decline

and Post-Harappan Traditions
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Art
3.3 Urban Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
3.4 Post-Harappan Traditions
3.5 Summary
3.6 Glossary
3.8 Answers
3.9 Further Reading
3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you were acquainted with the extent, characteristics,
settlement patterns and the social and religious practices prevalent during the
Indus Valley Civilization. The town planning, architecture, art and craft of this
civilization exhibit striking features. Various idols, seals, pottery, jewelry pieces,
etc. have been found at excavation sites. A harp-like instrument depicted on a
seal and two shell objects found at lothal indicate the use of stringed musical
instruments. Other arts such as textile designing, pottery and metullurgy were
well advanced. This highly developed civilization collapsed mysteriously. In this
unit, you will be introduced to the artistic aspects of the Civilization. You will
realize that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization were great artisans and
excelled in craftsmanship. Further, you will learn about the causes of the decline
of the civilization and the traditions that flourished in the post-Harappan era.
Objectives
• Explore the artistic aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Explain the possible reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Describe the post-Harappan traditions

3.2 Art
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were art lovers and capable of making
beautiful and attractive idols. Certain aspects of the art forms during the Indus
Valley Civilization are as follows:
• Proficiency in constructing buildings: The people of the Indus Valley
Civilization were proficient in constructing buildings. Big buildings and
good bathrooms prove their mastery in this art.
• Proficiency in idol making: The idols of this time are of very good quality.
These idols are very imaginative and artistic. The artists paid great attention
to detailing to achieve the right facial expressions on their idols. The idol
of the Tribhangi dancer is an excellent example. The metal idols were
made by melting and moulding metals.
• Proficiency in seal making: Seals were prepared from different kinds of
stones, metals, clay and ivory. The seals were mainly square, rectangular
or circular in shape. To increase the beauty of the coins, shapes of animals
were made on them. People had acquired great proficiency in this field.
• Art of writing: The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were familiar
with the art of writing. Their script was symbolic in character. They wrote
from right to left. Though the language is not decipherable, the seals tell
us that the text used was brief and short.
Figure 3.1 An Indus Valley Pictograph Appears on this Seal

• Dance and music: It is known from seals and other things that the Indus
Valley people were familiar with dance and music. A copper idol has been
found in which a lady in a dancing pose is standing on her right leg.
• Other art forms: The Indus Valley people were familiar with the art of
metallurgy, drawing, pot making and manufacturing statues.
Textile workers were also considered as craftsmen. The Indus Valley
Civilization was one of the first in the world to cultivate cotton and weave
it into cloth. The textile workers of Harappa were believed to have woven
cloth by hand interlacing two or more sets of strands. They did not use
looms. Instead spindles made of terracotta were used. Remnants of dye
vats have been found at some Indus sites, and it is believed that these were
used to dye cotton cloth. Cotton cloth was also an important trade item.
Not only metallurgists but even stoneworkers made sharp-edged tools.
A parallel-sided chert flake was supposed to have been used as a blade.
Stone was used to make statues. The sculpture of a bearded man that
was found at one of the sites is proof of the existence of skilled scultptors.
Activity 1
Out of the various artifacts recovered from the Indus Valley excavation
sites, the most impressive is the figure of a dancing girl reflecting
considerable creativity and casting skill. Obtain information on the figure
and what it tells you about the people of the civilization.

(a) The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were proficient in
constructing buildings.
(b) Seals were prepared from different kinds of jewels.
(a) Seals (i) A lady in a dancing pose
(b) Copper idol (ii) Chert flake
(c) Blade (iii) Rectangular and circular in shape

3.3 Urban Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
Like other unanswered questions about the Indus Valley Civilization, the question
of its devastation, of how, when, and why it disappeared, is unanswered. Many
historians have given their own opinion. Seven layers have been found during
excavations at different sites, which inform us that the Indus Valley Civilization
would have been established and devastated a number of times. The chief
reason being the floods in the Indus river. The Indus time and again changed its
normal course, which was a frequent cause of devastation.
Another opinion regarding the decline of the Indus Valley civilization is
geographical in nature including scarcity of rainfall, change in the course of the
river, drought and earthquake, which may have devastated this developed
civilization. In the opinion of a few scholars, this civilization was devastated due
to the attack of the Aryans. Religious books clarify that there is mention of forts
and towns of non-Aryans in the Rigveda which were probably ravaged in these
attacks. The use of horses and chariots made these attacks successful. However,
it has not been completely clarified as to how this civilization met its end.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished for about 1000 years with very few
changes in lifestyle, customs and habits. Though this civilization began to decline
by 1500BC, the exact causes of the decline are not known. However, historians
have made various suggestions based on evidence, and they can be summed
up as follows:
• The most commonly accepted theory is that natural calamities like
earthquakes and floods or change in the course of the river Indus may
have destroyed the cities or led to mass migration.
• Some historians are of the opinion that epidemics or fire destroyed
the cities.
• Others believe that foreign invasions (probably of the Aryans) led to
its decline.
• Yet another theory is that ecological changes due to deforestation led
to the land becoming dry and uninhabitable.


(a) The flood in the river Indus was a common frequent cause of
devastation of the Indus Valley.
(b) Some historians are of the opinion that epidemics or fire destroyed
the cities of Indus Valley Civilization.
(a) The Indus Valley Civilization began to decline by _________.
(b) There is mention of forts and towns of non-Aryans in the ________.
3.4 Post-Harappan Traditions
It is believed that the decline of the urban society happened in many stages,
more than a century ago, or even earlier. The urban system may have broken
down between 2000 and 1750BC but this does not imply that the lifestyle of the
urban population all over the Indus region broke down completely. However,
the system of control, both social and political, that may have existed did end.
Urban traits such as usage of seals, writing and other specialized crafts seem
to have vanished from the urban areas. This era was referred to as the post-
urban era. The period that followed and lasted till about 750BC was known as
the post-Harappan era.
In the Saraswati valley, the representative of the post-Harappan era is the
pottery from the Cemetery H at Harappa. At the same time, there is proof of a
marked reduction in the number and size of settlements. This suggested that
there was definitely some environmental deterioration. In the eastern Punjab
region also, while disappearance of bigger urban sites was noticed, there was
not a complete decrease in the number of smaller settlements. These same
points were suggested in the settlements in the Ganga-Yamuna valleys more
towards the east. Therefore, it was concluded that in the post-urban period,
regional variations developed in material culture. Some of the traits characteristic
of pre-urban and urban phases continued in some parts.
Aryans
The Aryans initially settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region that covered Punjab,
Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Gandhara (Kandhar). A study of the Vedas and the

Epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) can tell you a lot about how tall and good
looking they were with long limbs and fair skin and how they expanded. They
took approx 1000 years to establish control over all of North India. It was only
after this long period that they approached the south. The Ramayana tells the
stories of how the Aryans expanded to the south. Lord Rama, God-like and
extremely good, was the Aryan king who killed Ravana. While the Aryans were
all ‘aryaputras’ or the sons of Aryans, the natives of the south were referred to
as Dasyus.
People who spoke old Indo-Aryan dialects of the Indo-Iran branch of
the Indo-European language family, arrived during the late third and second
millennia BC. These people probably came from the steppes to the North and
East of the Caspian Sea. They first moved to the southern areas of Central Asia
before spreading out across the Iranian plateau. This movement may have
begun during the Indus Valley Civilization itself. Some historians believe that,
between 2000 and 1500BC, Indo-Aryan speakers continued to spread. As a
result they also entered India. They interacted culturally with the active population.
This led to the synthesis of a new culture which found mention in the later
hymns of the Rig Veda, which express Aryan ethnicity. Figure 3.2 illustrates the
route of Aryan advent.
Figure 3.2 The Route of Aryan Advent
Political system
Initially, the Aryans stayed together in small village settlements. Their political
and social structure was based on the clan or ‘kula’ system. These settlements
later grew to become kingdoms. Their society followed the patriarchal pattern,

which was not surprising considering their militant nature. A village or ‘gram’
was formed by grouping together a few ‘kulas’.
The head of the kula was the ‘gramina’. In some places, instead of ‘kulas’
there were similar political units called ‘visyas’ headed by ‘visypatis’. A few ‘visyas’
together formed a ‘jana’ which was ruled by a Rajana or king. The exact
relationship between the ‘grama’, the ‘visya’ and the jana is still not very clearly
understood.
The king
Although the King was considered the head and was treated and respected as
any monarch should be, he could not rule according to his whims and fancies.
He had to work as a team with his people. His court had several officials. His
chief queen or Mahishi was also a part of the process of decision making. The
king was further assisted by the ‘sabha’ and the ‘samiti’. The Samiti was much
like the lower house of our Lok Sabha with members who were representatives
of the people while the Sabha was a permanent body of chosen men.
The pattern of rule was democratic and quite proper. However, this did
not last. Janas were overpowered by one another, and there were mergers.
With time, they formed kingdoms ruled by the King who soon became all powerful
and despotic. Women continued to enjoy respect and were given the freedom
to voice their opinion and exert their influence. However, by the time of the
Mahabharata, they had lost most of this power and came to be considered as
property owned by men. What better proof than the gambling away of his wife,
Draupadi, by King Yudhishthira in the epic Mahabharata!
Activity 2
Make a comparative report on Harappan and post-Harappan traditions.
You can use the Internet for information.

(a) In the Saraswati valley, the post-Harappan era is represented by the
pottery from the _____________ at Harappa.
(b) Initially, the Aryans stayed together in small _________ settlements.


(a) The Aryans initially settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region.
(b) Lord Rama, God-like and extremely good, was the Aryan who killed
Ravana.
3.5 Summary

• The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were art lovers and were capable
of making beautiful and attractive idols. The artists worked on great
detailing to achieve the right facial expressions of the idols. The idol of
the Tribhangi dancer is an excellent example.
• Seals were prepared from different kinds of stones, metals, clay and ivory.
• The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were familiar with the art of
writing. Their script was symbolic in character.
• The Indus Valley people were familiar with the art of metallurgy, drawing,
pot making and manufacturing statues.
• The Indus Valley Civilization flourished for about 1000 years with very
few changes in lifestyle, customs and habits. Though this civilization began
to decline by 1500BC, the exact causes of the decline are not known. The
most commonly accepted theory is that natural calamities like earthquakes
and floods or changes in the course of the river Indus may have destroyed
the cities or led to mass migration.
• In the Saraswati valley, the representative of the post-Harappan era is
the pottery from the Cemetery H at Harappa.
• The Aryans initially settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region that covered Punjab,
Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Gandhara (Kandhar). The Aryans probably
came from the steppes to the North and East of the Caspian Sea.

3.6 Glossary
• Post-Harappan era: The period that followed after the decline of the
Indus Valley Civilization and lasted till 750BC
• Cemetery H culture: The culture named after the discovery of a large
cemetery filled with painted burial urns of the late Harappan period
• Dasyus: The title given to the natives of the south after the Aryan invasion
1. ‘The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were art lovers’. Discuss.
2. What were the seals of Indus Valley Civilization made of?
3. What were the causes for the decline of the Indus Valley civilization?
4. Describe the political and social structure of the Aryans.
5. Describe the period that followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
6. Write a note on post-Harappan traditions.
3.8 Answers

2. (a) iii; (b) i; (c) ii
3. (a) True; (b) True
4. (a) 1500BC; (b) Rigveda
5. (a) Cemetery H; (b) Village


3.9 Further Reading
1. B.N.Mukherjee.1988. The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire. Colombo:

South Asia Books.
2. Kosambi, D.D.1996. An Introduction to the study of Indian History. Mumbai:
Popular Prakashan Private Limited.
4. Ray Chaudhari, H.C. (re. ed.) by B.N. Mukherjee. 1996. Political History
of Ancient India. Calcutta: Oxford University Press.

Unit 4 Vedic Age

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Vedic Polity and Settlement Patterns
4.3 Technological and Economic Development
4.4 Political Relations
4.5 Social Stratification and Emergence of the Caste System
4.6 Iron Age Culture
4.7 Summary
4.8 Glossary
4.10 Answers
4.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
and late post-Harrapan traditions. In this unit, you will explore the Early Vedic
age. Scholars have different views with regard to the original homeland of the
Aryans. The most accepted theory is that they came from Central Asia, the
region around the Caspian Sea. According to historians, one group broke away
from the main stock of Indo-Europeans in Central Asia and moved eastward.
They are called the Indo-Aryans. The Indo-Aryans first settled in present day
Iran and then migrated to India. Agriculture and cattle rearing were the main
occupations of the early Aryans. They brought horses to India from Central
Asia, gave up their nomadic life and settled here forming tribal settlements
known as janas. In the Aryan society, there were four varnas—Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra.
Objectives
• Describe the Early Vedic polity
• Explain the settlement patterns of the Early Vedic times

• Describe the technological and economic development prevalent during

the Early Vedic times
• Discuss the social stratification and political relations during the Early
Vedic times
• Explain the emergence of the caste system
4.2 Vedic Polity and Settlement Patterns
The Aryans first settled in the area around the seven rivers, the Indus and her
tributaries known as the Sapta Sindhu (seven rivers), between 1500BC and
1000BC.
The Vedas
Rig Sama Yajur Atharva

Veda Veda Veda Veda
Figure 4.1 The Four Vedas
They named this place as Brahmavarta or ‘Land of the Vedic Period

Gods’. As their number increased, they began to move eastward and settled in
the Ganga-Yamuna plains which now came to be called Aryavarta or ‘Land of
the Aryans’. Gradually, they occupied the whole of northern and western India
up to the Vindhya mountains. Our information about the early Aryans is based
on the excavations at Bhagwanpura in Haryana and three other sites in Punjab,
which have revealed many pottery pieces dating from 1500BC to 1000BC.
However, our chief source of information is the Rig Veda, which was composed
in 1500BC. The Vedas are the earliest literary records of the Aryans. Since, our
main source of information about the Aryans is the Vedic literature, this period
is also called the Vedic Age. The Early Vedic period extends from 1500BC to
1000BC. There are four Vedas—Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva
Veda (Figure 4.1). The word ‘veda’ means knowledge. The Rig Veda is the
oldest of the Vedic literature. It was composed in about 1500BC. It consists of
1,028 slokas, which are divided into ten books. At first it was transferred orally
from one generation to the other along with the other Vedas and is therefore
called Sruti or ‘that which is heard’. Many centuries later, it was written down.
The Rig Veda gives us an insight into the political, social, economic and religious
life of the Early Vedic period. The Early Vedic polity was structured as follows:

• The King: The highest officer of the nation was the king. The morality of
the king was very high. Kingship was hereditary. The chief work of the
king was to safeguard his nation and citizens. He had to be proficient in
the management of soldiers and very just. There were many officers for
assisting the king in his administrative work. He had many functionaries,
including the purohita and Senani. The main job of purohita was to give
advice to the king and practice spells and chaarms for success in war
where as senanis fought for him in the war.
• The ministers of the king: The king appointed various ministers for
running the administration efficiently. The foremost among them was the
Senani, the supreme commander of the armed forces.
• Warriors: The chief warrior in the army was the second highest officer.
He was appointed by the king himself. His work was to take care of the
warriors’ organization and to lead the army in the absence of the king.
Apart from the warriors, the Gramani was also an important officer. He
used to be the chief of villages. Apart from these office bearers, the
diplomats and secret agents also played very important roles in the Early
Vedic polity.
• Organizations and committees: Organizations and committees were
very important in that age. They were created to check the despotism of
the king and to discuss the problems of the nation. There were two bodies
the ‘sabha’ and the ‘samiti’. The Atharv Veda refers to them as the two
daughters of Prajapati or Brahma. Earlier the sabha was responsible for
performing only judicial functions. However, historians came to believe
that it served as a centre for social gathering. Some considered it to be
the village assembly while some considered this as a committee of selected
seniors or elders. The samiti on the other hand was probably the bigger
or central assembly.
• Judiciary: Only assumptions can be made regarding the judicial system
due to non-availability of proof. The chief justice was the king himself.
The administrative system of the Vedic period continued with little changes.
In the later Vedic period several strong monarchies evolved, which developed a
feeling of imperialism. Slowly, the powers of the king increased and his post
became hereditary. He even increased his officials and ministers.
The Aryans first settled in the region of Punjab. This is proved by the fact
that the rivers Kuruman, Kabul and other western tributaries of the Indus are
mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Indo-Aryans settled in the region of the waning

Indus Valley Civilization, i.e., across the river Indus. Gradually they moved
eastwards along the river Ganga. The Aryans brought with them horses and
chariots. They subjugated the original inhabitants of the Ganga-Yamuna doab,
and reduced them to the status of slaves or dasyus who performed all the
menial jobs.

(a) Our information about the early Aryans is based on the excavations
at ___________ in Haryana
(b) The word ’veda’ means__________.
(a) Sama Veda is the oldest of the vedic literature
(b) The Rig Veda consists of 2000 slokas.
Agriculture and cattle rearing were the main occupations of the early Aryans.
They grew barley, wheat, rice, fruits and vegetables. Agriculture was the basis
of the economy in the Vedic age. The land where two crops could grow in a year
was considered fertile and was coveted for.
Agriculture had developed greatly in the later Vedic period. By then, the
Aryans had started using new tools, manure and seeds. Irrigation was done
with the help of canals and the plough was also in use. They ploughed their
fields with the help of wooden ploughs drawn by oxen. Agriculture being the
chief occupation, rearing of animals was necessary. Oxen, horses, dogs, goats
and sheep were mainly domesticated. The cow was considered to be pious and
important. It was a source of valuation and exchange and it was regarded as a
sign of prosperity.
The Aryans introduced the horse in India from Central Asia. They were
used to draw chariots and to ride during battles as well as during peacetime by
the rajan and the nobles and therefore, greatly valued. Hunting, pottery, spinning,
weaving, carpentry, metallurgy (copper and bronze) and leatherwork were other
important occupations. Shipping was limited to the navigation of rivers for the

inland trade. Gold and oxen were used as money during trading. Figure 4.2
illustrates various artifacts of the Early Vedic period.
A yantra of The Aryan God Indra Sun Temple statue Hindu deity,
the Sun God Shiva
Figure 4.2 Artifacts of the Early Vedic Period
The most important thing of Vedic period was that no profession was
considered to be small except fishing and hair cutting, which were looked down
upon.
In the later Vedic period carpentry, metallurgy, tanning, poltery, weaning,
etc. tasted development. They proficiently started using gold, iron, silver etc.
after the spread of knowledge of metals, which made life more prosperous.
Both imports as well as exports were carried on during the Vedic period.
The traders are known as ‘Pani’. Clothes, bed sheets, leather, etc., were mainly
traded. Trading was done on bullock carts.
3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:

(a) The Aryans introduced the horse in India from __________.
(b) Shipping was limited to the _________ of rivers for the inland trade.
4. State whether the following statements are True or False:
(a) Agriculture formed the basis of the economy in the Vedic age.
(b) Hunting, pottery, spinning, weaving and carpentry were unknown in
the early Vedic period.

The Aryans gave up their nomadic life and settled down in the north-western
parts of the Indian subcontinent in the form of different tribal settlements known
as janas and the land where they settled was called janapada. These tribes
were constantly involved in battle with one another, either to protect their cattle
or their land. A village or grama was the smallest unit of the jana. A grama would
comprise a number of families. Each tribe had a chieftain called rajan, who was
chosen for his wisdom and courage and he ruled each tribe. His chief function
was to protect the tribe from the external attacks and maintain law and order.
For his service, the people made voluntary contributions of gifts. A rajan could
be removed from power if he was inefficient or cruel. He was helped by a number
of officials in the work of administration. There is also a reference to two tribal
assemblies – namely the Sabha and the Samiti (as mentioned in the previous
section) which checked the power of the king and also advised him on all-
important matters. The senani or commander-in-chief assisted him in warfare.
A raj purohit or high priest performed religious ceremonies and also acted
as an adviser. The gramani or the village headman looked after the village.
Figure 4.3 illustrates the political structure of the Early Vedic period.
Rajan
Sabha Samiti
Raj Purohit Senani
Gramani
Figure 4.3 Political Structure of the Early Vedic Period
The political life of the Vedic age was classified as follows:

• Family: The smallest unit of the administration was the family, which
was headed by the oldest person in the home. Tradition was to have a
joint family.
• Village: Several families made a village. The head of the village was
called the ‘Gramani’. The root of the village administrative system was
the Gramani but the Rig Veda is silent on the matter of its election
system.

• Vish: Several villages made a Vish. The highest officer of the Vish
was called Vishpati.
• Jan: Several Vishs made a Jan. The highest officer of the Jan was
called Gop. Usually, the king himself would be a Gap.
• Nation: The highest political unit was the nation. A country was called
nation or rashtra (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Political Life of the Vedic Age
U n it Head
R a sh tra R a ja n /G o p a /S a m ra t
Ja n a s/ja n ap a da J ye sh ta
V ish V ish p a ti
G ra m G ra m an i
Activity 1
Compare the political division of our states and the states of the early Vedic
times.

(a) Grama (i) Chieftan
(b) Rajan (ii) Assembly
(c) Sabha (iii) Number of families
(a) The gramani or the village headman looked after the village.
(b) Several villages made a Vish.
4.5 Social Stratification and Emergence of the Caste System
The early Vedic society consisted of four varnas—Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya

and Sudra. There was no complication in the varna system. The basis of varna
was perhaps work rather than birth. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda that, ‘I am a

sculptor, my father is a doctor and my mother grinds cereals in the house.’ The
early Aryans differentiated between themselves according to the occupations
each followed. The word ‘varna’ was later used to refer to the social division,
dividing society into the following four occupational groups:
• The brahmins or the priests performed religious ceremonies and prayers
and imparted education.
• The kshatriyas or warrior class (to which the king also belonged) fought
wars and protected the tribe from danger.
• The vaishyas carried on agriculture, industry and trade, producing goods
for the society.
• The sudras, comprising the dasas, were the labourers and did menial
jobs. They were dark-skinned.
This system was flexible and there were no restrictions with regard to the
occupation, intermarriage and inter-dining between these classes.
Thus, the work of a brahmin was to give education. The work of a kshatriya
was to save and defend. The work of a vaishya was to trade and and the work
of a shudra was to serve. But till the later Vedic period the varna system had
become complex. By now the basis of varna changed to birth from work or
profession.
The Ashrama system was established keeping in mind the age of man to
be 100 years. It was said that 100 years were required for all round development
and to achieve the goal of religion, material pleasure and salvation in life. During
the first twenty-five years, a student acquired knowledge with much hardship in
the ashram of his guru. This was known as the Brahmcharya Ashram. From the
age of twenty-five to fifty years (in adulthood) he observed family life, which
was called Grihasth Ashram. From fifty to seventy-five years of age he observed
Vanprasth Ashram while denouncing family life. From seventy-five to hundred
years he left all worldly pleasures and attained salvation in the devotion of god,
which was called Sanyas.

(a) The early Vedic society consisted of four________.
(b) The basis of the varna system was perhaps ________rather than
birth in the begining.

4.6 Iron Age Culture
The Chalcolithic age was followed by the use of iron. These epochs of progress
of the early man followed in slow succession. The earliest evidence of iron
covering a time span of 1,300–1000BC is from southern Rajasthan, marking the
advent of the iron. This age is associated with specific culture traits, particularly
painted grey ware, black and red ware and megalithic graves.Some historians
suggest that the iron was known and understood in the copper bronze age
itself. It came to be more commonly used over time. There are two stages in the
history which involved the use of iron. The first stage was marked by the use of
low grade ores, absence of carburization and manufacture of weapons. The
second stage was marked by carburization, the use of high grade ores and
manufacture of tools meant for production.
Activity 2
The Vedic Age is also called the Iron Age. Collect information on why the
Vedic Age is also known as the Iron Age.

(a) The Chalcolithic age was followed by the use of steel.
(b) The earliest evidence of iron comes from southern Rajasthan.
4.7 Summary

• The information about the early Aryans is based on the excavations at
Bhagwanpura in Haryana and three other sites in Punjab, which have
revealed many pottery pieces dating from 1,500BC to 1,000BC.
• Since the main source of information about the Aryans is the Vedic
literature, this period is also called the Vedic Age.
• The Early Vedic period extends from 1,500BC to 1,000BC.
• The Aryans first settled in the region of Punjab. This is proved by the fact
that the rivers Kuruman, Kabul and the other western tributaries of the
Indus are mentioned in the Rig Veda.

• The Indo-Aryans settled in the region of the waning Indus Valley

Civilization, i.e., across the river Indus.
• The agriculture was the chief occupation of the Aryans. They also reared
animals. Oxen, horses, dogs, goats and sheep were mainly domesticated.
by them and they considered cow to be pious and important.
• The early Vedic society consisted of four varnas—Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Sudra. There was no complication in the varna system. The
basis of varna was occupation rather than birth in the beginning.
• The earliest evidence of iron covering a time span of 1300–1000BC is
from southern Rajasthan, marking the advent of iron. This age was
associated with specific culture traits, particularly painted grey ware, black
and red ware and megalithic graves.
4.8 Glossary
• Varna system: The system of division of the society on the basis of

occupation
• Brahmins: Priests and teachers who performed religious ceremonies
• Kshatriyas: Warriors who fought to protect the people
• Janas: Different tribal settlements of the Indian subcontinent in the Vedic
age
• Grama: A village or the smallest unit of the jana comprising a number of
families
1. What is the earliest source of information about the Aryans?

2. How was the Vedic polity structured?
3. What were the major occupations of Aryans in the Early Vedic period?
4. Explain the political structure of the Early Vedic age.
5. What are the varnas? How are they classified?
6. Write a note on the culture of the Iron Age.

4.10 Answers
1. (a) Bhagwanpura; (b) Knowledge

2. (a) False; (b) False
3. (a) Central Asia; (b) Navigation
5. (a) (iii); (b) (i); (c) (ii)
7. (a) Varnas; (b) Work
8. (a) False; (c) True

1. Ghosh, N.N. 1948. Early History of India. Allahabad: Indian Press.

3. Thapar, Romila. 1990. A History of India: Volume 1. News Delhi: Penguin
Books.
4. Tripathi, R.S. 1999. History of Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.

Unit 5 Post-Vedic Age

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Vedic Polity
5.3 Settlement Patterns
5.5 Social Stratification
5.7 Development of the Caste System
5.8 Summary
5.9 Glossary
5.11 Answers
5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about the culture and traditions of the Early
Vedic Age. The settlement of the Aryans caused a lot of changes in society and
the various castes also came into being. The Aryans brought in immense
technological and economic advancement with them which immensely affected
life around them and in the ages that were about to come.
Following the Vedic age, came the later Vedic Age that lasted between
1000BC and 600BC. It was during this age that the Aryans moved eastward from
the land of the seven rivers into the Gangetic plain. Some even crossed the
Vindhya mountains and moved to south India. During this period, the Puranas,
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also composed. It is from these
literary sources as well as the four Vedas and the archaeological findings at
various sites, that historians have been able to tell us about the political, social,
economic and religious life of the people. In this unit, you will learn about Vedic
polity and the settlement patterns in the post-Vedic era. The development of the
caste system in the post-Vedic age has also been explained in detail in this unit.

Objectives
• Describe the development of the Vedic polity in the context of the Post-
Vedic period
• Discuss the settlement patterns in the Post-Vedic period
• State the technological and economic development during the Post-Vedic
period
• Assess the social stratification and political relations prevalent in the Post-
Vedic period
• Describe the development of the caste system
5.2 Vedic Polity
The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts, which
were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. The collections of Vedic hymns or
mantras are known as the Samhitas. The Rig Veda were set to tune, and this
modified collection was known as the Samaveda. In the post Rig Vedic times,
two other collections, the Yajurveda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita
were composed. We have to depend upon the Samhitas of the Yajurveda,
Samaveda, Atharva Veda, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads,
all religious works for the later Vedic period which, roughly speaking, comes
down to about 600BC. Figure 5.1 illustrates the Later Vedic Civilization.
Figure 5.1 Later Vedic Civilizations

During the later Vedic period, the Aryan civilization gradually extended
towards the east and the south. The centre of culture shifted to Kurukshetra,
and Madhyadesa. The land of the Yamuna and the Ganga came into prominence.
Kosala, Kasi, Videha and Ayodhya rose as great urban centres in the east.
Literature also mention the Andhras for the first time and other outcaste tribes
like the Pundras of Bengal, the Sabaras of Orissa and the Pulindas of south
western India. Thus, nearly the whole of northern India from the Himalayas to
the Vindhyas and perhaps even beyond had come within the rule of the Aryans.

(a) The history of the later Vedic period is based mainly on the
__________.
(b) Kosala, Kasi and Videha were among the powerful ____________
centres.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) During the later Vedic period, the Aryan civilization gradually extended
towards the east and the south.
(b) The modified version of the Rig Veda was known as the Upanishads.
5.3 Settlement Patterns
As mentioned earlier, between 1000BC and 600BC, the Aryans had moved
eastward from the land of the seven rivers into the Gangetic plain. Some crossed
the Vindhya mountains into the southern region of India. The Aryans moved
eastward probably because of an increase in population. Some of the chieftains
carved out kingdoms for themselves and their tribes were called the janapadas.
The Kurus occupied the region around Delhi and called it Kurukshetra. Hastinapur
was their capital. The Kurus combined with the Panchalas (ruled over the region
of Bareilly, Badaun and Farukhabad) to establish their authority over Delhi and
the Doab region. The Kauravas and the Pandavas belonged to the Kuru tribe.
The battle of Kurukshetra is believed to have been fought in about 950BC. Towards
the end of 600BC, the Aryans had spread further eastward. A number of janapadas
combined to form large independent kingdoms called mahajanapadas. By the
sixth centuryBC, sixteen mahajanapadas were established. These sixteen

kingdoms were engaged in the war to capture each other’s territory. Kosala,
Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha were the four most important ones, which eventually
remained and reigned. Finally, Magadha established its stronghold over the
whole of the Gangetic plain from 500–300BC.

(a) The Kurus occupied the region around Delhi and called it _________.
(b) The __________ and the Pandavas belonged to the Kuru tribe.
(a) Hastinapur was the capital of Bareilly.
(b) The battle of Kurukhshetra is believed to have been fought in about
950BC.
The Vedic Aryans were well known for their technology related to the tanning of
leather, fermentation of grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper,
iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was believed
to be of very high quality in the ancient world and it was exported in large
quantities. Tin and mercury were imported from the 7th century. Alchemy was
also referred to in literature. They made a special kind of polished grey pottery
(known as P.G. ware). Radio-carbon dating dates it back to 1000–800BC. Other
varieties of pottery, for example, red or black-polished pottery were also made
by them.
Farming remained the most important occupation. Taxes were collected
by the king, which earned him revenue. Wheat, rice, vegetables, cotton and oil
seeds were grown. Besides agriculture, many crafts like weaving, leatherwork,
pottery, jewellery designing and carpentry developed. Apart from gold, silver,
copper, lead and tin, they had discovered the use of iron. Many agricultural
implements and weapons of war were made of iron. Artisans and craftsmen
produced goods of fine quality. They were organized into guilds which regulated
the prices. These professions became hereditary with time and constituted
subcastes or jatis. Many more towns started emerging during these times. Trade

also flourished. Goods were sent as far as Taxila, Central Asia and European
countries. The barter system was discontinued and money in the form of gold
and silver was used. In other words, the economic activities became more
complex. The earliest coins of India are commonly known as punch-marked
coins. As the name suggests, these coins bear symbols of various types punched
on pieces of silver of specific weight. The earliest Indian coins have no defined
shapes and were mostly uniface. Secondly, these coins lack any inscriptions.
Two well known numismatists, D.B. Spooner and D.R. Bhandarkar, independently
concluded that the punching of various symbols representing animals, hills,
trees and human figures followed a definite pattern and these coins were issued
by the royal authority.
Both literary and archaeological evidences confirm that the Indians
invented coinage somewhere between the 5th and the 6th centuries BC. A hoard
of coins discovered at Chaman Huzuri in 1933 contained forty-three silver punch-
marked coins (the earliest coins of India) with Athenian (coins minted by Athens,
a city of Greece) and Achaemenian (Persian) coins. The Bhir (Taxila) hoard
discovered in 1924 contained 1055 punch-marked coins in a very worn out
condition and two minted coins of Alexander. This archaeological evidence clearly
indicates that the coins were minted in India long before the fourth century BC,
i.e., before the Greeks advanced towards India (Alexander’s invasion of Persia
and India). There is also a strong belief that silver as a metal, which was not
available in Vedic India, became abundantly available by 500–600BC. Most of
the silver came from Afghanistan and Persia as a result of international trade.

(a) The barter system was discontinued during the Post-Vedic Age.
(b) Goods were exported as far as Taxila, Central Asia and European
countries.
(a) Taxes (i) Punch-marked
(b) Coins (ii) Afghanistan and Persia
(c) Silver (iii) Revenue

5.5 Social Stratification
During the Later Vedic period, the earlier distinctions in society based on varna
or occupation became rigid and hereditary. A person’s birth became more
important than his skill or merit. Each caste had its own code of laws and marriage
outside the caste was forbidden. Brahmins occupied a very high position in
society as they were learned. They alone could perform the rituals and sacrifices.
Only the select few amongst them could advise the king. The common people
held them in high esteem.
The position of women also began to deteriorate and they were thought
to be inferior to men. They were not allowed to read Vedic literature. Their main
duty was to look after the house.
The family shows the increasing power of the father who could even
disinherit his son. Women were generally given a lower position. Although some
women theologians took part in philosophical discussions and a few queens
participated in rituals, women were considered to be inferior and subordinate to
men.
There is a mention of the Ashramas or the four stages of life—that of
brahmacharya or bachelor student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or
hermit and sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounces worldly life. Only the
first three were clearly defined in the later Vedic texts; the last or the fourth
stage was not well-established, though, ascetic life was not unknown.
Activity 1
Make a comparative report on the position of women in the Vedic and Post-
Vedic Age.

(a) Women held a position of high-esteem during the Post-Vedic times
(b) Fathers possessed the power to disinherit their sons.
(a) Brahamachari (i) Hermit
(b) Sanyasi (ii) Student

(c) Vanasprastha (iii) Householder

(d) Grihastha (iv) Ascetic
The most important change in the Post-Vedic times was that the king had become
the absolute ruler. All power was concentrated in his hands. He was the supreme
commander of the army and the chief justice of his kingdom. The king called
himself ‘maharajadhiraj’ and ‘samrat’. Kings often performed the rajasuya
sacrifice and the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to make a show of their powers.
The rajasuya sacrifice was performed in order to bestow supreme power on the
king. In the ashvamedha yajna, a special horse, accompanied by soldiers, was
let loose for a year by a ruler to wander at will. The king staked his claim over all
those territories over which the horse wandered. Later the horse was sacrificed.
If the horse was captured, war followed.
As kingdoms expanded, the work of the administration also multiplied.
The king was now assisted by a large number of officials. The rajpurohita
performed elaborate rituals and gave advice. The senani came to occupy a
prestigious place in the court. He had the responsibility of expanding the
kingdoms and helping the king during the war. Another official of importance
was the tax collector known as the sangrihitri. There was a change in the
composition of the Sabha and Samiti. It was not possible for common man to
attend these assemblies. Therefore, the nature of the two assemblies became
aristocratic, dominated only by the upper class, the brahmins and the princes.
Women no longer participated in the meetings.
Unfortunately, our knowledge of the political divisions and events of the
Brahminic period is very little. We can glean only a few facts from incidental
anecdotes in sacerdotal literature and from other references in the epic and the
Puranas. In later Vedic times, the Rig Vedic tribal assemblies lost importance
and the royal power increased at their cost.
Traces of the election of the king appear in the later Vedic texts. The king
whose position was commonly hereditary still led in terms of power and authority,
although minor operations were entrusted to the Senani. The king punished the
wicked and upheld the law, Dharma. He controlled the land and could even
deprive an individual of it.
Popular assemblies like the sabha and the samiti (though not quite defunct
yet) were rarely heard of during this period. The growth in the size of the kingdom

must have made their frequent meetings difficult and in consequence their control
or check over the ruler must have progressively decreased. The ongoing
assemblies came to be controlled by chiefs and rich nobles and women were
no longer permitted to sit in the sabha which was now dominated by warriors
and Brahmins. The formation of the larger kingdom increased the power of the
chief king. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The dominant tribes
gave their names to territories which might be inhabited by tribes other than
their own. Initially, each area was named after the tribe that first settled there.
The term rashtra, indicating territory, arose during this period. The concept
of controlling people also appeared. It was indicated by the use of the term
rajya which meant sovereign power. With the emergence of larger realms, the
importance attached to the Purohita, the Rajanya (noble), the Mahisi (chief
queen), the Suta (Charioteers) and the Senani (Army commander) also
increased. Other important functions that arose during this period include the
Gramani (village headman), the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), Ksattri
(chamberlain), Samgrahitri (treasurer) and the Aksavapa (Superintendent of
dicing who supervised the gambling halls and collected revenue from there).

(a) The _________ performed elaborate rituals and gave advice.
(b) The _________ sacrifice was performed in order to bestow supreme
power on the king.
(a) Ashvamedha (i) King
(b) Senani (ii) Tax collector
(c) Samrat (iii) Horse sacrifice
(d) Sangrihitri (iv) War
5.7 Development of the Caste System
Society did not remain unaffected by the changes that were taking place during
this period. Aryanization promoted social differentiation. In the later Vedic texts
the term ‘arya’ encapsulates Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. Thus, it
was the Vedic Aryans who introduced the varna system.

The early Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the
brahamina, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra varnas. No doubt the division into
four classes was already referred to in a late hymn of the Rig Veda but whether
it bore any other traces of familiarity with the institution of caste, apart from the
clear distinction between the Arya and the Dasyu is not clear. The divisions
became more pronounced and the caste system was well on its way towards
crystallization. The starting point of these distinctions was, of course, the colour
bar, between the fair Arya and the dark Dasyu. However, the constant wars of
the Aryans, the growing complexities of life and political conditions, and the
tending towards specialization in labour, gradually resulted in the formation of
hereditary occupational groups. Thus, those who possessed a knowledge of
the sacred scriptures, officiated in religious ceremonies and received gifts were
called Brahmins, those who fought, owned land and wielded political power
were called Kshatriyas; the general mass of people, the traders, the agriculturists,
and the craftsmen, were grouped under the class Vaishya and the Sudras
reserved for the menial services were generally recruited from the conquered
Dasyus. There was, however, still no unnatural rigidity of caste as in the
succeeding age.
Also, the growing importance of the Kshatriyas and the Brahmins in the
society made it imperative to maintain their exclusive superior status, as
compared to the rest. During the later Vedic period however, the concept of
varna was simple in nature. The notion of untouchability was absent.
Gotra
The institution of gotra (literally meaning cow pen) came to be known during
this period. Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor and marriages
could not take place between couples belonging to the same geneology.
Activity 2
Make a presentation on how the caste system of the Post-Vedic is still
prevalent today.

(a) It was the __________ who introduced the varna system.
(b) __________ signified descent from a common ancestor.

12. State whether the following statements are true or false:

(a) The Sudras fought, owned land and wielded political power.
(b) The Kshatriyas were the traders and agriculturists.
5.8 Summary

• During the Later Vedic period, the Aryan civilization gradually extended
towards the east and the south. The centre of culture shifted to
Kurukshetra, and Madhyadesa. The land of the Yamuna and the Ganga
came into prominence.
• The Vedic Aryans were well known for their technology related to tanning
of leather, fermentation of grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of
copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys.
• During this period most of the agricultural implements and weapons of
war were made of iron. Artisans and craftsmen produced goods of fine
quality. They were organized into guilds. The guilds regulated the prices.
These professions became hereditary with time and constituted subcastes
or jatis.
• Both, literary and archaeological evidence confirm that the Indians invented
coinage somewhere between the fifth and the sixth centuries BC.
• The Brahmins occupied a very high position in society as they were
learned. They alone could perform the rituals and sacrifices.
• The family bestowed more power on the father who could even disinherit
his son. Women were generally given a lower position.
• The king called himself ‘maharajadhiraj’ and ‘samrat’. Kings often
performed the rajasuya sacrifice and the ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
to emphasize their power and authority over the others powers.
• In the ashvamedha yajna, a special horse, accompanied by soldiers, was
let loose for a year by a ruler to wander at will. The king staked his claim
over all those territories over which the horse wandered. Later the horse
was sacrificed. The capture of the horse led to war.
• Traces of the election of the king appear in the Later Vedic texts. The king
was helped by the Senani in administration.

5.9 Glossary
• Sabha: A small committee of selected elders

• Samiti: A general assembly of the whole tribe
• Guilds: A society of people with similar jobs, interests or aims
• Rajasuya: A sacrifice performed in order to bestow supreme power on
the king
• Rapurohita: A person who performed elaborate rituals and gave advice
to the king
• Senani: An official who was responsible for the expansion of the kingdom
and conceptualizing war strategies
1. Why did the Aryans move eastward?

2. What was the chief occupation during the Post-Vedic Age.
3. Write a note on the type of coins used during the Post-Vedic age.
4. State the political changes that took place during the post-Vedic era.
5. Describe the Ashvamedha Yajna.
6. Trace the development of the caste system in the Post-Vedic Age.
5.11 Answers
1. (a) Vedic texts; (b) Urban

3. (a) Kurukshetra; (b) Kauravas
6. (a) (iii); (b) (i); (c) (ii)


8. (a) (ii); (b) (iv); (c) (i); (d) (iii)
9. (a) Rajpurohita; (b) Rajasuya
10. (a) (iii); (b) (iv); (c) (i); (d) (ii)
11. (a) Vedic Aryans; (b) Gotra

Books.

Unit 6 Mahajanapadas: Rise of Magadha

and the Nanda Dynasty
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Rise of Mahajanapadas
6.3 Emergence of Cities and Territorial States
6.4 Magadha
6.5 Nandas
6.6 Summary
6.7 Glossary
6.9 Answers
6.1 Introduction
We have read in the privious unit that the Aryans settled down in janas or tribes,
led a semi-nomadic life and fought among themselves and with other non-Aryan
tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures. By the Later Vedic Age, the Aryans
had moved further into the Ganga Valley, a process facilitated by use of iron
implements, which helped them to clear the thick forests with greater ease. In
time, some of these janas grew in size and power and came to be known as
janapadas (literally meaning foothold of tribe). Gradually, many of these
janapadas further evolved into larger political entities by capturing more and
more land. These came to be known as mahajanapadas (from Sanskrit maha =
great). By the 600BC, there were sixteen mahajanapadas. The kings or groups
of Kashatriyas, the chiefs of which called themselves rajas or kings ruled over
Janapadas or Mahajanapadas.
In this unit, you will also study about the emergence of cities and territorial
states, especially the Magadha empire. The increasing use of iron in eastern UP
and western Bihar facilitated the formation of large territorial states. Due to the
surplus produced (owing to the use of the new agricultural tools and implements),
the people became self sufficient and remained stuck to their land. It was now
possible for them to expand at the cost of the neighbouring areas and offer their
extra produce to the princes for military and administrative needs. This led to the

rise of large states with towns as their centre of activity. As towns emerged as the
seats of power and as the base for commercial activities, this idea strengthened
the concept of territorial affiliations. The incorporation of the janapadas by powerful
rulers of the mahajanapadas resulted in political conflicts among the rulers, and
in a later period, to the establishment of the Magadha empire.
Objectives
• Discuss the rise of Mahajanapadas
• List the cities and territorial states which emerged in ancient India
• Evaluate the emergence of cities and territorial states
• Name the dynasties that ruled Magadha
• Describe the rise of Magadha and the Nanda dynasty
6.2 Rise of Mahajanapadas
Ancient Buddhist texts make frequent reference to the sixteen great kingdoms
and republics which had evolved and flourished in the northern/north-western
parts of the Indian subcontinent before the rise of Buddhism in India.
Look at the (Figure 6.1) to know the location of the mahajanapadas. Of
the sixteen mahajanapadas, four were prominent monarchies—Kosala, Vatsa,
Avanti and Magadha. They were constantly fighting with each other. Ultimately,
Magadha emerged supreme.
Republics and monarchies
The mahajanapadas had two kinds of political systems. They were either
republics or monarchies. A republican mahajanapada was ruled by a group of
people elected by the people of that tribe. There was no hereditary ruler.
Decisions were taken on the basis of majority consent. So, it was a kind of a
democratic system where the people of the tribe had a say in their political
system. The Sakya mahajanapada, for example, was an important republic.
Most of the mahajanapadas had a monarchical system. The king ruled
according to his own wish. After his death, his son succeeded to the throne.
Magadha, for example, was a monarchical mahajanapada.
The Aryans slowly and steadily expanded their civilization and culture.
They expanded rapidly in northern India. Many strong Aryan centres were
established till the 6th century BC and the states were being called on the basis
of caste. None had full control over whole India, which divided into so many
smaller states. In order to expand the states, the in janapadas were extended
and changed into mahajanpadas later.

(a) The mahajanapadas had three kinds of political systems.
(b) The Sakya mahajanapada was an important monarchy.
(a) A _________ mahajanapada was ruled by a group of people elected
by the people of that tribe.
(b) Magadha was a _________ mahajanapada.

6.3 Emergence of Cities and Territorial States
Although there has not been enough evidence concerning mahajanpadas,

important Buddhist and Jaina books provide the following information about the
sixteen major mahajanpadas:
1. Anga: This was situated near modern Bhagalpur (located on the borders
of modern Bihar and Bengal). Champa was its capital Champa has been
considered one of the six great cities in the sixth century BC. It was famous
for its trade and commerce. Anga was an enemy of Magadh. It was
defeated by Magadh by mid-sixth century BC.
2. Magadh: It was situated where modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar
are located. Its capital was at Rajagriha. Rajagriha was an impenetrable
place surrounded by five hills. The remains of the walls of Rajagriha provide
the earliest evidence of fortification in the history of India. In the fifth century
BC, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, which was the seat of the early
Magadha kings. Magadha rose to prominence because its fertile
agricultural tracts were best suited for the cultivation of wet rice. Further,
it had iron ore deposits of south Bihar (modern Jharkhand) were under its
control. Last but not the least, the open social system of the Magadhan
empire made it the most important monarchy in the years to come.
3. Kashi: Of the sixteen mahajanapadas, Kashi was the most powerful in
the beginning. It was located in and around modern Varanasi. Its capital
Varanasi was the foremost city of India situated on the confluence of the
Ganges and the Gomati river and in the middle of the most fertile
agricultural areas. It emerged as a leading centre of textile manufacture
and horse trade in the time of the Buddha. However, by the time of the
Buddha, the Kashi mahajanapada had been taken over by Kosala and
was a cause of war between Magadha and Kosala kingdoms.
4. Kosala: Kosala was bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the
south by the Sarpika, on the east by the river Sadarvira (Gandak) and on
the north by the Nepal hills. Kosala mahajanapada emerged out of an
assimilation of many smaller principalities and lineages. Hiranyanabha,
Mahakosala Prasenjita and Suddhodhana have been named as rulers of
Kosala in the sixth century BC. Saketa, Shravasti (modern Sahet-Mahet)
and Bahravich districts of Uttar Pradesh were three important Kosala cities.
The capital of Kosala was Shravasti. King Prasenjita was a contemporary
and friend of the Buddha. Later, Kosala emerged as one of the most
powerful rivals to the emergent Magadha Empire.

5. Vajji: This was located in contemporary Bihar. This mahajanpada came into
existence by the coming together of several castes. Its capital was Vaishali.
6. Malla: There were two branches of the Mallas, namely Kushinagar and
Pava. This was a federal democracy.
7. Vatsa: Vatsa was one of the most powerful mahajanapadas with its capital
at Kaushambi (near modern Allahabad) on the bank of the Yamuna. This
means that the Vatsas were settled around modern Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh. Bhasa, one of the greatest Sanskrit dramatists in ancient India,
has immortalized Udayan, a Vatsa king, in his plays. These plays are
based on the story of the love affair between Udayana and Vasavadatta,
the Princess of Avanti. These plays also point to the conflict among the
powerful kingdoms of Magadha, Vatsa and Avanti. Vatsa lost its
significance in the ensuing struggle because the later texts do not refer to
them with great importance.
8. Chedi: Contemporary Bundelkhand and its nearby landmass came under
Chedi. Its capital was Shaktimati or Sandhivati.
9. Kuru: This mahajanpadas covered the regions of Thaneshwar, Delhi and
Meerut. Its capital was Indraprastha.
10. Surasena: This was located to the south of Matsya state. Its capital was
Mathura.
11. Panchal: This was located in the territory between rivers Ganga and
Yamuna. It also had two branches. The capital of northern Panchal was
Ahichatrapur, while that of southern Panchal was Kampilya.
12. Matsya (Maccha): This was located in modern Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur
regions of Rajasthan. Its capital was Viratnagara.
13. Avanti: Avanti was one of the most powerful mahajanapadas in the sixth
century BC. The central area of this mahajanapad or kingdom roughly
corresponds to Ujjain district of Madhya Pradesh. The kingdom was divided
into two parts. Its southern capital was Mahasmati, while its northern capital
was Ujjain. The latter was more important. The kingdom controlled the
trade with the south. According to a legend, from an enemy he became
father-in-law of Udayen who ruled over Vatsa kingdom.
14. Ashmak: This region was located in south India. Its capital was
Paudanya(Potan).
15. Gandhara: The states of contemporary Taxila and Kashmir came under
this region. It had two capitals, namely Pushkalavati and Taxila. Taxila
was a famous centre of learning.
16. Kambhoj: This janapad was located to the north of Gandhar at Pamir
and Badakshan. Its capital was Rajpur.
Republics
We get the knowledge about the republics of the sixth century BC from Buddhist
books. These republics were as follows:
1. Shakyas of Kapilvastu: It was located on the border of Nepal on the
foothills of the Himalayas. This republic was located in the western part of
contemporary Gorakhpur. Gautam Buddha was born in this state. Its capital
was Kapilvastu. The people of this area considered themselves to be the
descendants of Eshvak. This was a major site of learning.
2. Bulis of Allakappa: This area was located between the contemporary
districts of Shahabad and Muzaffarpur. According to Dhammapada this
area was situated near the Veth Island.
3. Kalamas of Kesputta: The spiritual guru of Buddha, Aalar Kalam,
belonged to this dynasty. This dynasty is related to the Panchal Keshis as
described in Shatpath Brahman.
4. Bhaggas of Susamagiri: According to Sanyuttamkaya, this area was
situated in Bhargadisa. Contemporary Mirzapur was located near this
area.
5. Kolis of Ramgram: This republic was situated in the east of Shakyas of
Kapilavastu.
6. Mallas of Pava: This dynasty was ruled by the kshatriyas of the Vashistha
gotra. The Mallas were settled in contemporary Padrauna in Uttar Pradesh.
7. Mallas of Kushinagar: They were the second branch of Mallas. Buddha
attained Parinirvanna here.
8. Moris of Pippalivan: According to Mahavansh, the Moris were earlier
known as the Shakyas. However, later they shifted to a hilly region of the
Himalayas due to the brutality of Vidudabh where they established the
Pippalivan city. This city has always been famous for the sound of peacocks
and as a result is referred to as ‘Moris’.
9. Videhas of Mithila: Mithila was a renowned learning centre.
10. Lichchavis of Vaishali : The Lichchavis belonged to the Kshatriya clan.
11. Naga of Vaishali: The combination of the Videhas and the Lichchavis led
to the establishment of the federation of Vajji. There was also a federation
of Lichchavis and Nagas which was called Asthakul in which Videhas,
Yangyik, Lichchavi and Vajji were included.
Thus, the powerful republics of this period included the Shakya, Lichchavi,
Videha, Vajji and Malla. According to D.R. Bhandarkar, an authority on the ancient
history of India from 650BC – 325BC, ‘The meaning of republic and federation
was a group of well decided and well organized men.’ However, it seems that a
unit of a federation was usually called a republic. Several republics made a
federation. Thus, many grihas made a kul and a group of kulas formed a republic.
6.3.1 Administrative System of the Republics

The chief features of the administrative system of the republics were as follows:
• King: The king was the head of executive of the entire state. He was an
elected member. He had no absolute powers.
• Council of ministers: There were nine members in the council of
ministers, which constituted only the best people taken from the noble.
However, we find mention of four members in the Malla republic, nine in
the Lichchavi republic and eighteen in the Videha republic.
• Organization of executive: The executive was also known as the
sansthagar. The Lichchavis considered themselves to be the king. If there
were conflicts in matters of war, peace, religious and social issues, voting
was done. If due to any reason consensus was not achieved, a committee
was appointed which was called udayvahika.
• Process of voting: Four techniques were in use for the purpose of
voting. These are as follows:
(i) Secret system: According to this technique, voting was done
secretly.
(ii) Open system: According to this technique, voting was done openly.
(iii) Mouth-to-ear system: In this technique, the voters cast their votes
by revealing their preferences by whispering in the ears.
(iv) Evident system: In this system, the names of voters were declared
evidently.
• The working procedure of the organization: The working procedure
was as follows:
o Fixed rules were made for the proposal of the organization. Usually
the proposal was repeated thrice and if not resisted the proposal
was accepted. But if resisted the proposal was set for vote by special
rules. This voting was done secretly.

o Committees were made to resolve conflicting issues and questions.

o Complementary rules were made.
• Group system: Groups existed based on division of votes, debates and
important concerns.
• Judiciary: There were seven types of courts in existence. The king was
the chief justice of the judiciary.
The hierarchy of the officials in the republics was as shown in Figure 6.2.
Raja
Upraja
Senapati
Atthakula
Suttadhar
Voharik
Vinichchayamhamat
Figrue 6.2 Hierarchy of Officials
6.3.2 Advantages of the Republican System

The chief benefits of the republics were as follows:
• The king had no absolute powers.
• All citizens took equal part in the administrative work of the republics.
• The social rules were kept safe by voting.
• There was no influence of the hereditary. Honesty, sense of responsibility,
and experience were the chief qualities sought in a leader, even if he had
a low social status.
• During war the entire state struggled collectively in defence of the idols of
its republic.
• There was financial affluence. The contemporary states were the main
centres of culture, art and civilization.

6.3.3 Defects of the Republican system

The defects of the republican system were as follows:
• Important issues could not be kept confidential due to debates and
consequently security was hampered.
• The decision-making procedure was slow and led to delays.
• Personal interests entered the political domain.
• Due to the theory of equality, defects of administrative skill and tactfulness
were neglected.
• This system curtailed huge expenses.
• There was interference by political parties in the everyday administration
of the state affairs.
• There was a lack of economical and regional leadership.
6.3.4 Reasons for Devastation of the Republics

The following were the chief reasons for the devastation of republics:
• Lack of Equality
• Birth of landlordism during the period of Buddha
• Defects in the judicial system
• Landlordism, which led to the decline of the system of self administration
• Popularity of monarchy

(a) Kashi (i) Rajagriha
(b) Magadha (ii) Vaishali
(c) Vajji (iii) Varanasi
(a) Surasena was located on the south of Matsya.
(b) The capital of Avanti was at Viratnagara.

6.4 Magadha
Magadha had many geographical advantages, which helped to make it strong

and powerful in comparison to other kingdoms. The Gangetic plain had a very
fertile soil. The dense forests yielded timber and were rich in iron ore deposits.
The river and its ports helped inland trade with other cities. Thus, both agriculture
and trade flourished which provided the king with high revenues. This, in turn,
allowed the king to maintain a large army and protect his territories.
The first important ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara. During his reign
Magadha rose to power. He ruled in the middle of the sixth century from his
capital at Rajagriha. He expanded his empire and strengthened his position by
marriage alliances and military conquests. Ajatasatru succeeded his father
Bimbisara. He ruled over Magadha from 493 BC to 461 BC and waged wars with
smaller states. He controlled the Gangetic plain by fortifying the city of Pataliputra
(modern day Patna), which was his capital. After Ajatasatru, the Nandas emerged
as the last powerful dynasty before Chandragupta Maurya captured the throne
of Magadha. Figure 6.4 shows the locations of important towns of Magadha.
Figure 6.3 Important Towns of Magadha

6.4.1 Rise of Magadha

Magadha embraces the districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar. It was bounded on
the North and the West by the rivers Ganges and Son, on the south by the
spurs of the Vindhyas and on the east by the river Champa. Its earliest capital
was Griivraja or Rajagriha near Rajgir. The other names for the city were
Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura Vasumati, Kusagrapura and Bimbisarapuri.
H.C. Raychaudhuri, an Indian historian known for his studies on ancient
India, states, ‘The early of dynastic history of Magadha is shrouded in darkness.
We have occasional glimpses of war-lords and Statesmen, some probably
entirely mythical, other having more appearance of leader. The history
commences with the famous Bimbisara of the Haryanka Kula.’
There is a reference in the Rigveda to a territory called Kikata which was
ruled by a chief named Pramaganda. Kikata is described as a synonym of
Magadha. The Yajurveda refers to the bards of Magadha. Figure 6.4 illustrates
ancient coins from Magadha.
Figure 6.4 Coins from Magadha
6.4.2 Life in Magadha

Position of the King
The king had absolute powers, as sanctioned by the Brahmins. The king, in
turn, held the Brahmins with great respect. He performed sacrifices such as the
Ashwamedha yajna to establish his supremacy. He ruled with the help of other
officials, such as the Senani (commander-in-chief) and amatyas (officers in
charge of revenue collection).
The king had the right to collect taxes. This money was spent on
maintaining the army; paying salaries to the officers; building roads, wells and
canals; and supporting the Brahmins. The king had to maintain a huge army as

the majahanapadas were always fighting with each other. He also had his capital
fortified.
The Society
The society remained divided into the four main varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Sudras. The first three classes enjoyed all the privileges. The
Brahmins framed laws, which the rest of the society had to follow. The position
of the Sudras remained inferior to others. Inter-caste marriages were not
permitted.
Child marriage and polygamy were common and women continued to
have a lower status in the society. They were expected to serve the menfolk.
The system of varnashrama were more rigidly established. Man’s life
continued to be divided into four main ashramas.
Religion
Brahmanism was the dominant religion. The Brahmins conducted all the rituals
and ceremonies in Sanskrit, a language not understood by the common people.
The yajna or sacrifices were very expensive. The common people, especially
the poor, felt sidelined and resented this. This paved the way for the rise of
Buddhism and Jainism.
Education
The gurukul system of education continued. Important centres of learning were
Kashi, Ujjain and Taxila.
Agriculture, Taxation and Trade
• Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, vegetables and oilseeds were the main
crops grown. Rice was the staple food. Agriculture was the main source
of revenue for the state.
• The peasant had to pay one-sixth of his produce to the king. This was
called bhaga or share. In the beginning, taxes were collected in kind, in
the form of products or services (barter system). For example, hunters
would pay taxes in the form of animal or animal produce. Artisans and
craftsmen also had to pay taxes. A weaver or blacksmith would work for
the king one day every month.
• Later, this barter system changed and coins of silver, copper and gold
were issued by the state.
• Taxes were levied on traders.

• Hunters also had to pay taxes in kind, i.e. some part of his hunt. When
coins were introduced, taxes were collected in cash. Special officers were
appointed as tax collectors.
• Artisans and craftsmen organized themselves into guilds. These
professions were hereditary.
• The introduction of coinage provided a boost to trade. People settled
near market centres to trade. These trade centres developed into cities.
Pataliputra, Ayodhya, Mathura and Vaishali were important cities. Rivers
were used as trade routes.
• Champa was an important river port. Sopara was an important seaport.
The chief articles of trade were silk, muslin, ivory, jewellery and perfumes.
Thus, the political and economic developments of the sixth century BC
paved the way for establishment of empires later in history.
6.4.3 The Brihadrathas

According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest dynasty of Magadha
was founded by Brihadratha, the father of Jarasandha and the son of Vasu.
According to the Ramayana, Vasu himself was the founder of Griveraja or
Vasumati. In the Puranas, we come across a list of the kings of this dynasty.
The chronology of the kings as given in the Puranas and the order or their
succession may not be true.
The Jain writers refer to two early kings of Rajagriha named Samudra
Vijaya and Gaya. The latter is stated to have been taught by the Jains and
reached perfection. However, there is no corroboration of the facts stated by
the Jain writers.
6.4.4 The Haryanka Dynasty

There is no definite data regarding the origin of the Haryanka dynasty. Bimbisara
was not the founder of the Haryanka dynasty as it is stated in the Mahavamsa
that he was anointed king by his father when he was 15 years of age.
Bimbisara
Bimbisara was an ambitious king and he added to the prestige and strength of
Magadha by his policy of matrimonial alliances and annexations. One of his
queens was the sister of Prasenjit, the ruler of Kosala. She brought with her a
village in Kashi, yielding a revenue of a hundred thousand for bath and perfume
money. Another queen of Bimbisara, Chellana, was the youngest of the seven
daughters of ruler of Chetaka, the ruler of Vaishali. According to a Tibetan writer,

Bimbisara had another wife called Vasavi. It is stated that she saved the life of
her husband by giving him food when the latter was imprisoned by Ajatasatru.
She may be the same woman as Chellana. Another wife was probably from the
Punjab. Her name was Khema, the daughter of the King of Madda or Madra.
The matrimonial alliances must have helped Bimbisara to extend his influence
both eastwards and westwards.
Bimbisara had many sons and they gave him a lot of trouble. According to
the Jain writers, Kunika or Ajatasatru, Halla, Vehalla, Abahya, Nandisena and
Megha Kumara were the six sons of Bimbisara. The first three were the sons of
Chellana and the fourth was of Amrapali, the courtesan. Buddhist writers refer
to Ajasatru, Vimala, Kondanna, Vehalla and Silavat.
The King of Taxila was harassed by his enemies and he asked Bimbisara
to help him. Although the ambassador from Taxila was well received, no help
was given to the king as Bimbisara was not prepared to alienate other rulers. It
is stated that Bimbisara sent his physician Jivak to cure the king of Avanti who
was suffering from jaundice. Bimbisara conquered and annexed the kingdom
of Anga after defeating Brahmadatta. The conquest of Anga is proved by the
evidence of the Digha Nikaya and Mahavagga. According to Hemachandra, the
Jain writer, Anga was governed as a separate province by the crown prince who
had his headquarters at Champa. The conquest of Anga must have added to
the material prosperity of Bimbisara. It is stated that Champa was one of the six
cities of the Buddhist world. There are refernces to its gate, walls and a watch
tower. Its traders went as far as Suvarnabhumi. The other important towns of
Anga were Apana and Assapino.
The territory of Bimbisara included 80,000 villages and covered an area
of 300 leagues. A number of republican communities under the Rajakumaras
were also included within the territory.
There are different accounts with regard to the death of Bimbisara.
According to the Avashyakasutra of the Jains, Bimbisara decided to appoint
Ajatasatru as his successor in preference to his other sons. However, Ajatasatru
became impatient and imprisoned his father where he was looked after by Queen
Chellana. Later, Ajatasatru came to know from his mother that his father had
loved him very much and on one occasion had sucked his swollen finger to
relieve his pain. Ajatasatru was repentant and decided to break his fetters with
an iron club. However, Bimbisara suspected foul play on the part of his son and
committed suicide by taking poison. Figure 6.5 illustrates the prison in Rajgir
where Bimbisara was imprisoned by Ajatasatru.

Figure 6.5 Bimbisara’s Jail at Rajgir
6.4.5 Ajatasatru
Ajatasatru is stated to have ruled from about 551 to 510BC. It was during his
reign that the Haryanka dynasty reached his high watermark. Ajatasatru added
to the prestige and glory of his dynasty by his conquests.
According to the Buddhist tradition, when Bimbisara died, his queen Kosala
Devi also died on account of her love for her husband. A village in Kashi had
been given to Bimbisara as bath and perfume money as a part of Kosala Devi’s
dowry. After the death of the lady, the king of Kosala decided to take away that
village. The result was a war that took place between Kosala and Magadha.
There were many ups and down in the war. It is stated that on one occasion the
king of Kosala was defeated and he had to flee to his capital. On another
occasion, Ajatasataru was defeated and captured. However, the king of Kosala
agreed to marry his daughter, Vajra, to Ajatasatru and bestow upon her the
village of Kashi for her bath and perfume money. It is further stated that the king
of Kosala was ousted from his throne by his commander-in-chief who put prince
Vidudabha on the throne. The king of Kosala decided to seek the help of his
son-in-law and set out for the capital of Magadha but unfortunately he died
outside the gates of the capital due to exposure.
Ajatasatru also fought against Vaishali. It is stated by Jain writers that
Bimbisara gifted Halla and Vehalla his two elephants, named Seyanaga and
Sechanaka, and a large necklace of 18 strings of jewels. Halla and Vehalla
were born from Queen Chellana, the daughter of king Chetaka of Vaishali.
When, Ajatasatru became king after the death of his father, he asked Halla and
Vehalla to return the elephants and the necklace. They refused and Ajatasatru
put pressure on Chetaka to hand over Halla and Vehalla to him but he refused
to do so. Under the circumstances, war started between Magadha and Vaishali.

According to Buddhaghosha, a fifth century Indian Theravadin Buddhist

commentator, there was a mine of gems at the foot of a hill near a port on the
Ganges. There was an agreement between Ajatasatru and the Lichchavis that
they were to divide the gems equally. However, the Lichchavis did not keep
their promise and took away all the gems. That led to a war between the two
kingdoms. It is also stated that Ajatasatru was instigated to start war against the
Lichchavis by his wife Padmavati.
The war against the Lichchavis was not an easy one and is stated to have
lasted for at least sixteen years. The Lichchavis were at the height of their
power and prosperity. Buddha’s own view was that the Lichchavis were invincible
because they were observing all those conditions which could bring strength to
a republic, such as holding full and frequent assemblies, ensuring the unity of
counsel and policy, maintaining institutions of worship, showing reverence to
elders and honouring women and ascetics. Buddha is stated to have been
consulted by Ajatasatru in the matter of the conquest of Vaishali. Vassakara, a
minister of Ajatasatru, pretended to have quarreled with his master and took
refuge with the Lichchavis. After winning over their confidence, he tried to create
dissensions among them. This he was able to accomplish within three years
and when the Lichchavis were attacked by Ajatasatru, they were defeated. Figure
6.6 illustrates the remains of Ajatasatru’s fort in Bihar.
Figure 6.6 Remains of Ajatasatru’s Fort
Ajatasatru also fought against Avanti. King Pradyota of Avanti made

preparations to avenge the death of Bimbisara. It is stated in the Majjahimanikaya
that on one occasion Ajatasatru had to fortify his capital as he was afraid of an
invasion by Pradyota. It is not clear whether the invasion actually took place or
not. However, the fact remains that Ajatasatru was not able to conquer Avanti.

6.4.6 Darsaka
According to the Puranas, Ajatasatru was succeeded by Darsaka and he ruled for
twenty five years. According to Geiger, a renowned scholar of ancient India, it is a
mistake to say that Ajatasatru was succeeded by Darsaka as it is definitely stated in
Pali literature that Udayibhadda was the son of Ajatasatru and probably his successor.
In the Kathakosha and the Parisishtaparavan, Udayin or Udaya has been mentioned
as the son of Ajatasatru and also his immediate successor. It is stated in the
Svapnavasavadatta that Darsaka was a ruler of Magadha and a contemporary of
Udayana. However, on the account of what is to be found in Buddhist and Jain
literature, it cannot be stated that Darsaka was the immediate successor of Ajatasatru
on the throne of Magadha. It is possible that he might have been merely a Mandalika
Raja. D.R. Bhandarkar, an authority on the studies of ancient Indian history, identifies
Darsaka with Naga-Dasaka who is mentioned in the Ceylonese chronicles as the
last king of Bimbisara’s line. It is to be noted that the Divyavadana does not mention
the name of Darsaka in the list of Bimbisarids.
6.4.7 Udyain or Udayabhadra

According to the Mahavamsa, Udayabhadra ruled for 16 years. The Katha kosha
describes him as the son of Ajatasatru by his wife Padmavati. He is represented
in Buddhist literature as a parricide like his father. Hemachandra suri, a renowned
Jaina scholar of the 12th century, states that Udayabhadra was overwhelmed
with grief at the death of his father.
According to Parisishtaparavan of Hemachandra, Udyain founded a new
capital on the banks of the river Ganges and it came to be known as Pataliputra.
The Gargisamhita and the Vayu purana also state that he built the city Kusumpura
or Pataliputra in the fourth year of his reign. The situation of the place at the
confluence of the Ganges and the Son made it important from the point of view
of commerce and strategy.
It is stated in the Parisishtaparavan that the king of Avanti was an enemy
of Udyain. The fall of Anga, Vaishali and Kosala had left Avanti as the only rival
of Magadha and consequently there was bound to be rivalry and enmity between
the two Kingdoms. The war that begun at the time of Ajatasatru, must have
continued at the time of Udyain as well.
According to the Avasyakasutra, Udyain was resposible for the construction
of chaityagraha or a Jain shrine in the heart of the capital. He also observed
fast on the eighth and fourteenth days of every month. On one of those days, a
teacher came to his place to give him a discourse. The teacher was accompanied

by a novice who murdered the king with his dagger. It is stated that the king of
Avanti was responsible for the plot which resulted in the death of Udyain.
It is stated in the Avasyaka-sutra that the king of Ujjain was defeated by
Udyain on many occasions.
According to historians, one of the Patna statues in the Bharhut Gallery
of the Indian Museum in Calcutta is that of Udyain. According to the Puranas,
Udyain was succeeded by Nandivardhana and Mahanandin. However, it is stated
in the Parisishtaparavan that Udyain left no heir. The Dipavamsa and the
Mahavamsa put Anurudha, Munda and Naga Dasaka after Udyain. It is also
stated in the Angutaranikaya that Munda was the king of Pataliputra. The name
of Munda is also mentioned in the Divyavadana.
6.4.8 Saisunaga or Sisunaga

It is stated in the Ceylonese chronicles that Sisunaga was an amatya and was
acting as a Governor at Benaras. He was put on the throne of Magadha by the
people who revolted against the dynasty of parricides. He had a second royal
residence at Vaishali, which ultimately became his capital. The monarch
(Sisunaga), not unmindful of his mother’s origin, re-established the city of Vesali
(Vaishali) and fixed in it the royal city which she never afterwards recovered.
The most important achievement of Sisunaga was that he destroyed the
glory of the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti.
The Puranas seem to be wrong in making Sisunaga a predecessor of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. It is stated in the Puranas that Sisunaga destroyed
the fame of the Pradyotas of Avanti and also started living at Girivraja after
placing his son at Benaras. The hostility between Magadha and Avanti dates
from the time of Ajatasatru and not Bimbisara. Benaras was conquered by
Ajatasatru and was a part of Magadha under Sisunaga. All this fits in properly
only if we put Sisunaga after Bimbisara and Ajatasatru and not before them as
contended by V.A. Smith, a great scholar and author of Oxford History of India.
According to the Puranas, Sisunaga was succeeded by Kakavarna.
However, according to the Ceylonese chronicles, he was succeeded by Kalasoka.
It is suggested by Bhandarkar, Jacobi (a German classicist and historian) and
Geiger that Kakavarna and Kalasoka are the same person. According to
Asokavadana, Mundavas was succeded by Kakavarna.
The second Buddhist Council met at Vaishali in the time of Kalasoka. He
also transferred his capital to Pataliputra. It is stated in Bana’s Harshacharita
that Katavarna was killed by a dagger thrust into his throat. Diodrous states:

‘The king of the Gandaridal, (i.e., King Nanda) was a man of quite worthless
character, and held in no respect, as he was thought to be the son of a barber.
This man, the king’s father was a comely person, and of him the Queen had
became deeply enamoured. The old king had been treacherously murdered by
his wife and the succession had devolved on him who now reigned.’
Most probably, the successors of Kalasoka were his ten sons who ruled
simultaneously. According to the Mahabodbivamsa, their names were
Bhadrasena, Korandavarna, Mangura, Sarvanjaha, Jalita, Ubhaka, Sanjaya,
Koravya, Nandivardhana and Panchamaka. However, the name of
Nandivardhana alone has been mentioned in the Puranas. Efforts have been
made to read his name in the Patna statue and also in the Hathigumpha
inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga. However, it is pointed out that there is nothing
in the Puranas to show that Nandivardhana ruled Kalinga. The only thing that is
stated is that while the Saisunagas and their predecessors were reigning in
Magadha, 32 kings ruled in Kalinga at the same time. Thus, we should identify
Nandaraja of the Hathigumpha inscription who held possession of Kalinga either
with the all conquering Mahapadma Nanda or one of his sons.
Activity 1
Make a chronological chart of the rulers of Magadha.

(a) The first important ruler of Magadha was _____________.
(b) After Ajatshatru, the ___________ emerged as the last powerful
dynasty before Chandragupta Maurya captured the throne of
Magadha.
(a) According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest dynasty
of Magadha was founded by Jarasandha.
(b) According to the Puranas, Ajatasatru was succeeded by Darsaka.

6.5 Nandas
The Nandas were the successors of the Sisunaga dynasty. The Puranas refer
to the nine Nandas who ruled for 100 years. The nine Nandas mentioned in the
Mahabodhivamsa are Urasena, Panduka, Pandugati, Bhutapala, Rashtrapala,
Govishanaka, Dasaisddhaka, Kaivarita and Dhana. While the Mahabodhivamsa
calls the first Nanda by the name of Ugrasena, the Puranas call him by the
name of Mahapadma or Mahapadmapati. The Puranas also describe him as a
son of the last Kshatrabandhu, king of the preceding line by a Sudra mother.
According to the Parisishtaparvan, the first Nanda was the son of a courtesan
by a barber. Quintus Curtius Rufus, a first century BC Roman historian, in
reference to the Nandas, states,
‘His father was infact a barber scarcely starving of hunger by his daily
earnings, but who from his being not uncomely in person, had gained the
affections of the queen and was by her influence advanced to too near a place
in the confidence of the reigning monarch. Afterwards, however, he treacherously
murdered his sovereign, and then under the pretence of acting as guardian to
the royal children, usurped the supreme authority, and having put the young
princes to death begot the present king.’
Mahapadma Nanda has been described in the Purans as the destroyer of
all the Kshatriyas (Sarva Ksbatrantaka). He has also been described as a second
Parsurama or Bhargava and the sole sovereign who brought the whole earth
under his authority. He defeated the Ikshavakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas,
Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, Vitihotras, etc. The Jain writers
also refer to the extensive territory of Mahapadma Nanda. The classical writers
also refer to the Prasii (Prachyas) and the Gandaridae as being under one
sovereign with their capital at Pataliputra. According to Pliny, a Roman author,
naturalist and natural philosopher, the Prasii excelled every other people in
India and their capital was located at Palibothra or Pataliputra. The
Kathasaritsagar refers to the camp of king Nanda in Ayodhya. There are some
inscriptions from Mysore which state that Kuntala was ruled by the Nandas.
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela refers to the constructive activity of
Nanda Raja in Kalinga and his conquest of some place in the country or the
removal of some sacred object. It is possible that Mahapadma was responsible
for the conquest of Asmaka and other regions lying further south. It is also
possible that his dominion covered a considerable part of the Deccan. Figure
6.7 illustrates the rare silver coins from the Nanda dynasty.

Figure 6.7 Silver Coins from the Nanda Dynasty
According to Curtius, the first Nanda king had about a cavalry of 20,000
horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 four-horsed chariots and more than 300 elephants
According to the Matsya Purana, Mahapadma Nanda ruled for 88 years.
However, the Vayu Purana says that he ruled only for 28 years. According to
Taranath, a Tibettan Buddhist monk and historian, Mahapadma reigned for 29
years. According, to Ceylonese chronicles, the Nandas ruled only for 22 years.
Dhanananda
According to the Mahabodhivamsa, Dhanananda was the last king of the Nanda
dynasty. It is suggested that he should be identified with the Agrammes or
Xandrames of the classical writers. George Turner, the translator of Mahavamsa
into English, has provided the following information:
‘The youngest brother was called Dhana Nanda from his being addicted
to hoarding treasure…..He collected riches to amount of 80 kotis in a rock in
the bed of the river (Ganges). Having caused a great excavation to be made,
he buried the treasure there….levying taxes among other articles, even on skins,
gums, and stones. He amassed further treasure which he disposed of similarly.’
It is stated that Alexander got information regarding the military strength
and unpopularity of the last Nanda king. King Porus stated that the king of
Gangaridai was a man of worthless character and was not held in respect. He
was considered to be the son of a barber. Plutarch, a Greek historian, tells us
that Androkottos or Chandragupta Maurya had stated that the Nanda king was
hated and despised by his subject on account of the wickedness of his disposition
and the meanness of his origin. It is possible that the cause of the unpopularity
of the Nandas was their financial extortion.
After Alexander’s departure, Chandragupta Maurya look advantages of
the weaknesses of Dhanananda and destroyed the power of the Nandas of

Magadha (320–21BC).The Puranas refer to a dynastic revolution by which the

Nandas were overthrown by the Mauryas. A detailed account of the same is
given to the Mudrarakshasa.
The Puranas refer to the Nandas as irreligious or adharmikah. It appears
that they had their leanings towards Jainism. It is stated that minister Kalpaka
was instrumental in the execution of the programme of the extermination of all
Kshatriya dynasties of the time. The other ministers were his descendants.
Sakatala was the minister of the ninth Nanda. It is stated in the Mudrarakshasa
that Chanakya selected a Jain as one of his chief agents. Jain influence is
visible in the whole of the drama.
Nandas are also stated to have possessed a lot of wealth. A reference
has already been made to the riches of Dhana Nanda. Krishnaswamy Aiyengar
a Tamil historian and writer, refers to the wealth of the Nandas in the Beginnings
of South Indian History. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller, tells us that the Nandas
had five treasures. The Kathasaritsagar also says that the Nandas had 990
millions of gold pieces. There are similar references in the accounts of the
classical writers.
Activity 2
Search on the Internet for the term ‘Hathigumpha inscription’. Find out and
compile the information provided in the inscription regarding the Nandas’
war with the contemporary Kalinga rulers.

(a) The Nandas were the successors of the ________ dynasty.
(b) The ___________ refer to the Nandas as irreligious or Adharmikah.
(a) According to the Mahabodhivamsa, Dhanananda was the last king
of the Nanda dynasty.
(b) Sakatala was the minister of the first Nanda ruler.

6.6 Summary

• The Aryans moved eastwards into eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar by
the 6th century BC. Of the sixteen mahajanapadas, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa
and Magadha were prominent.
• Magadha was the most powerful during the reign of Bimbisara and his
son Ajatashatru. The king in this period was powerful and assisted by
ministers.
• According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest dynasty of
Magadha was founded by Brihadratha, the father of Jarasandha and the
son of Vasu. According to the Ramayana, Vasu himself was the founder
of Griveraja or Vasumati. In the Puranas, we come across a list of the
kings of this dynasty.
• The territory of Bimbisara included 80,000 villages and covered an area
of 300 leagues. A number of republican communities under the
Rajakumaras were also included within the territory.
• According to the Buddhist tradition, when Bimbisara died, his queen Kosala
Devi also died on account of her love for her husband. A village in Kashi
had been given to Bimbisara as bath and perfume money as a part of
Kosala Devi’s dowry. After the death of the queen, the king of Kosala
decided to take away that village. The result was a war that took place
between Kosala and Magadha.
• According to the Avashyakasutra of the Jains, Bimbisara decided to appoint
Ajatasatru as his successor in preference to his other sons. However,
Ajatasatru became impatient and imprisoned his father where he was
looked after by queen Chellana.
• According to the Mahavamsa, Udayabhadra ruled for sixteen years. The
Kathakosha describes him as the son of Ajatasatru by his wife Padmavati.
He is represented in Buddhist literature as a parricide like his father.
• It is stated in the Ceylonese chronicles that Sisunaga was an amatya and
was acting as a Governor at Benaras. The most important achievement
of Sisunaga was that he destroyed the glory of the Pradyota dynasty of
Avanti.

• The Nandas were the successors of the Sisunaga dynasty. The Puranas
refer to the nine Nandas who ruled for 100 years. The nine Nandas
mentioned in the Mahabodhivamsa are Urasena, Panduka, Pandugati,
Bhutapala, Rashtrapala, Govishanaka, Dasaisddhaka, Kaivarita and
Dhana.
6.7 Glossary
• Republic: A form of government where an elected group of people were

the rulers
• Monarchy: A political system with hereditary rule of the king
• Puranas: Sacred texts of Hinduism that describe the history of the universe
and Hindu philosophy
1. Discuss the emergence and rise of mahajanapadas.

2. List the important republics of the sixth century BC.
3. State the main feature of the administrative system of the republics.
4. Trace the rise of Magadha under the leadership of Bimbisara.
5. Write a note on Ajatasatru’s rise to power.
6. Discuss the legends concerning the first Nanda.
6.9 Answers

2. (a) Republican; (b) Monarchial
3. (a) (iii); (b) (i); (c) (ii)


5. (a) Bimbisara; (b) Nandas
7. (a) Sisunaga; (b) Puranas

3. Refer to Subsection 6.3.1
Books.

Unit 7 Foreign Invasions

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Achaemenian/Persian Invasions
7.3 Macedonian Invasions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Glossary
7.7 Answers
7.8 Further Reading
7.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you studied about the emergence of cities and territorial
states. These states were always at war with each other over trivial issues,
which cleared the path for foreign rulers.
The fertile lands of India have always been an attraction for rulers in the
West. As dynasties ruling the middle and lower Ganga basins and the north-
western regions of India fought among themselves, they fell victim to the
invasions from the West, first by the Persians and then by the Greeks.
Objectives
• Create an outline of the Achaemenian invasions in north-west India
• Describe the course of Alexander the Great’s India campaign and interpret
why it could not provide a lasting empire
• Discuss the influences of the Persian and Macedonian invasions on Indian
politics, economy and culture

7.2 Achaemenian/Persian Invasions
Historian R.K. Mukherjee, the writer of The Economic History of India, said,
‘While the interior of India had been undergoing a process of political unification
under Magadha, her undefended and insecure frontiers on the north-west invited
foreign invasions. The first of these was the Persian invasion.’
Persians and Indians share the same roots, but how close they were to
each other politically can never be corroborated very definitely. From the sixth
century BC onward, however, we tread upon more solid ground. From classical
sources we learn that the Medo-Persian kingdom, which was supreme in Western
Asia during that century, came into contact with India through the eastern
campaigns of its emperor Cyrus.
7.2.1 Achaemenian/Persian Rulers

The Achaemenian dynasty was a royal family that ruled over Persia, beginning
with Cyrus the Great. The dynasty was named after Achaemenes who lived
sometime during the 7th century BC.
Cyrus the Great (558–530BC)
India in the latter half of the sixth century BC was divided into a number of petty
principalities, with no great power to curb their mutual strife and jealousies. This
provided a strong tempting ground to the Achaemenian monarchy, which had
risen in Persia about this time under the leadership of Cyrus.
During his reign, Cyrus invaded India through Gedrosia. However,
according to Strabo, a Greek historian and philosopher, he retreated with seven
men but was crowned with success in the valley of Kabul. According to the
other Greek historians, such as Herodotus, Tacitus and Xenophon, in his early
campaigns, Cyrus conquered Transiena, Sattagydia and Gandaritis. These
provinces were situated on the Indo-Iranian borders. Cyrus died of a wound
inflicted by an Indian in a battle which ‘the Indians were fighting on the side of
Derbikes whom they supplied with elephants. These Derbikes might have been
a frontier tribe. According to Xenophon, Cyrus brought the Bactrians under his
rule and exacted tribute from certain kings on the border areas.
Greek writers who were contemporaries of Alexander did not ascribe to
the view that Cyrus conquered any portion of India. According to Nearchus, an
officer in the army of Alexander the Great, ‘Cyrus came to grief in trying to

invade India through the inhospitable desert of Gedrosia where the greater part
of his army died.’ According to Magasthenes (a Greek ethnographer in the
Hellenistic period), ‘Indians had never engaged in foreign warfare, nor had they
ever been invaded and conquered by a foreign power, except by Heracles,
Dionysus, and lately by the Macedonians’. He also mentioned Semiramis, an
Assyrian queen who planned an invasion of India but died before giving a practical
shape to her plan. Arrian, another Greek historian, also agrees with Megasthenes
and states that, no foreign ruler prior to Alexander had invaded India. Both
Nearchus and Megasthenes agree that Cyrus never reached India. But these
Greek writers regard the Indus (Sindhu) to be the western limit of India and
possibly Cyrus’s conquests were confined to the west of the Indus.
Cyrus probably conquered Kapisa in the Ghorband valley. Arrian supports
this view. He says, ‘Indians between the Indus and Kabul were in the ancient
times subject to the Assyrians, the Medes, and, finally to the Persians under
Cyrus to whom they pay tribute he imposed upon them’. Edward Meyer, a
German scholar of the ancient history, concludes, ‘Cyrus appears to have
subjugated the Indian tribes of the Hindukush and in the Kabul valley, especially
the Gandarians; Darius himself advanced as far as the Indus.’
Death of Cyrus
Cyrus died in 530BC and was succeeded by Cambyses, who ruled for eight
years. He could not lead an expedition to India as he was occupied with the
internal troubles in his empire.
Darius I (522–486BC)
Darius was the third monarch of Achaemenian dynasty. He ruled for 36 years.
The inscriptions of his reign themselves speak of his campaigns and
achievements. These inscriptions include the following:
• Behistun inscription 520–518BC
• Persepolis inscription 518–515BC
• Naksh-i-Rustam inscription 515BC
The Behistun inscription (Figure 7.1) gives a list of twenty three provinces
that comprise his empire. On the basis of this inscription, it can be said that no
part of India was conquered by him yet. But, Persepolis and Nakshi-i-Rustam
refer to northern Punjab as forming part of his empire. So, Darius must have
conquered northern Punjab around 518BC.

Figure 7.1 The Behistun Inscription of Darius I
Darius’ Hamadan gold and silver tablet inscription mentions the Sindh as
a province of his empire. These inscriptions do not clearly indicate whether
Darius inherited these provinces from Cyrus or he himself pushed his Indian
conquest further into the region. It appears that he inherited Gandhara as it was
conquered by Cyrus. Thus, the Persian empire was further extended by Darius
in the Sindh region.
India formed the twentieth satrap of the Persian empire, to which it
contributed one-third of the total revenue. A naval expedition was also ordered
by Darius in 518BC under Scylax to explore the Indus river. Scylax sailed down
the Indus and in the due course of his voyage collected a good deal of information
that was afterwards utilized by Darius I.
Persian empire
On the basis of the inscriptions, R.K. Mukherjee established the extent of the
Persian empire in India as follows:
• Yauna-Yavana-Ionia
• Parthava-Parthia
• Zaranka-Zranka-Ddrangiana
• Haraiva (Sarayu)-Aria-Herat
• Bakhtrish-Bactria, Balkh
• Suguda-Sogdiana
• Saka-Sakasthana-Seistan
• Phatagush-Satagu-Sattagydia

• Harauvatish-Sarasvati-Arachosia-Kandhar
• Maka-Makran
Darius I died in 468BC and was succeeded by his son Xerxes who ruled
up to 465BC.
Xerxes (468–465BC)
Xerxes continued ruling over the Indian provinces that he inherited from Darius
I. He is said to have recruited an army of the Indian soldiers who fought for him
in Greece. Herodotus gives the following account of these Indian soldiers:
‘The Indians, clad in garment made of cotton, carried bows of cane and
arrows of cane, the latter tipped with iron; and thus the Indians were marshalled
under the command of Pharnazathres, son of Artabates. Besides the infantry,
India also supplied Xerxes with cavalry and chariots, riding horses, and also
horses and wild asses to draw the chariots, together with a very large number
of dogs.’
It may be noted that these Indian troops who fought for the first time in
Europe had to experience a terrible ordeal in storming the bloody defiles of
Thermopylae. The heroism they displayed on this occasion created a further
demand for their service. The result was that after the retreat of Xerxes from
Europe, Indian soldiers took part in the Boeotian campaign under the Persian
Commander Mardonius.
The Persians continued enjoying a hold over India up to 330BC. The last
Archaemenian emperor Darius III demanded Indian troops to resist Alexander’s
invasion. According to Arrian, one contingent of Indian soldiers fought at
Gaugamela under the satrap of Bactria, along with the Bactrians and Sogdians
while another fought under the satrap of Archosia.
7.2.2 Effects of Persian/Achaemenian Invasions

Indo-Aryans and Persians share the same roots. There was great similarity in
their languages, traditions, religious faiths, rites and rituals. Even later, political,
commercial and cultural relations continued existing between the two nations.
The Kharoshti script, used in north-west India during the time of Ashoka, is
most likely a result of Persian legacy. The Persian architecture also greatly
influenced the Indian architecture. It could be said that Persian influence
continued for about a period of two or three centuries. The inscriptions of Ashoka
are a testimony to this fact.
It was only at the time of Alexander’s invasion that various independent
monarchical and non-monarchical states had come into existence in north-west

India. It may be presumed that by then, the Persians did not control any part of
India.
The Persian invasions left a deep impression upon the politics and cultural
life of India. Some scholars believe it was the Persians who introduced the
concept of an empire in India. It is also believed that Indians learnt courtly
customs and etiquettes from the Persians. The following were the major effects
of the Persian invasions.
• Commercial relations between the two countries received an impetus
and both countries prospered.
• The Persian invasions exposed the political weakness of north-western
India and as a consequence, they were followed by Greeks and
Bactrians.
• Cultural exchanges between Indians and Persians started taking place.
This also led to matrimonial relations, and job prospects for Indians in
western Asia.
• The Persians had a great influence on Indian art and architecture, as
can be seen in the Ashokan pillars.
• Indian rulers started keeping Persian women as their bodyguards.
• The various inscriptions of Ashoka bear the stamp of Persian influence.
Without this contact, we would have been deprived of the valuable
source of information about the most illustrious king of ancient India.
Activity 1
Take a map of Asia and mark the extent of the Achaemenian empire at the
height of its power.
1. State whether true or false

(a) Darius was the fifth monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty.
(b) According to Herodotus, India formed the twentieth satrap of the
Persian empire.

2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words

(a) Indian warriors fought for the Persians under ______________.
(b) Persian influence led to the development of the ____________ script.
7.3 Macedonian Invasions
In the 4th century BC, India comprised a series of small principalities that were
constantly at war with each other. Some of these states were republics, while
the others were monarchies. They lacked a central sovereign authority. This
provided fertile ground for new invaders, the Macedonians.
7.3.1 Alexander the Great’s India Campaign

According to historian Vincent A. Smith, the author of Oxford History of India,
‘Alexander the Great (Figure 7.2) having completed the subjugation of Bactria
resolved to execute the cherished purpose of emulating and then surpassing
the mythical exploits of Dionysos, Herakles and Semiramis by effecting the
conquest of India.’
Alexander, the Macedonian king and son of Philip II, wanted to expand
his empire beyond the territory of Greece. Unmindful of the rigours of climate
and the numerous obstacles presented in his progress by man and nature alike,
Alexander set himself with great foresight to the task of subjugating the lands
that lay on his route in order to maintain free and uninterrupted communication
with his distant base. In 327BC, he conquered Seistan and then southern
Afghanistan, where he founded a city called Alexandria-among-the-Arachosians,
today called Kandahar.
In 326 BC , Alexander made his way into the Kabul Valley. Before
concentrating on India, Alexander had to subdue Bactria and the other adjacent
territories. After reducing them to submission, Alexander crossed the Hindukush
mountains and advanced toward Nikaja, situated to the west of modern Jalalabad
on the road from Kabul to India. Here he divided his forces into two sections.
General Hephaistion and Perdikkas were ordered to proceed in advance with
one section of the army who were required to reach the Indus in advance and
construct a bridge over it for the safe passage of forces. The other section was
led by Alexander himself to fight against the warlike tribes of the frontier.

Figure 7.2 Bust of Alexander the Great
Conquest of the Aspasians

The Aspasians were the first to be conquered by Alexander. They are said to
have lost more than 40,000 men and 2,30,000 oxen. Alexander selected the
best of the captured cattle and sent them to Macedonia for use in the agriculture.
Conquest of Nysa
Nysa was the next attacked by Alexander. It was situated between the River
Kabul and Indus and had a republican constitution, ruled by Akouphis. The
Nysaens claimed descent from Dionysos, because ivy and vine were widespread
in their country, and was dominated by a triple peaked mountain called Mount
Meros.
The defeat of the Assakenoi and Massaga
Alexander now undertook in person the defeat of the formidable nation of the
Assakenoi. They were awaiting Alexander with an army of 20,000 cavalry, 30,000
infantry, and thirty elephants. The capital, Massaga was strongly fortified by
nature, with a mountain stream on the east flowing between steep banks, while
on the south and west, big rocks, deep chasms and treacherous morasses
impeded the approach of an assailing force. A rampart of bricks, stone and
timber, about four miles in circumference, guarded by a deep moat, circled the
city. Chief Assakenos, however, was killed by a chance shot, and there are
legends of his consort Kleophis surrendering herself to Alexander and later
bearing him a son.

After the fall of Massaga, Alexander advanced further, and in the course
of a few months captured the strategic fortresses of Ora, Bazira, Aornos
Pushkeravati, Embolima and Dyrta.
Advance of Alexander
After stationing sufficient Greek garrisons, Alexander advanced further.
Conditions were favourable for him as Punjab was divided and mutual dissension
had sapped its vitality. In the spring of 326BC, Alexander crossed Indus and
received a warm welcome from Ambhi or Omphis, the king of Taxila. The ready
submission of the rulers of Taxila is explained by the fact that they desired
Alexander’s help against their enemies in neighbouring states. At that moment
Taxila was at war both with the hill kingdom of Abhisara and with the more
powerful neighbouring state governed by king Porus.
While Alexander was at Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara sent envoys who
professed to surrender to him. This mission was favourably received by Alexander
and he hoped that Porus would also surrender. Summons were sent requiring
him to pay homage and tribute but were met with the proud answer that he
would indeed come to his frontier to meet the invader, but at the head of an
army ready for battle.
When Alexander reached the banks of the river Jhelum, he found Porus
waiting on the other side. It was difficult for Alexander to cross the river. At last,
as Arrian puts it, Alexander decided to steal a passage and with 11,000 soldiers
moved up the river from his camp. He also endeavoured to lull the vigilance of
the enemy by publicly announcing that he intended to wait for a change of
season. He marched at night and crossed the river. When Porus learnt of this,
he sent his son with 2,000 horses and 120 chariots. This force was speedily
routed by Alexander. Fugitives carried the disastrous news to Porus. Porus now
moved out to fight the invader. The battle took place in the plain now known as
Karri.
The Indian army and cause of the defeat of Porus
Porus had 200 elephants stationed at the intervals of not less than a hundred
feet from one another, probably in eight ranks, forming the front in the centre.
Porus chiefly relied on his elephants who he thought would terrify the foreign
soldiers and render the dreaded cavalry unmanageable. In the battle, the Indians
fought with great courage and obstinately maintained their ground till the eighth
hour of the day, but eventually luck did not favour them. The main strength of
Porus lay in the chariots, which became useless due to the rains. The rain and
storm had made the ground slippery and unfit for horses, while the chariots

kept sticking in the muddy sloughs formed by the rain and proved almost
immovable from their great weight, the Indian archers also could not fix their
bows because of the slippery ground. The Indian army could not withstand the
manoeuvres of the Macedonian cavalry. At last, the elephants being now cooped
up within a narrow space, did no less damage to their friends than to their foes,
trampling them under their feet as they wheeled and pushed about.’ The Indian
army was annihilated; all the elephants either killed or captured and the chariots
destroyed. Porus himself fought to the end, but at last was taken prisoner. Figure
7.3 shown a silver coin depicting the defeat of Porus.
Porus honoured
When Alexander heard of Poros’ arrival, he with his companions came forward
to meet him. Alexander admired Porus, who did not seem to be broken in spirit.
He asked Porus to say how he wished to be treated. ‘Treat me, Alexander, as
befits a king,’ was the reply.
Justin says that Alexander reinstated Porus in his kingdom and added a
few more territories. This act was based on political farsightedness and wisdom.
Alexander was conscious of the fact that it was impossible for him to rule all the
conquered lands without enlisting local loyalty, assistance and cooperation.
Alexander may also have wanted Porus and Ambhi to keep a check on each
other. R.S. Tripathi, the author of History of Ancient India, has pointed out that
Alexander was not only acting in consonance with the dictates of diplomacy
and statecraft, but strangely enough, he was also following the traditional policy
of Hindu conquerors, advocated by Manu and Kautilya, viz. the policy of placing
either the vanquished monarch or some scion of his family upon the throne
instead resorting to direct annexation.
Figure 7.3 Silver Coin Depicting the Defeat of Porus

Founding cities
Alexander founded two cities, one was named Boukephale after his faithful
horse and the other Nikaia, both to commemorate his victory over Porus. After
performing the traditional and customary sacrifices into the territory of Gausai,
Alexander occupied all its thirty-seven cities. It was here he received the news
of a revolt in his subdued areas. Nikanor, the governor of the western provinces
of the Indus, was put to death. To the close of 326BC, Macedonian armies crossed
the Ravi river and Pimprama, which belonged to the Adraistai.
Subjugation of Sangala
After capturing Pimprama, Alexander captured Sangala, the stronghold of the
Kathaians. The Kathaians fought so hard that even Porus had to come to
Alexander’s aid. After victory, Alexander razed the city to the ground.
Refusal of Greek army to advance
When Alexander reached the Beas river, his armies refused to advance any
further.
Reasons for revolt
Before we discuss Alexander’s retreat it is necessary to discuss the reasons for
revolt. Why did the same soldiers, who were undaunted and unaffected by all
the difficulties that had come their way, refuse to advance? The Greek soldiers
were war-worn, homesick, disease stricken and destitute, and many of them
were ill-equipped, for it was now increasingly difficult to transport and supply
garments from Greece, and not a few were depressed because their friends
had perished by disease or fallen victims to battles. But was there any other
ground for their conduct? Even after the contest with Porus the Macedonian
forces were considerably dispirited, and it was with reluctance that they had
advanced as far as the Beas at Alexander’s bidding. The Greeks had also been
impressed by the skill of the Indian soldiers. During their advance towards the
Beas, the armies of Alexander heard rumours that beyond the river there were
extensive and uninviting deserts, impetuous and unfathomable rivers, and what
was more disquieting, powerful and wealthy nations. His armies had heard that
the farther bank of the Ganges was inhabited by the Gangaridae and the Prasii,
whose king Agrammes was ready with 20,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry
besides 2,000 four-horsed chariots and what was the most formidable force of
all, a troop of 3,000 elephants. These facts have also been supported by the
indigenous sources, which tell of the enormous riches, wealth and power of the
Nanda monarchs. Of the country immediately beyond the Beas, Arrian says, ‘It
was exceedingly fertile, and the inhabitants were good agriculturists, brave in

war and living under an excellent system of internal government. It was also
reported that the people there had a greater number of elephants than the
other Indians and that those were of superior size and courage.’ All these details
made Alexander keen to advance into the interior, but on the other hand, his
soldiers began to lose heart. Alexander’s appeals had no effect on them.
Alexander had no alternative but to retreat. It is said that before his retreat he
ordered for the construction of twelve altars, dedicated to the chief Greek gods.
Thus, the Macedonian invasion was confined to the land of the five rivers.
As he left, Alexander placed his ally Porus in charge of all the areas between
the Beas and the Jhelum. The areas between the Indus and the Jhelum were
placed in the hands of Ambhi. The valley of Kashmir was given to Abhisara and
Urasa to Arsakes who was made the vassal of Abhisara, and as a counterpoise
to the rule of these Indian princes, Alexander stationed Greek troops in cities
founded by him.
Alexander then made preparations for sailing down the rivers. Having
repulsed the opposition of the kings of the lower Indus, Alexander reached
Patalene. Here, he divided his army into two sections. One was led by sea and
the other marched with Alexander along the southern coast of Balochistan.
In 323BC, Alexander reached Babylonia and died there.
7.3.2 Greek Influences on Indian History

Alexander stayed in India for only about 19 months. While his invasion of India
was a stormy and tumultuous affair, it is an incident of minor importance in the
history of ancient India. India remained unchanged. The wounds of battle were
quickly healed. India was not hellenized. She continued to live her life of splendid
isolation and soon forgot the passing of the Macedonian storm. No Indian author,
Hindu, Buddhist or Jain, makes even the faintest allusion to Alexander or his
deeds.
Alexander’s campaign was not a political success, for it did not result in
any permanent Macedonian occupation of the Punjab. It left no permanent mark
on the literature, life or government of the people. What remained of the foreign
occupation after Alexander’s retreat from India and his death in 323BC was wiped
out in the war of liberation fought successfully by the Indian leader Chandragupta
Maurya, who became ruler of the Punjab about that time.
The following were the reasons of the impermanent effects of Alexander’s
invasion:

• Untimely death of Alexander: After the conquest of India, Alexander

could not even return to his homeland. Death made his conquests
impermanent.
• Short stay: Alexander stayed in India for very short duration; only nineteen
months.
• Invasion on the fringes: Indian culture remained impregnable to Greek
culture as most of the exchanges had taken place at the fringes.
• Rise of the Maurya Dynasty: Chandragupta Maurya established a
powerful empire immediately after Alexander’s invasion. He not only
subdued the Punjab and Magadha but also drove out the Greeks from
India.
Alexander failed to leave a rich legacy. But it would be underestimating
the achievements and effects of the Macedonian conqueror. His invasion did
have various glaring and obvious political, economic and cultural effects.
Political effects
Political effects of the Macedonian invasions may be summarized as follows:
• Alexander’s invasion rendered the north-western principalities utterly weak.
It paved the way for the rise of Chandragupta Maurya, whose task now
became easy. He conveniently subdued all those states and laid the
foundation of a powerful empire on the ruins of those principalities.
• As a result of this invasion, Greek rule was permanently set up on the
border provinces of western Punjab and Sindh. There began the rule of
the satraps.
• The Macedonian invasion created a sense of political unity among the people
of the north. At the time of his invasion India was divided into many small
states which were always at daggers drawn with one another. Chandragupta
Maurya subdued and subjugated the whole of northern India and gave it a
political unity. He also saved the country from foreign invasion. It is due to
this reason he is regarded to be the first national king of India.
• Alexander’s invasion has greatly added to the sources of Indian history
as it helped construct the history of ancient India in a chronological setting.
The historians who accompanied Alexander were very particular about
referring to all the events with proper dates. Their writings have proved a
valuable source of information for the construction of the history of the
ancient India.

• Due to the Macedonian invasions, Indians learnt new methods of warfare

such as the organization of the armies, discipline and new tactics. By
encountering Greek forces, Indians realized that a disciplined and
organized army, even if smaller in number, could overpower a stronger
adversary.
Economic effects
Economic effects of the Macedonian invasions may be summarized as follows:
• The Macedonian invasion eradicated the wall of separation between the
East and the West. Although India had close ties with the people of the
West even prior to this invasion, this invasion caused the opening of three
new land routes and one sea route.
• The new routes promoted commercial relations between the two countries.
• Indians also learnt minting coins from the Greeks. Alexander had issued
certain silver coins to commemorate his victory over Porus. One such
coin depicts an effigy of Alexander on one side and Porus on an elephant
hotly pursued by horsemen on the other.
Cultural effects
Cultural effects of the Macedonian invasions may be summarized as follows:
• The establishment of Greek kingdoms in Western Asia led to the exchange
of views between the Indians and the Westerners.
• The Greek kingdoms in Syria, Bactria and other parts of Asia, which had
been established on the disruption of Alexander’s empire, enabled in
course of time close cultural contact between India and Europe. Kanishka,
it is said, invited many Greek Bactrian sculptors to Gandhara for making
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas. They blended Greek and the
Indian styles in art leading to the development of the Gandhara School of
Art.
• It is also said that the system of Indian astronomy is largely influenced by
the Hellenic system.
As for the Greeks, they learnt a lot about the sciences, arts, philosophy,
mathematics and medicine from India.
Activity 2
Take a map of Asia and mark the progress of Alexander the Great’s
campaigns in India.


(a) Porus and Ambhi were close allies who fought together against
Alexander.
(b) Alexander’s invasion of India stopped at the Ganges river.
4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words
(a) Alexander stayed in India for _______________ months.
(b) Alexander died in the region of _______________.
7.4 Summary

• While the interior of India had been undergoing a process of political
unification under Magadha, her undefended and insecure frontiers on the
north-west invited foreign invasions. The first of these was the Persian
invasion.
• Cyrus was the first Persian ruler to attempt an invasion of India.
• Under the rule of Darius, India formed the twentieth satrap of the Persian
empire, to which it contributed one-third of the total revenue.
• Xerxes continued ruling over the Indian provinces that he inherited from
Darius I. He is said to have recruited an army of Indian soldiers who
fought for him in Greece.
• Political, commercial and cultural relations continued existing between
India and Persia.
• The Kharoshti script, used in north-west India during the time of Ashoka,
is most likely a result of Persian legacy.
• The Persian architecture also greatly influenced the Indian architecture.
• Alexander the Great having completed the subjugation of Bactria, resolved
to execute the cherished purpose of emulating and then surpassing the
mythical exploits of Dionysos, Herakles and Semiramis by effecting the
conquest of India.
• In the spring of 326BC, Alexander crossed Indus and received a warm
welcome from Ambhi or Omphis, the king of Taxila.

• In 323BC, Alexander reached Babylonia and died there.

• Alexander’s invasion of India had several political, economic and cultural
effects.
7.5 Glossary
• Kharoshti: A north-west Indian script mostly written right to left

• Inscription: Text carved on a wall or plaque, such as memorial or
gravestone
• Satrap: The name given to the governors of the provinces of the ancient
Achaemenid (Persian) empires
1. W hat political circumstances in north-west India prompted the

Achaemeneid invasions of India?
2. Who was the first Achaemeneid king to invade India?
3. Write note on Darius and his achievements.
4. What impact did the Persian invasions have on India?
5. Describe the reasons that prompted Alexander the Great to invade India.
6. Why did Alexander the Great’s invasion fail to leave a lasting impact on
the Indian history?
7. What were the political, economic and cultural influences of the Greek
invasions on India?
7.7 Answers

2. (a) Xerxes; (b) Kharoshti
4. (a) Nineteen; (b) Babylonia


7.8 Further Reading
Books.

Unit 8 The Mauryan Empire

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Mauryan Empire
8.3 Chandragupta Maurya
8.4 Asoka (269–232bc)
8.5 Art and Architecture under Mauryan Empire
8.6 Causes for the Downfall of the Mauryan Empire
8.7 Summary
8.8 Glossary
8.10 Answers
8.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about various foreign invasions on India and
their effects on the socio-economic life of common man of the country. While
this unit will discuss the rise, achievements and the downfall of the great Mauryan
empire specifically. The Mauryan empire successfully conquered all the small,
warring kingdoms and practically brought under its wake a huge portion of South
Asia. However, the foundation of the empire was laid in a war-ridden north
India, which was under constant threats of foreign attacks.
During the second half of the 6th century BC, Cyrus, who had established
a large empire in Persia, became successful in capturing all the land between
the Indus and Kabul rivers. One of his successors, Darius I, however, annexed
Gandhara and the Indus Valley. The Indus Valley or ‘India’ as they called it was
the twentieth satrapy and paid a tribute of gold to the Persian empire. During
the rule of Mahapadma Nanda, India was invaded by the Greek ruler Alexander,
the son of King Philip of Macedonia. Alexander set out to conquer the world
after having conquered Greece. Alexander defeated the Persian ruler. Next, he
overran the Afghanistan and entered India through the Khyber Pass in 326BC.
At this time, north-west India was divided into small kingdoms. By destroying
the small kingdoms of the north-west, Alexander paved the way for the
establishment of Maurya dynasty’s rule. Alexander’s army was tired and reluctant

to move further ahead and face the fierce army of Chandragupta Maurya. They
turned back and headed for Babylon, where Alexander breathed his last in 323BC.
Chandragupta Maurya, thus, was able to lay the foundation of the empire that
would ultimately change the course of the ancient Indian history.
Objectives
• Discuss the various aspects of the rule of Chandragupta Maurya
• Discuss the various aspects of the rule of Asoka, including his Dhamma
and the Battle of the Kalinga
• Evaluate the art and architecture of the Mauryan empire
• List the reasons that led to the downfall of the Mauryan empire
8.2 Mauryan Empire
In 322BC, Magadha, under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya, began to assert

its power over neighbouring areas. Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral
deposits, especially iron, Magadha was the centre of bustling commerce and
trade. The source of our knowledge about the Mauryan empire is based on the
Arthashastra by Chanakya or Kautiliya, which is a treatise on statecraft. It gives
us a picture of the administration, society and the economy of the country. In
the book, he explains how a strong and an efficient government should be
organized and what the duties of a ruler are. Chanakya was Chandragupta’s
Chief Minister and mentor. The Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa by Visakadatta is
a political literature revealing the struggle undertaken by Chandragupta Maurya
with the help of Chanakya to overthrow the Nandas. It is also an insight into
Chandragupta’s life. The Jataka tales of the Buddhist literature and the Indica
written by Megasthenes, the Greek traveller to Chandragupta’s court, gives an
account of the Mauryan capital, its administrative system and social life. The
Ceylonese chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, give the accounts
of the conversion of Ceylon to Buddhism. They have also helped in reconstructing
the history of Asoka. The rock edicts of Asoka provide information about the
Mauryan rule. According to them, India constructed a new world on the basis of
peace, brotherhood and cultural unity under the rule of the Mauryans.
‘The arrival of the Mauryans was an important incident in the Indian history.
Considering the unfavourable conditions in which the foundations of this dynasty

were laid down and became strong, it can be said that its place was really very
high.’ The Mauryan empire marks a new epoch in the history of India. It was a
period of unification of the territories, which were fragmented kingdoms under
different rulers. Moreover, trade routes between Europe and India over land
and sea paved the way for contact with the outside world. It was a period when
politics, art, trade and commerce flourished.
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms

(a) __________ started to assert its power in 322BC.
(b) Arthasastra was written by _____________.
(a) Under the Mauryans, politics, trade and art flourished.
(b) Indica is a Ceylonese chronicle.
8.3 Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan empire. After establishing
himself firmly on the throne of Magadha, Chandragupta set out to expand his
empire. He conquered the whole of northern India up to the river Indus.
Chandragupta had vast resources; hence he could maintain a huge army. In
305BC, he defeated Seleucus Nikator and north-western India was liberated
from Greek control. Seleucus surrendered Afghanistan and Baluchistan and
also gave his daughter Helen’s hand in marriage to Chandragupta. In return,
Chandragupta presented Seleucus with 500 war elephants. Seleucus sent
Megasthenes as an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta.
Megasthenes stayed with Chandragupta for over five years, travelling
through the Mauryan empire and wrote an account of his travels in the book
Indica. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 297BC, was the architect of the
first Indian imperial power whose capital was Pataliputra, near modern-day Patna
in Bihar. The rule of this remarkable king came to an end in 297BC. After ruling
for twenty-four years, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son,
Bindusara, and became a Jain ascetic. According to a Jain text, he starved

himself to death in order to attain nirvana. His son, Bindusara, extended the
empire into central India and parts of southern India. Only the kingdom of Kalinga
was unconquered at the time of his death. His son, Asoka, succeeded him in
273BC.
8.3.1 Early Life of Changragupta Maurya

Though much is not known about the earlier life of Chandragupta, inscriptions
suggest that he was born in 345BC in a Kshatriya family residing between present
Gorakhpur and the Terai in Nepal. A number of Indian historians are of the view
that Chandragupta was the illegitimate son of a king from the Nanda dynasty of
Magadha from a maid named ‘Mura’. The dynasty was named after
Chandragupta’s mother. Chanakya, a teacher in the Takshasila University found
him playing with his friends, where he pretended to be their king. The devout
wisdom in the boy impressed Chanakya who was amazed at his leadership
skills and decided to make him a disciple. Chanakya trained Chandragupta in
warfare and statecraft. They conquered Magadha and established a new rule in
Gandhara.
Chandragupta was a great commander and an efficient warrior. The talent
and ambitious attitude of Chandragupta combined with the shrewd politics of
Chanakya were enough to face any opposition efficiently. Chandragupta fought
many battles during his reign. He took over Magadha, fought against the Greeks,
the Nanda dynasty of the east. By the time he was twenty years’ old, his kingdom
stretched from the Bay of Bengal in the east to River Indus in the west to the
Arabian Sea in the south. Under Chandragupta Maurya, many kingdoms freed
from barbaric administration on one hand and on the other hand also released
from the clutches of foreign slavery. His political and soldierly achievements
were great.’ He accepted Jainism and relinquished the throne for his son
Bindusara in 320BC.
8.3.2 Economy under Chandragupta Mauyra

Under the Mauryan empire, India was an agricultural country. According to
Megasthenes, majority of the population consisted of agriculturists. They neither
participated in warfare nor did they participate in the state affairs. They were not
harmed during wars. The tillers of the soil carried on their work uninterruptedly.
The land was rich and fertile. The means of irrigation were simple. Therefore,
people never saw disasters caused by famines. There were two seasonal rainfalls
in India, and farmers reaped harvest twice a year. Besides, there were orchards
of myriad kinds. Kautilya has given a description of ploughed, fallow and rocky

lands. The land was tilled with the help of oxen. The state paid special attention
towards the methods of irrigation. Many officials were appointed for inspecting
the towns. According to the Junagarh inscription, Pushpagupta, an official of
Chandragupta got Sudarshana Lake constructed for irrigation in Saurashtra.
The following were the means of irrigation as given in Arthasastra:
• Canals, tanks, wells, ponds and rivers bullocks
• Water was drawn from the wells with the help of buckets, and big leather
bags
• Building dams over the river
Kautilya also refers to manure made of the mixtures of ghee, honey, fats,
cow dung and powdered fish. It was used in order to increase the fertility of the
soil. Wheat, sugar, maize, rice, barley, sugarcane, mustard, peanuts, cotton,
tobacco, potatoes, watermelons, etc., were the main crops of the Mauryan times.
Fruits like mangoes, grapes, lemons were aplenty.
Occupations
During the Mauryan times, the cloth industry had greatly developed. The main
clothes centres were Kashi, Vatsa, Madura, Vanga, Apranta, etc. Spinning was
done by the spinning wheels and big looms were used for weaving clothes.
According to Arthasastra and Megasthenes, cotton was produced in great
quantity the weavers of cotton clothes worked round the clock. Jute too, was
utilized for weaving. Magadha and Kashi were well known towns for jute
productions.
During those days clothes were prepared out of the leaves and bark of
the trees and the fibres of many kinds. Arthasastra presents an elaborate
description of woollen clothes and blankets. They were made in different ways.
The woollen garments were made of wool of many colours and with strong
threads. Nepal was the main centre of blanket trade. Megasthenes has pointed
out that the Indians dressed in costly and beautiful attires. The people of Bengal
had the chief occupation of producing muslin cloth, which was in great demand
for making clothes. While cotton was grown in the country, silk clothes were
imported from China.
Metallurgy
According to Megasthenes, during the Mauryan age, there was an enormous
quantity of gold and silver in India. Iron, copper and brass was also available in
large quantities. Iron was used for manufacture of arms. Ordinarily, the work of
mining was done by the state officials. The state representative who was in-

charge of the mines was known as Akradhayaksha. During the Mauryan times,
ornaments were worn by members of both the sexes. The wealthy section of
the society wore ornaments made of ivory.
Diving and finding pearls, jewels, shells, diamonds from the sea was the
most difficult task. Ornaments studded with pearls and beads were in much
demand. The Indians wore clothes embroidered with golden threads. The utensils
were made of metal; the process of making pots out of metal, its casting and
softening is also given in the Arthasastra.
Forests, in this period, constituted the property of the state. There were
efficient methods of cutting and loading the wood. Bamboo, leaves and bark
was used for making a number of everyday things. Wood of an excellent quality
was required for making ships. Arthasastra gives a description of skins of different
animals used for manufacturing things. During the Mauryan Age, a brisk wine
trade flourished too. There is a mention of six types of wine in Arthasastra.
Wine trade was under the complete control of Suradhyabha.
The state paid avid attention to the progress of every trade and occupation
and traders enjoyed the security of the state. People blinding or chopping off
the hands of any sculptor or craftsman was given life sentence. Traders had the
privilege of enjoying feasible profit but anyone who indulged in making graft
money, cheating, gaining undue profit and adulterating everyday products was
severely punished. Kautilya followed the middle path in state affairs and a mutual
one in professional sphere.
The external and internal trade had developed sufficiently during the
Mauryan period. The internal trade was carried through safe land routes. The
roads going from Pataliputra to western India was 1,500 miles long. In southern
India there were important busy land routes. According to Kautilya, the southern
roads going through the mines were very significant. They involved less exertion
and labour. Another road ran from Pataliputra to the east. Besides these major
routes there existed many minor land routes that connected the small cities
with the main roads. On the main roads there were milestones at a distance of
every half kilometer.
Judges were appointed for the regular inspection and supervision of these
roads. The internal trade was also carried through rivers. Small boats and vessels
were used for this purpose. In the entire Kingdom every town was known for its
particular product. Nepal was famous for woollen clothes, the Himalayan area
for skin industries, Magadha for tree bark and clothes, Kashi for all types of
clothes, Bengal for fine muslin, Kerala for pearls. The people of the professional
class travelled to far off lands to sell their wares.

According to Arthasastra, during the Mauryan times active trade was

carried on by sea routes in big ships known as Pravana. There were ports and
harbours. The management of the ports was under a port official. The person in
charge of the port had to rescue ships caught in the stormy waves of perilous
seas. Pearls were imported from China. There were good commercial relations
between Egypt and India. Sikandria was the chief port of Egypt and three land
routes connected it with India. The existence of a special assembly for receiving
the foreign ambassadors in the royal court of Mauryas indicates that there existed
close relations between India and countries abroad. Thus, during the Mauryan
times, kings had to maintain foreign relations and formulate the appropriate
external policies.
Coinage
The following were the Mauryan coins:
• Gold coins known as Sauvamik
• Silver coins called Kashaparna
• Copper coins called Mashaka
• Kakni was also a copper coin which was less valuable to Mashaka
Kautilya has divided the Mauryan coinage into two parts. These are as
follows:
1. Legal tender: In this category were the coins collected in the state
treasury. They were used for state taxation and export and import or
exchange.
2. Token money: This was a token currency used by the people or
their daily transactions. Such coins were not deposited in the royal
treasury. The coins were made by the state foundries. But anyone
could cast the coins at his own cost. There was no paper currency.
The chief of the foundry was called Suvarnika or Lakshanadhyaksha.

(a) In 306BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nikator.
(b) Asoka succeeded Chandragupa Maurya in 327BC.

4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words

(a) Chandragupta’s capital was ____________, near modern day Patna.
(b) Chandragupta relinquished his throne in ____________.
5. Choose the correct answer from the given options ____________ was
the name given to silver coins.
(i) Kashaparna (iii) Arthashastra
(ii) Maksha (iv) Megathenes
(a) Water was drawn from the wells with the help of ________.
(b) Fruits like ______, lemons and grapes grew in the country in
abundance.
8.4 Asoka (269–232BC)
Asoka has an unmatched place in the history of the ancient India. He is not only
famous for the vastness of his empire but also for his personal character, aims
and ideals. He was an able ruler and an ideal human being. Not every age and
every country can give birth to such a king. Asoka cannot be compared even
today with any other from the history of the world.
8.4.1 Early Life

Though Asoka is known as the greatest king of India, historians learned about
him only in the 19th century. In 1837, a British scholar named James Prinsep
deciphered the inscriptions on the pillars and rocks that are found in many parts
of India. The script was in Brahmi script. From these inscriptions, it was concluded
that Asoka and the ruler named Devanampiya Priyadarsi were one and the
same person. An inscription discovered by Prinsep in 1915 used the name
Asoka along with the other name. These inscriptions gave historians valuable
information about Asoka’s rule and the extent and condition of his empire. The
land he ruled stretched from the Himalayas in Nepal and Kashmir to Mysore in
the south, from Afghanistan in the northwest to the banks of the River
Brahmaputra in the east. In the west his territory covered Saurashtra and
Junagarh. Kalinga was one of the kingdoms, which remained unconquered and
hostile when Asoka succeeded to the throne. It was important to Asoka from a
geographical point of view, since the route to south India both by land and by

sea passed through it. It would also bring added prosperity to the Mauryan
empire. It was for these reasons that Asoka attacked Kalinga.
8.4.2 Battle of Kalinga

Kalinga was a prosperous little kingdom lying between the river Godavari and
Mahanadi, close to the Bay of Bengal. It had an infantry of 60,000 men, 10,000
horsemen and 600 elephants. Asoka wanted to capture this fertile land, and so
had it surrounded. A fierce battle followed in which an enormous amount of life
and property was lost. Kalinga surrendered and, for the first time in the Indian
history, almost the whole subcontinent except the extreme south was under a
single ruler. However, this battle affected the king deeply.
Figure 8.1 Mauryan Empire under Asoka
In the midst of the battlefield, Asoka stood with the wounded, crippled
and the dead all around him. The sight of the terrible carnage and the miseries
of war filled Asoka with remorse. He vowed never to make war again. The war
drums (Bherighosh) were silenced forever and henceforth were heard only the
reverberations of the Dhammaghosh (the call to non-violence and Universal
peace).

8.4.3 Asoka’s Dhamma

The word ‘dhamma’ was derived from the Sanskrit word ‘dharma’. Asoka followed
the principles of Buddhism—that of truth, charity, kindness, purity and goodness.
He wanted his people to lead pure and virtuous lives, irrespective of their religion
or culture. He considered all subjects his children. He explained his ideas in his
edicts by engraving his principles on pillars throughout his kingdom. The edicts
were written in Prakrit, which was the language of the common people, so that
they could understand and follow them. Some of the edicts such as those in the
Afghanistan were composed in Greek for the same reason. The purpose of the
edicts was to inform the people of Asoka’s reforms and to encourage them to
be more generous, kind and moral. He strictly prohibited animal slaughtering in
the kingdom and asked people to be respectful of each other. People should
respect nature, their parents, everything living as well as non-living. Brahmins
should be treated with respect and servants should be treated as equals.
Donating alms to the poor and the needy was practiced and advised by the
state. He preached harmony and peace and advised people to get rid of anger,
jealousy, cruelty and arrogance. According to Romila Thapar, an Indian historian
whose principal area of study is ancient India, ‘Dhamma was a way of life which
was based on the social and moral responsibilities.’
Asoka was an able administrator, an intelligent human being and a devout
Buddhist. He attempted to spread this religion to Syria, Egypt and Macedonia,
and also sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka. The
Buddhist Sangha of the time decided to send missionaries to many places, like
modern day Burma and Sri Lanka.

(a) James Princep deciphered the Asokan inscriptions in ___________.
(b) Kalinga lay between Godavari and _____________.
(a) The script deciphered by Prinsep was identified as Brahmi and it
was concluded that Asoka and the ruler named Devanampiya
Priyadarsi were one and the same person.
(b) The word ‘dhamma’ was derived from the Sanskrit word ‘dharak’.

8.5 Art and Architecture under Mauryan Empire
Art flourished greatly during the Mauryan age. In the pre-Mauryan age, Bricks
and wood were used in the construction of royal palace. But during the reign of
Asoka, the use of stones of various kinds was in vogue. It was used with
astonishing dexterity and skill. Some historians opine that this art was not Indian
but it was a legacy of the foreigners who were in Asoka’s service. But it can be
said with all justification that this type of technique of stone building was not
foreign and exotic. Asoka was a brilliant connoisseur of architecture. He had
many new cities constructed. The brilliance of Asoka’s architecture greatly
surprised the Chinese traveller Fa-Hien who witnessed it seven hundred years
later. It was so elegant and rich that he refused to accept that it was constructed
by human hands.
Asoka raised 84,000 stupas. Foreign travellers in India witnessed them in
various parts of the country. Expressing his view about India, Yuan Chwang, a
Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller who travelled India during 629–645, says
that there were fascinating stupas in Takshasila, Srinagara, Thaneswar, Mathura-
Kanang, Ayodhya, Kausambhi, Sravasti, Vaisali, Banaras, Gaya, etc., which
were 300 feet in height and 2 to 6 inches in breadth. During the reign of Asoka
art and architecture had reached the summit of its glory. The stupas of Asoka
are the living and true symbols of art. Their beauty is ineffable and dazzling.
The stone stupas can be divided into three composite blocks, which are the
trunk, the upper part decked with flowers, ivies and birds and the third part
which is made of glass with models of lion, horses and elephants. The stupas of
Asoka reveal the Mauryan art.
The Mauryan glory reached its height during the reign of Asoka. There
was absolute peace and prosperity in the country; land was fertile and revenue
of the state was abundant. The export and import and the inland trade was
carried on profitably; literature developed to an admirable extent and art
progressed by leaps and bounds. The Mauryan empire attained its height in
strength and magnificence under this able and kind administrator.
The Mauryan art is the innovator of the arts in the Indian history. The
Mauryan kings were extraordinary builders. If it is said that the history of Indian
art starts from Mauuryan period, then it will not be hypothetical. No doubt there
was art in the earlier period but not of this quality. Dr Vincent Smith, an eminent
authority on Indian art and architecture, has rightly said, ‘The art of smoothening
the Stone Age had been reached till the extent that it can be said that for the

mastery of the modern age art it was like a lost art.’ But few historians do not
accept the fineness of Mauryan art. It has been rightly said that the history of art
of India is like a single sheet of paper in terms of language and like an empty
almirah from the archeological point of view.
Mauryan art can be divided into the following parts:
• Rajprasad: Chandragupta’s Rajprasad or palace was located at
Pataliputra. The sabha building was located on a pillar on which
beautiful idols were crafted. The Rajbhavan of Chandragupta was far
brilliant than the famous buildings of Susa and Ekbetan of Asia. The
Rajprasad had three parts—rajshala and the precincts of soldiers,
sabha mandap and antpur of the king. Fa-Hein, the Chinese traveller
who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, opines that,
‘This Prasad is not a creation of man but the creation of gods. The
pillars of the Prasad are made of stone and they have magnificent
drawings on them.’
• Stupa and Chaitya: Stupas were round domes made from stones
and bricks in the shape of a turned bowl. Above the Stupa, there was
the roof of wood and stone and around it was the way for taking rounds.
Asoka is credited with having constructed 84,000 stupas. According
to Vasudev Sharan Aggarwal, a Vedic Scholar, ‘The picture of
Vajrasanna temple, which is on the railings of Bharhut has a round
dome decorated on the side of turned lotus flower with head constructed
by Asoka.’
• Gufa bhavan: The caves were made by cutting the hard stones. The
inner parts of the caves were made very smooth. They were the place
of residence for the Bhikchus. Three caves in Barbara and four caves
in the Nagarjuni collection have been found, which are considered to
be Satghars. The amount of labour which was required to cut 30–40
feet long cave and to smoothen the inner part of it was not possible
without deep religious feelings.
• Art of town construction: Asoka constructed two new towns Srinagar
and Devpattan. Apart from this, the Sudarshan Lake was also
constructed during this period.

Art of making pillars: The pillars were created with stones. The length of
these stones was 40 feet and their diameter was 3 feet and 7 inches. 150 feet
long pillars of this period astonish archaeologists even today. There is the idol
of lion on the Lauriya Nandan Garh pillar. These 50 ton pillars had three parts.
The first part was Aadharpithika, which was inside the land and beautiful sketches
of animals and birds along with Dharmachakra were made on them. The second
part was Tana, which was made up of round stones. Its thickness decreases
towards the upper side. This was 50 feet long like the nose of an elephant. The
third part was Shirsha (the top-most part has a bell and above this are found
pictures of animals and birds). It is very difficult to find such beautiful ancient
idols of birds in any country. The number of pillars unearthed is 40 among which
Sarnath, Sanchi, Rampurva, Rummin Daie, Nigliva, etc., are the most important
ones.
Art of making idols: The usual expression of woman’s beauty, like
attractive body, sharp eyes and shy faces are the specialties of idols. The
Mauryan period’s special shine makes them more beautiful. The smoothness
and movement of these idols made them lively. There was a mixture of religion
and Greek art in the Mauryan period idol-making technique. The idols were
made strong and durable.
Some historians feel that Mauryan art was influenced by Persia. Their
arguments are as follows:
• The Mauryan pillars are made up of shining polish and are round in
shape, whereas Greek pillars lack polish.
• Asoka pillars are of Ekashmak stone whereas the Persian pillars
are made up of broken stones.
• Greek monuments were made by masons and the pillars of Asoka
were made by carpenters.
The fact that Mauryan art was not influenced by the Greeks is unacceptable
because the monuments reflect some influence of the Persian art. The art of
preparing leather and constructing the fort was a mixture of Indian and Greek
art forms. Asoka, on the basis of designs of the ancient civilizations and some
foreign examples, perhaps appointed some foreign artists to make the outlay
but the construction of its decoration was only done by the Indian artists and for
the purity of Indian art form they were kept in that manner.

Figure 8.2 exhibits a specimen of Mauryan Architecture.
Figure 8.2 Mauryan Architecture
Activity 1
Surf the Internet and write a paragraph on ‘Foreign Influences in Mauryan
Architecture’. You must provide examples to substantiate your findings.
9. Choose the correct answer from the given options

(a) Under Asoka, ______ of various kinds was in vogue.
(i) Stone (iii) Brick
(ii) Rock (iv) Wood
(b) Fa-Hien was a __________ traveller.
(i) Chinese (iii) Indian
(ii) Japanese (iv) German
(a) Asoka was a brilliant connoisseur of architecture.
(b) The Stupas were the largest monuments in the country.
8.6 Causes for the Downfall of the Mauryan Empire
In 184BC, the last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by his commander
Pushyamitra Shunga, who then established the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Several reasons were responsible for the decline of the Mauryan empire. Some
of them are discussed as follows:
• Monarchical type of government: Monarchical type of government in
itself is a great weakness. A day is bound to come when strong kings will
be followed by weak ones and the empire will inevitably decline. Dr J.N.
Sarkar, a prominent historian, has pointed out, ‘If we turn the pages of
lndian history we shall not come across even a single dynasty which might
have produced more than five powerful kings. So a day is bound to come
when strong kings will be followed by weak kings and the empire would
decay.’ Asoka too was succeeded by weak kings who neither possessed
the same personality nor the same prowess, so the empire followed the
path of disintegration.
• Asoka’s propagation of ahimsa: Some writers ascribe the downfall of
the Mauryas to Asoka’s policy of Ahimsa. Asoka after the Kalinga war did
not wage war and instead of conquest of territories, he began with the
conquest of dharma. As a result of which, the military strength of the
Mauryan empire declined, the militant attitudes also began to be absent
from the minds of the people. Asoka’s successors too followed the path
of Ahimsa which further rendered the empire militarily impotent. It was
due to this reason that Mauryan empire could not survive long after Asoka’s
death.
• Oppressive attitude of the official: In the outlying provinces of the
Mauryan empire the governors tyrannized and oppressed the people due
to which revolts were a common occurrence. During the reign of Bindusara
the people of Takshasila rose into rebellion against the mal-administration
and the oppressive rule of the governors. Such revolts were there even
during the reign of Asoka. After the death of Asoka, Takshasila was the
first province to declare its independence.
• Wide extent of empire: The Mauryan empire had become sufficiently
vast which could only be controlled by a strong hand like Asoka or
Chandragupta Maurya. Asoka’s successors, as weak they were, could
not control such a vast empire. Moreover, the lack of the means of
transportation and communication also loosened the hold of central
authority on far-off cities. The result was the disintegration of the entire
empire.
• Division of empire: Asoka’s death was followed by the division of empire
amongst his sons and grandsons. While Jalauka became the ruler of

Kashmir, Virasena established his sway over Gandhara. The remaining

empire was divided between Samprati and Dasratha. This division sounded
the death knell of the Mauryan empire.
• Lack of law of succession: There existed no definite law of succession
in the Mauryan empire, as a result of which there followed a war of
succession amongst the sons and grandsons of Asoka. The palace had
become a virtual centre of conspiracies. It is believed that as a result of
such conspiracy, Kunala was blinded by his stepmother.
• Disloyalty of the officials: During the later Mauryan kings, the court and
the palace had become centres of conspiracies and the officials had
become disloyal. The example of Pushyamitra is a testimony to this belief.
• Deterioration in financial conditions: Now it is also believed that proper
care was not taken to collect the revenues as a result of which the later
Mauryan kings had to face a financial crisis. The internal rebellions too
emptied the treasury. The administration also suffered and so the empire
became weak.
• Ambition of Pushyamitra: Pushyamitra Sunga was the Commander-in-
Chief of the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha. He was an ambitious man.
He took full advantage of the weak position of the king and killed him,
thereby becoming the ruler. He also laid the foundation of the Sunga
empire in Magadha.
Shastri’s theory of the Mauryan decline
In 1910, Haraprasad Shastri, a Bengali histographer and academician, propounded
this theory of the Mauryan decline according to which Brahminical reaction sapped
the vitality of Mauryan authority and shattered its very foundations. Shastri has
advanced the following arguments in support of his theory:
• The first and the foremost cause of the alienation of the Brahminas
was Asoka’s edicts against the animal sacrifice. Shastri maintains
that these edicts were directed against Brahminas as animal sacrifice
formed an important part of Brahminical rituals. As a result of which
the Brahminas felt offended and they revolted against the Mauryas.
• Having referred to the prohibition of animal sacrifices, Shastri goes
on to say, ‘this was followed by another edict in which Asoka boasted
that those who were regarded as gods on earth have been reduced
by him into false gods. If it means anything it means that the
Brahminas who were regarded as Bhudevas or gods on earth had
been shown up by him.’

• The appointment of Dharma–Mahamatras, i.e., Superintendent of

Morals was a direct invasion on the rights and privileges of Brahminas,
which the Brahminas could not tolerate.
• Another cause of the alienation of Brahminas was a passage where
Asoka insisted upon his officers strictly observing the principles of
Danda-Samata and Vyavahara-Samata. Shastri takes his
expressions to mean equality of punishment and equality in law-
suits irrespective of caste, colour and creed, and adds that this order,
was very offensive to the Brahmins who claimed many privileges
including immunity from capital punishment.
• In conclusion, Pandit Shastri refers to the assassination of the last
Maurya king Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Sunga. He says, ‘We clearly
see the hands of the Brahminas in the great revolution.’ Pshyamitra
killed Brihadratha because he was a Brahmina.
Raychaudhri’s objections
Dr Hemachandra Raychaudhri has not accepted the arguments advanced by
Haraprasad Shastri in support of his theory. He has criticized all the arguments
in the following manner:
• As regards the first point, Dr Raychaudhri has pointed out that
prohibition of animal sacrifices did not necessarily imply hostilities
towards the Brahminas. Long before Asoka, the Sruti literature
contain references against sacrifices and in favour of Ahimsa. In the
Chhadogya Upanisad, Ghora Angirasa lays great stress on Ahimsa
and non-killing of animal. If Asoka prohibited animal sacrifice there
was no question of the alienation of Brahminas.
• As regards the second argument advanced by Pandit Shastri,
Raychaudhri says that the former has not followed the correct
interpretation. The meaning of the entire passage is ‘during that time
the men in India who had been unassociated with the gods became
associated with them.’ There is thus no question of ‘showing up’
anybody.
• The appointment of Dharma Mahamatras was not a direct invasion
upon the privilege of the Brahamanas. Because first of all they were
not simply superintendents of morals, they also had other enormous
duties. Moreover, there is nothing to show that the Dharma
Mahamatras were wholly recruited from non-Brahminas.

• By Danda-Samata or Vyavahara Samata (equality of treatment or

punishment) Asoka did not want to infringe the rights and privileges
of the Brahminas; rather, he was desirous of introducing uniformity
in judicial procedure in his empire. It is to be understood in connection
with the general principles of decentralization. It did not necessarily
infringe on the alleged immunity of the Brahminas from capital
punishment.
• As regards the fifth argument advanced by Pandit Shastri, there is
no denying the fact that the last Mauryan King Brihadratha was put
to death by Pushyamitra who was a Brahmin, but we must not forget
that Pushyamitra was also the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of
Mauryas, and he took advantage of his position. Such rebellions are
numerous in history. Moreover, if the relations of the Mauryas and
the Brahamanas would not have been cordial, how could it be
possible that a Brahmina might assume the office of the Commander-
in-chief?
Activity 2
Look for pictures of the following two pillars on the Internet and write a few
sentences on each:
(a) The Asokan Pillar of Vaishali
(b) The Lion Capital Sarnath Pillar

(a) In 184 BC, the last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by his
commander Pushyamitra Shunga.
(b) Asoka’s death was followed by the division of empire amongst his
sons and grandsons.
(a) One of the most important reasons for the disintegration of the
Mauryan empire was the ________ administration.
(b) There was also no laws of ________ in the Mauryan empire.

8.7 Summary

• Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan empire. The rulers
of the Mauryan period organized the administration system, which resulted
in the all round development of India. India constructed a new world on
the basis of peace, brotherhood and cultural unity under the rule of the
Mauryas.
• Under the Mauryans, India was an agricultural country. According to
Megasthenes, majority of the population consisted of the agriculturists.
They neither participated in warfare nor did they participate in the state
affairs. They were not harmed during wars. The tillers of the soil carried
on their work uninterruptedly.
• During the Mauryan times the cloth industry had greatly developed. The
main clothes centres were Kashi, Vatsa, Madura, Vanga, Apranta, etc.
• Spinning was done by the spinning wheels and big looms were used for
weaving clothes. According to Arthasastra and Megasthenes, cotton was
produced in great quantity; the weavers of cotton clothes worked round
the clock.
• Various kinds of coins where used in the Mauryan era. Some of them
were as follows:
o Gold coins known as Sauvamik
o Silver coins called Kashaparna
o Copper coins called Mashka
o Kakni was also a copper coin which was less valuable to Mashaka
• Though Asoka is known as the greatest king of India, historians learned
about him only in the 19th century.
• In 1837, a British scholar named James Prinsep deciphered the inscriptions
on the pillars and rocks that are found in many parts of India. The script
was identified as Brahmi and it was concluded that Asoka and the ruler
named Devanampiya Priyadarsi were one and the same person. An
inscription discovered by James Prinsep in 1915 used the name Asoka
along with the other name. These inscriptions gave historians valuable
information about Asoka’s rule and the extent and condition of his empire.

• The land Asoka ruled stretched from the Himalayas in Nepal and Kashmir
to Mysore in the south, from Afghanistan in the northwest to the banks of
the River Brahmaputra in the east. In the west his territory covered
Saurashtra and Junagarh.
• Kalinga was one of the kingdoms, which remained unconquered and
hostile when Asoka succeeded to the throne.
• The word ‘dhamma’ was derived from the Sanskrit word ‘dharma’.
• Asoka followed the principles of Buddhism—that of truth, charity, kindness,
purity and goodness. He wanted his people to lead pure and virtuous
lives, irrespective of their religion or culture. He considered all subjects
his children. He explained his ideas in his edicts by engraving his principles
on pillars throughout his kingdom. The edicts were written in Prakrit, which
was the language of the common people, so that they could understand
and follow them.
• In the Mauryan period, art and architecture flourished. Stupas, pillars,
caves and edicts are examples of the patronage that art and architecture
had received.
• The causes for the downfall of Mauryan dynasty were many, among which
the most important were the vastness of the empire; incapable successors;
deteriorating financial position and disloyalty of the chief army officials.
8.8 Glossary
• Muslin: A loosely-woven cotton fabric

• Kashparna: Silver coins used during the Mauryan period
• Stupa: A mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the
remains of Buddha
1. What are the sources of information regarding the Mauryan empire?

2. Who was Megathenes?
3. Write a note on the economic conditions of India during the reign of
Chandra Gupta Maurya.

4. What effect did the Battle of Kalinga have on Asoka?

5. What are the basic principles of Asoka’s ‘dhamma’?
6. Enumerate the state of art and architecture under the Mauryas.
7. List the causes for the downfall of the Mauryan empire.
8.10 Answers
1. (a) Magadha; (b) Kautilya

4. (a) Pataliputra; (b) 297BC
5. (i)
6. (a) Bullocks;(b) Mangoes
7. (a) 1837; (b) Mahanadi
9. (a) (i); (b) (i)
12. (a) Inefficient; (b) Succession
Answers for Terminal Questions


Books.

Unit 9 Mauryan Administration

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Features of Mauryan Administration
9.3 Socio-Economic Changes under the Mauryan Empire
9.4 Trade and Commerce in Mauryan Period
9.5 Summary
9.6 Glossary
9.8 Answers
9.9 Further Reading
9.1 Introduction
In the last unit, you read about the rise and decline of the Mauryan empire. With
the beginning of the Mauryan empire in around 321 BC, Indian history entered
a new era as for the first time, India attained political unity and administrative
uniformity. Chandragupta was not only a great conqueror; he was also a great
administrator.
This unit deals with the details of administration and socio-economic
conditions under the Mauryas. The Mauryan administration was the most well-
organized and efficient in ancient India. This may be corroborated by the fact
that even the Gupta empire continued to follow their patterns in administration
despite themselves being brilliant in all spheres of life. The Mauryan empire
had brought to the forefront amazing dexterity in managing the vast kingdom
they had. For the first time in ancient India, a dynasty managed to subjugate
and control a major portion of South Asia with much élan.
Objectives
• Describe the various aspects of Mauryan administration
• Discuss how the Mauryan administered their provinces, towns and villages
• Describe the judicial, police and espionage systems of the Mauryas

• Interpret the socio-economic conditions under the Mauryas

• Explain the progress of trade and commerce under the Mauryas
9.2 Features of Mauryan Administration
The Mauryas maintained a vast empire. The whole empire was divided into
many provences, which, in turn were divided into districts (towns). The lowest
unit of administration was village. The Mauryas had developed a well-organized
judicial, police and espionage systems.
9.2.1 Central Administration

The central administration had the following parts:
1. King: The form of Mauryan kingdom was monarchical. Kautilya maintains
in the Arthashastra: ‘The king should behave like a father.’ The king was
expected to be an efficient warrior, descendant of a high family, an able
provider of justice and a wise administrator. Megasthenes opined that the
king had to be just during his leisure. The king was the commander of the
army and chief justice but his powers were not absolute. According to
Kautilya, ‘The king is not one who only enjoys the kingship but the king is
one who does welfare of his subjects.’
2. Council of ministers: There used to be a council of ministers to provide
assistance to the administrative work of the huge Mauryan empire. The
king selected only efficient people to his council. Kautilya believed that
the vehicle of administration could not function on one wheel. In order to
function effectively, the king had to have the council of ministers to help
him administer the vast kingdom. Therefore, the king should appoint and
take advice from his ministers. These ministers used to be honest, faithful
and clever. Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes about eighteen ministers
with specific portfolios. Every minister used to head his department. The
eighteen ministers were: 1. Prince, 2. Chief Minister, 3. Commander,
4. Dauvarik, 5. Purohit, 6. Antarveshik, 7. Jailer, 8. Samaharta,
9. Sannidhata, 10. Pradestha, 11. Nayak, 12. Paur, 13. Chief Justice,
14. Karmantik, 15. Head of Council, 16. Dandpal, 17. Durgpal and
18. Antapal. There used to be small committee of ministers to advise the
king. Each committee consisted of 3–4 ministers called Mantrids.
According to Smith, written ‘The Mauryan kingdom was clearly divided

into departments and minutely into category of workers whose works were
defined in absolute terms.’
9.2.2 Administration of Provinces

The vast empire was divided into the following six provinces called chakra:
1. Uttarapath: This province included the cities of Gandhar, Kambhoj,
Afghanistan, Kashmir and Punjab. The capital was Taxila.
2. Madhyadesh: This province included modern day Uttar Pradesh, Bengal
and Bihar. The capital was Pataliputra.
3. Dakshinapath: This province included Vindhyachal and all the states of
south India. The capital was Suvarnagiri.
4. Avantirashtra: Kathiawad, Gujarat, Rajputana and Malwa constituted
this province. The capital was Ujjain.
5. Kalinga: It included modern Orissa and parts of Andhra Pradesh. Its capital
was Toshali.
6. Griharajya: It covered the capital region of the empire. Its administration
was looked after by the king with the help of Mahamatras.
The provincial administration was efficient and well organized. Every
province was divided into several commissionaires and each commissionairy
was further divided in districts and towns.
9.2.3 Town Administration

The town administration of the Mauryan empire had a very special place in
ancient Indian history. Each town was under a chief called Nagarak. Gop and
Sthanik were the officials to assist the Nagarak. Megesthenes’ description of
Pataliputra may be sited in this regard. ‘This was a very big town of India. This
was established on the banks of Ganga and Son rivers. Its length was 9 ½
miles and breadth 3 or 4 miles.’ For the administration of town, there were six
committees of five people each. Each committee had its work schedule. These
committees were Artisan committee, Foreign committee, Population committee,
Commerce committee, Trade committee and Tax committee.
9.2.4 Village Administration

Village was the basic unit of administration, where the chief official was called
Gramik. According to the Arthashastra, the senior president of Gramik was
called Gop who had look to after the administration of 5–6 villages. A Sthanik

was superior to a Gop. The administration of village and the quality of life of the
villagers were also satisfactory. The Gramik used to be elected by the villagers
by a show of hands.
9.2.5 Penal and Judicial System

The Mauryas had an efficient and effective judicial system with the king as the
supreme judge. According to Kautilya, ‘If the king punishes anyone wrongly,
then he himself should be punished three times the same punishment.’ The
courts were of two kinds: Dharmasthaniya courts, which were equivalent to
modern civil courts, and Kantakshodhan courts, which heard criminal matters.
Apart from these two courts, the village panchayats also worked in their initial
stages.
The penal system was very harsh. Big punishments were given even for
small crimes. Megasthenes has written that Indians had no written laws but due
to harsh penal system, death penalty was awarded even for petty crimes.
Army: The highest commander of the army was the king. The Mauryan
dynasty was established on bloodshed and hardships and in order to maintain
it; the same discipline was required. A huge and well organized army was required
for this purpose. Chandragupta maintained it religiously. The army was divided
into six parts: (i) Infantry, (ii) Navy, (iii) Cavalry, (iv) Chariot, (v) Elephant riders
and (vi) Services. Plini has written that the huge army was maintained by a
commissioner.
There were five forts: (i) stable fort, (ii) water fort, (iii) forest fort, (iv) hilly
fort and (v) desert fort. There were several factories for manufacturing arms
and weapons. Megasthenes maintains: ‘The soldiers got enough wages so that
they could live life comfortably. Chandragupta with the help of powerful army
succeeded in establishing the vast empire.’
9.2.6 Police and Espionage Systems

The Mauryan espionage system was very efficient. Its chief official was
Mahapatra Pasarp to whom secret agents called Char reported. The secret
services comprised:
• Sansthas: They stayed at one place and delivered secret news and
consisted of students and common men.
• Sancharas: They travelled from one place to another and gathered news.
Apart from this, secret writing was also known.

Activity 1
Surf the Internet and find the text on the village administration of an empire
that was a contemporary of the Mauryans. Compare the administrative
system of the Mauryans with that of the empire you have selected for your
study.

(a) The council of ___________ helped the king in state administration.
(b) The chief of a town was called _________.
(a) There was no judicial system under the Mauryas.
(b) Pataliputra was an important port.
9.3 Socio-Economic Changes under the Mauryan Empire
The chief source of revenue was the land. The income from the state’s land
was called sita, while the income from the farmers’ land was called bhag. 1/6
part of a farmer’s total produce was taken by the state as revenue. The income
from the towns was called durg. People were generally affluent and behaved
kindly with the have-nots.
Welfare measures
The Mauryan state carried out welfare activities for the needy and cared for the
holistic upliftment of people at large. The state developed transportation facilities
and constructed rest houses on highways. It also arranged for shadowy trees
and drinking water for travellers. Apart from these, the state also constructed
hospitals for the poor.
The Mauryan administration was very well organized. The Mauryas formed
a kind of administrative set up that the Gupta rulers followed in the later times.
Raichaudhary opines: ‘In order to unite the bits and pieces of India, to give a
practical form to the ideals of the universal king and to bring this country with
the rest of the world, a courageous and gallant man was needed. And it was the

luck of this country that very soon it got such a universal king called
Chandragupta. He founded a well organized kingdom.’
Mauryan society
The Mauryan period is famous for the organization of the society in Indian history.
The chief specialties of the social organization of this time may be discussed
under the following heads:
• Social condition: People were happy and affluent during this period.
Not only the necessities of personal life but the pleasure of social life was
also available to these people.
• Varnashram system: The society was divided into various varnas.
According to Arthashastra, the society was divided into four varnas:
Brahmanas, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, but Megasthenes has written
that the society was divided into seven castes. These castes were farmer,
philosopher, gop shikari, labourer, kshatriya, president and minister or
sabhasad. Once someone relinquished his profession, he was not allowed
to practise the profession again. The description of seven castes by
Megasthenes does not seem proper, but it was definite that the caste
system had become complex. Life was divided into four Ashramas:
Brahmacharya, Grihasthashram, Vanprasthashram and Sanyas.
According to Kautilya, truth, suchita, non-violence, compassion,
forgiveness, etc., were necessary for all the varnas. Slavery was also in
vogue.
• Marriage: The basis of family life was marriage. The main reason for
marriage was the production of children. Usually marriages took place
within the same castes. It was considered to be a main ritual. Marriage
was of eight types: Brahma, Dev, Arya, Prajapatya, Aasur, Gandharv,
Rakshas and Paisach.
• Condition of women: The condition of women in the Mauryan age was
worse as compared to the Vedic period. Sati and widow remarriage were
practised. After the death of husbands, the wives happily burnt themselves
on the pyre of their husbands and those who restrained from doing so
were not considered respectful. Women had no individual civil or political
rights. There are also evidences of prostitution. Kautilya maintained that
a prostitute gave a part of her income as tax. Women had right to basic
education.

• Sources of entertainment: The abundance and variety of sources of

entertainment reflect the affluence of the materialistic life of the common
people during the Mauryan period. The chief sources of entertainment
were hunting, wrestling, chariot racing, horse racing, animal fights, dance,
chaupad and music. People celebrated many festivals.
Economic condition
The economic life during the Mauryan period had prospered abundantly.
Agriculture, trade and industry developed and strengthened the economic
conditions of people. The chief occupation in the Mauryan period was agriculture.
The economic life was dependent on agriculture. There were three types of
lands: krista (arable land), akrista (non-arable land) and sthal (barren land).
The chief produces were wheat, rice, legume, cotton and sesame, of which a
certain percentage was taken by the state as tax. Megasthenes has written that
India had never experienced famine; the farmers were affluent and happy.
Religious life
The foundation of the Mauryan empire witnessed a major transformation in
religious beliefs of the Indians. In this period, brahminical religion was in
dominance. People believed in rituals promoted by the Brahmins and prayed to
various Vedic gods and goddesses like Indra, Varun, Skandh, Shiv and Vishnu.
Yagna and other rituals were performed for personal benefits. Buddhism became
famous due to Asoka’s propagation of it. Apart from Buddhism; Jainism was
also practised. One other religion which was constantly growing during this
period was Bhagwat religion which gave more emphasis on the complete
devotion and surrender to one’s own divine.
3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word.

(a) __________, _________ and ________ were the sources of
entertainment.
(b) Three religions that flourished under the Mauryas were _________,
________ and _______.
(a) Farmers were exempt from paying taxes during the Mauryan rule.
(b) Women had right to basic education in the Mauryan period.

9.4 Trade and Commerce in Mauryan Period
The Mauryan period saw an unprecedented development of trade and industries.

Kautilya’s accounts states that homemade silk and Chinese silk industry was
quite developed during the Mauryan period. Apart from these, the industries
producing metal and ivory objects were also developing. Pot makers, blacksmiths
and carpenters had also diversified their profession.
Commerce
Imports as well as exports were in vogue during this period. Clothes, jewellery,
artifacts, scent, horses, etc. were exported. According to Greek writers, trade
was carried out on land as well as sea routes. Mention of weaver and blacksmith
organizations, which had political and economic powers, is also available in
contemporary accounts. The foreign and inland trades got promotion from
affluent industries.
Trade
The growth of agriculture and different professions gave a great fillip to trade.
There was a brisk internal trade. Fa-Hein’s description reveals that the traders
were given full freedom. They could easily move from one place to the other.
During this period, a good trade relation existed with foreign countries also. For
internal trade, there were good means of transportation. The people carried
their goods from place to place through seas and land routes. In those days,
Ujjain,Banaras, Vaisali, Gaya, Prayaga, Pataliputra and Mathura were the
important centres of trade. These towns were linked through a network of roads.
The roads were safe and Fa-Hien did not come across any road accident. The
merchants carried their goods on bullockcarts. Rivers Ganges, Krishna, Godavari
and Brahamaputra were utilized for trade. Trade commodities are not known
definitely but it can at least be said that it must have been carried on in cloth,
wheat, spices, salt, diamonds and precious stones.
Trade through rivers proved cheap and comfortable. During this period,
the ship-building industry also flourished. Tamralipti, a port in Bengal, was an
important centre from where trade was carried on with the eastern countries
like China, Ceylon, Java and Sumatra. In Andhra, there were many ports on the
banks of rivers Godavari and Krishna. Tondai was a famous port of the Chola
state. These ports not only helped trade flourish but also carried Indian culture
and civilization in all parts of Asia. Ports also helped trade with western countries.
There are various evidences on the basis of which it can be said that the Roman

merchants used to trade through these ports. On important places, lighthouses

were erected for sailors’ convenience. Kalyana, Chol, Broach, Cambay were
the important ports of South India through which pearls, precious stones, clothes,
scents, spices, medicines, coconut and ivory were exported. Copper, tin, lead,
dates and horses were important articles of import.
Activity 2
On an ancient map of India, mark the important ports that flourished under
the Mauryans. Prepare a write-up on the role of these ports in the Mauryan
trades with Central Asia.
5. Choose the correct option.

(a) ________ industry had flourished under the Mauryas.
(i) Silk (iii) Beverage
(ii) Construction (iv) Cement
(b) __________ was an important port of Bengal.
(i) Tamralipti (ii) Pataliputra
(iii) Magadha (iv) Taxila
(a) ________, _________ and __________ were important items of
export under the Mauryas.
(b) Some ports constructed _________ to help sailors.
9.5 Summary

• The Mauryan administration had several components. The king was the
absolute centre of power and justice. He was helped by the Council of
Ministers in state administration.
• The Mauryan empire was divided into six provinces called chakra.
Provincial administration was efficient and well-organized.

• The town administration of the Mauryan empire has a very special place
in ancient Indian history. Every town was under a chief called Nagarak.
Gop and Sthanik were the officers to assist the Nagarak.
• Village was the basic unit of administration, where the chief official was
called Gramik. According to the Arthashastra, the senior president of
Gramik was called Gop, who had to look after the administration of 5–6
villages.
• The Mauryas had an efficient and effective judicial system with the king
as the supreme judge.
• The courts were of two kinds: Dharmasthaniya courts, which were
equivalent to modern civil courts, and Kantakshodhan courts, which heard
criminal matters. Apart from these two courts, the village panchayats also
worked in their initial stages.
• The Mauryan espionage system was very efficient. Its chief official was
Mahapatra Pasarp to whom secret agents called Char reported. Sansthas
and Sancharas were the important components of the espionage system.
• The chief source of revenue under the Mauryas was the land. The income
from the state land was called Sita, while the income from the farmers’
land was called Bhag. 1/6th of a farmer’s total produce was taken by the
state as revenue. The income from the towns was called Durg.
• The Mauryan period saw an unprecedented development of trade and
industries. Kautilya’s accounts states that homemade silk and Chinese
silk industry was well developed during the Mauryan period. Apart from
these, the industries producing metal and ivory objects were also
developing. Pot makers, blacksmiths and carpenters had also expanded
their profession.
9.6 Glossary
• Bhag: Income from the farmers’ land

• Sita: Income from the state’s land
• Chakra: Provinces into which the empire had been divided
• Gramik: Village in-charge
• Sati: The ritual of burning a widow on his husband’s funeral pyre

1. List the constituent parts of the central administrative system under the
Mauryas.
2. What was the role of the Council of Ministers in Mauryan administration?
3. Write a note on the village and town administration of this period.
4. Write a short note on the espionage system maintained under the Mauryas.
5. What were the socio-economic changes under the Mauryas?
6. What is your opinion about the place of women in the Mauryan society?
7. Describe the growth of trade and commerce under the Mauryan rulers.
9.8 Answers
1. (a) Ministers; (b) Nagarak

3. (a) Wrestling, chariot racing, horse riding; (b) Brahmanism, Buddhism
and Jainism
5. (a) (i); (b) (i)
6. (a) Jewellery, artifacts, clothes
(b) Lighthouse

3. Refer to Sections 9.2.3 and 9.2.4


9.9 Further Reading
1. Thapar, Romila. 1990. A History of India, Vol. 1. New Delhi: Penguin

2. Majumdar, R.C. History and Culture of the Indian People. Mumbai:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
3. Chattopadhyaya, B.D. 1984. A Survey of Historical Geography of Ancient
India. Kolkata: Manisha Publishing.

Unit 10 Post-Mauryan North India

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Sunga Dynasty
10.3 Kushana Empire
10.4 Summary
10.5 Glossary
10.7 Answers
10.1 Introduction
The previous two units dealt with the rise and fall of the Mauryan Empire in
ancient India. This unit discusses the politico-social condition of North India
after the downfall of the Mauryan Empire.
The decline of the Mauryan Empire was a setback to the political unity of
India. As the vast empire began to disintegrate, many small kingdoms emerged
throughout the country. Taking advantage of this weakness, many tribes and
powerful rulers from Central Asia extended their kingdoms and began to make
inroads into the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. In the course of
time, they adopted Indian culture and became a part of the Indian population. In
185BC, Pushyamitra Sunga of the Sunga Dynasty overthrew the last Mauryan
ruler, Brihadratha. The Sungas ruled over India for the next 112 years. Towards
the end of their rule, the Sungas and the Kanvas had only the region around
Magadha under their control, as most of the regions including Kalinga and the
Deccan had revolted and broken away from the empire. The Satavahanas
emerged in the first century BC in northern Deccan from Nasik. Most probably,
they held administrative positions under the Mauryans but became powerful
after the decline of their master.
However, for a short time, they were overcome by the Sakas and lost
large portions of their territory to them. In South India, in the last century BC, the
Cholas and the Pandyas dominated the eastern coast of India. Cheras were in
the region where Kerala is today. These three kingdoms were constantly at war

with each other. All these kingdoms built fleets of ships and encouraged the
growth of international trade between India, South-East Asia, Central Asia and
Europe. These kingdoms are mentioned in the Mahabharata, the Jataka stories,
as well as in the accounts of Megasthenes and the Roman historian, Pliny, as
well as in Asoka’s inscriptions. Our main source of information about them is
the Sangam literature.
Objectives
• Assess the political situation in North India after the downfall of the Mauryas
• Describe the ascension of the Sunga Dynasty
• Evaluate the achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga
• Describe the rise and fall of the Kushana dynasty
10.2 Sunga Dynasty
The Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas who ruled for 112 years from
about 185BC – 73BC. Pushyamitra, the Mauryan Commander-in-Chief, killed the
last Mauryan king, Brihadratha and ruled the kingdom for thirty-six years.
Pushyamitra was successful in usurping the throne on account of a general
feeling of dissatisfaction against the weak Mauryan rulers who had failed to
protect the people against the Greek invaders. These invaders had succeeded
in penetrating the kingdom up to Pataliputra.
Origin of Sungas
There are many theories with regard to the origin of the Sungas. The Sungas
appear to have been Brahmins. The celebrated grammarian, Panini, connects
them with the Bharadvaja family, and in the Asvalyana Srautasutra the Sungas
are known as teachers. They were Brahmins who occupied a high position in
the theological world. Pushyamitra belonged to a family of the royal chaplain or
Purohita. The later Mauryas were politically weak and Pushyamitra was forced
to kill Brihadratha in the interest of the empire which was threatened by foreign
invaders.
Pushyamitra Sunga (185–149BC)
Pushyamitra According to historians, ruled for thirty-six years. There are
references not only to his son, but also to his grandson taking part in the
administration of the country.

War and Vidarbha

The first major event during Pushyamitra’s reign was his conflict with Vidarbha.
According to the Malvikagnimitram (a play in sanskrit by Kalidasa), the Kingdom
had been newly established and its ruler Yajnasena, who was related to the
minister of the fallen Maurya, is described as a ‘natural enemy’ of the Sungas.
Perhaps, the former had made himself independent in Vidarbha in the confusion
following Brihadratha’s murder, and as soon as Pushyamitra felt his position
secure on the throne he demanded Yajnasena’s allegiance. The course of the
tussle is obscure but it seems Agnimitra, who was Pushyamitra’s son and
responsible for the victory at Vidisa, carried on hostilities. He won over to his
side Yajnasena’s cousin, Madhavsena and when the struggle ended, Vidarbha
was divided between the two cousins.
Yavana incursious
The throne which Pushyamitra ascended was not a bed of roses. He had to
meet difficulties from various quarters. It is contended that there were two Yavana
wars which Pushyamitra had to fight —one in the beginning of his reign and the
other at the close of his reign. The invasion of the Yavanas—which is mentioned
in the Gargi Samhita—was a formidable one wherein it is stated that after
conquering Saketa, Panchala and Mathura, the Yavanas reached Kusamadhvaja
or Pataliputra and retired without fighting. There is no mention in literatures that
Pushyamitra lost his capital to the foreign invaders. Demetrios, the leader of the
foreign invaders who reached as far as Pataliputra is mentioned found mention
in the Gargi Samhita. Demetrios had to retire from India on account of troubles
at home. Eukratides had revolted in Bactria and Demetrios had to go back to
fight him.
There is a reference to the second conflict with the Yavanas in the
Malvikagnimitram written by Kalidas. By this time, Pushyamitra had grown old.
Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra fought against the Yavana invaders.
The battle was fought on the river Sindhu, Menander, in which the Yavana leader
was defeated. It is pointed out that Menander is credited to have conquered
more nations than Alexander. He was also the person who came after Demetrios.
Coins from this period show that his territory extended up to Mathura. Buddhist
accounts maintain that Menander converted to Buddhism and his court at Sakala
or Salkot became a refuge for Buddhist monks.
Asvamedha sacrifice
The performance of the Asvamedha Yajna was one of the notable events of
Pushyamitra’s reign. It is referred to in the Malvikagnimitra. In fact, Patanjali,

the sage who is considered the father of Yoga officiated as priest in this sacrifice.
The Ayodhya inscription further informs us that Pushyamitra performed not one,
but two horse sacrifices.
Extents of the kingdom
Pushyamitra’s jurisdiction extened to Jalandha and Sakala in the Punjab
according to accepted testimony of the Tibetan historian Taranatha and the
Buddhist text, Divayavadana. The latter also indicates that Pataliputra continued
to be the royal residence. Pushyamitra’s sway over Ayodhya is proved by an
inscription found there. According to Malvikagnimitra, however, his dominion
comprised Vidisha and the southern region as far as the Narmada. Pushyamitra
appears to have virtually made a feudal division of his extensive territories, as
one version of the Vayu Puranas states that all eight sons of Pushyamitra ruled
simultaneously.
Pushyamitra’s persecutions
According to the Divyavadana, Pushyamitra was a persecutor of Buddhists. He
is said to have made the notorious declaration at Sakala setting a price of one
hundred gold dinars on the head of every Buddhist monk. Taranath also affirms
that Pushyamitra was the ally of non-believers and participated in burning
monasteries and slaying monks. Pushyamitra was no doubt a zealous champion
of Brahmanism, but the Buddhist Stupas erected at Bharhut ‘during the
sovereignty of the Sungas’ would hardly corroborate the literary evidence
regarding his display of sectarian hatred.
Pushyamitra’s successor
Pushyamitra passed away in about 148BC and was succeeded by his son
Agnimitra who was then the viceroy at Vidisa. He had ample experience of the
methods of administration followed by his father. He ruled for a brief period of
eight years and was followed by Sujyestha or Jethamitra (as mentioned in
contemporary coins) who was perhaps his brother. Jethamitra was succeeded
by Agnimitra’s son Vasumitra. In his earlier days, he defeated the Yavanas who
had tried to obstruct the progress of the Ashwamedha Yagna. The Sunga dynasty
consisted of ten rulers but history has not condescended to record anything of
note about the others.
Activity 1
Surf the Internet and create a family tree of the Sunga Dynasty.


(a) Pushyamitra was the ________________ under the Mauryas.
(b) Yavana incursions happened ___________ during Pushyamitra’s
reign.
(a) Gargi Samhita mentions Kanishka as the king of Pataliputra.
(b) Patanjali mentions the Ashwamedha Yojna by Pulakeshin II.
10.3 Kushana Empire
The Kushanas played an important role in the history of early Indian culture.
According to Chinese historians the Kushanas were a section of the Yueh-chi
race constituted by nomadic groups that inhabited the borders of modern China.
They were driven out from the lands which they conquered from the Sakas and
were forced to resume their march. They occupied the valley of the Oxus and
reduced to subjugation its peaceful inhabitants. It is possible that the Yueh-chi
dominion extended over Bactria to the south of the Oxus. By 10BC the Yueh-chi
lost their nomadic habits and settled down.
Kanishka
Kanishka was undoubtedly the most striking figure from the Kushan Dynasty. A
great conqueror and a patron of Buddhism, he combined in himself the military
abilities of Chandragupta Maurya and the religious zeal of Asoka. However,
there is no unanimity among scholars regarding the date of his accession of the
throne even though most of them believe that Kanishka was the founder of the
Saka era which started in 78AD. He ascended to the throne in the same year.
Conquests
Kanishka’s empire included Afghanistan, a large part of Sindh, Parthia, Bactria
and Punjab. His predecessor had suffered a defeat at the hands of the Chinese.
Kanishka was confident of his military strength and wanted to reclaim his teritory.
Kanishka can be given credit for having completed in his earlier years the
subjugation and annexation of Kashmir. However, we do not have any details of
this war with the ruler of Kashmir. It is believed that Kanishka built a number of

monuments and also founded a town known as Kanishkpura which is now the
village of Kanispor. There is no reliable evidence to show that Kanishka waged
any war against the ruler of Magadha. However, it is stated in the Buddhist
literature that after the capture of Pataliputra, Asvaghosha, the great Buddhist
philosopher was captured by Kanishka. There is no doubt that Asvaghosha
was one of the luminaries in Kanishka’s court.
Kanishka is said to have waged war against the western satraps of Ujjain.
He defeated Chastitan, the Saka ruler, who acknowledged Kanishka’s supremacy
and surrendered a portion of Malwa to him. Kanishka had also engaged in a
successful war with the Parthians too. It is said that Kanishka completed the
Kushana conquest of upper India and ruled over a wide realm which extended
from Kapisa, Gandhara and Kashmir to Banaras. His empire extended over
north-western India probably as the Vindhyas in the South, as well as over the
remote regions beyond the Pamir pass. Kanishka ruled over this vast empire
from his capital at Peshawar or Purushpur.
Kanishka’s public works
Like Asoka, Kanishka was a great builder of Stupas and cities. He erected in his
capital a monastery and a huge wooden tower in which he placed some relics
of the Buddha. An important relic of this period is a statue of Kanishka with a
missing head. Besides the Shah-ji-ki dheri at Peshawar, his important buildings
and works of art are found in Peshawar, Mathura, Kanishkapura and Takshasila.
Mathura became an important centre of art during the time of Kanishka. Kanishka
beautified the city with a large number of monasteries, statues and sculptures.
Kanishka’s religion
The question of Kanishka’s religion is a controversial one. He helped in the
spread of Buddhism, many old monasteries were repaired and many new ones
were also built. Kanishka invited scholars for the fourth Buddhist Council which
was attended by five hundred monks. The truth is that before his conversion to
Buddhism, he believed in many gods, which is clearly reflected in his earlier
coins. However, he ultimately embraced Buddhism and promoted it as the state
religion.

Figure 10.1 Expanse of the Kushana Empire

Kanishka’s estimate as a ruler

Kanishka was undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of ancient India. He was
an excellent warrior, an efficient empire-builder and a brilliant patron of art and
learning. No Indian ruled over such a vast empire as was done by Kanishka. He
was the only Indo-Asiatic king whose territories extended beyond the Pamirs.
Kanishka occupied a unique position in Indian history. He was not only a
great conqueror, but also a great administrator. It is worthy of note here that not
a single revolt was reported during his reign.
Downfall of the Kushana Empire
The mighty Kushana Empire reached its zenith during the time of Kanishka I.
Under him, the Kushanas were feared not only in India, but also in Central Asia.
However, his successors failed to maintain his feat. Vasishka, the successor of
Kanishka I, is stated to have ruled only over Mathura and its surrounding regions.
Probably, he had the Sanchi region also under his control. As no inscription of
Vasishka has been discovered in any other part of India, it is concluded that he
lost control over the distant parts of the Kushana Empire. No cause is given for
the collapse of the Kushana power during his reign, but it is contended that the
collapse was merely a temporary one.
Kanishka was succeeded by Huvishka and the latter is stated to have
recovered the fortunes of the Kushanas during his long and prosperous rule
lasting for more than thirty years. Inscriptions showing references to Kanishka
well found not only in the Mathura region but in North-West frontier India and
also in eastern Afghanistan. It is contended that the region lying about thirty
miles to the west of Kabul was included in Huvishka’s empire. He is described
as Maharajadhiraja Huvishka. Kanishka II is also stated to have ruled at the
same time as a contemporary of Huvishka.
Huvishka was succeeded by Vasudeva I. Even though there is no evidence
regrading the exact limits of his empire, it is assumed that his rule did not extend
beyond a parts of modern Uttar Pradesh. Almost all the Brahmani inscriptions
have been found in Mathura and its neighbourhood. It appears that the imperial
Kushanas of India had by this time lost their hold over the extreme northern and
north-western parts of India. It is possible that the local chiefs took advantage
of the weakness of the central power and declared independence. The last
known date of Vasudeva is around AD176-77 and soon after his death the mighty
Kushana Empire dissolved away.
It is practically impossible to give an orderly account of the successors of
Vasudeva I. Our only sources of information are the coins and they do not give

us any definite information. However, it is maintained that Vasudeva was

succeeded by Kanishka III who is believed to have ruled from about AD 210 to
230.
The final breakup of the Kushana Empire seems to have happened during
the reigns of the successors of Vasudeva II. Most of the territories in the interior
of India were lost to the Indian chiefs. Most important of them were the Nagas,
the Yaudheyas, Malavas and the Kunindas. The evidence from the inscriptions
tells us that the Nagas came into prominence more than a century before the
reign of Chandragupta II. The early Nagas held control over Padmavati and
Mathura which were formerly included in the Kushana Empire. The Puranas
tells us that seven kings had already ruled at Mathura and nine at Padmavati
when the Guptas came to power. All these must have been done by the Nagas
at the expense of the Kushanas and that partly explains the disappearance of
the Kushana Empire.
The Yaugheyas, a martial tribe, also had a significant role in the destruction
of the Kushana Empire. Their rule over the areas on the banks of the Sutlej as
far as the borders of Bahawalpur lasted for more than a century. The copper
coins of the Yaudheyas are similar to those of Kushanas. It appears that the
Yaudheyas made these coins after the Kushanas were overthrown.
The Malavas and the Kunindas became independent after successfully
revolting against the authority of the Kushanas. They divided between themselves
the territories formerly held by the Kushanas. While the Malavas made
Malvanagar in Rajputana their capital, the Kunindas occupied the territory
between the Yamuna and the Sutlej as well as the upper courses of the Beas
and the Sutlej.
Another cause of the downfall of the Kushana Empire was the rise of the
Sassanian Satraps and the Satavahana power in Iran. The Sassanian Empire
was founded in AD225-26 by Ardeshir I and from the very beginning its rulers
turned their attention towards the East. Ardeshir I came as far as Khorasan. It is
stated that the Kushana Shah or ruler sent his envoy to Ardeshir I to acknowledge
his suzerainty. Gradually, the Sassanian power extended towards Seeistan. In
course of time, it spread over parts of western and central India and the north-
western regions and borderlands of India. The Sassanian expansion towards
western and central India was made at the expense of the Western Satraps
and the Satavahanas. Not only Bactria, but also the whole of north-western
India became important provinces in the eastern division of the Sassanian
Empire. An attempt was made by the Kushanas to become independent of the
Sassanians in the time of Emperor Varhram II (AD276–93) but this seems to

have failed. It is obvious that the rising power of the Sassanians dealt a severe
blow to the declining strength of the Kushanas in the northern and western
parts of India and beyond.
It appears that, in course of time, the Kushanas on the border of India
and also in Punjab intermingled with other tribes. They continued their chequered
existence even up to the time of Samudra Gupta and the latter Subdued them.
They are described in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription as Daivaputra Shahi
Shahanushahi. In the later part of the 4th century and early 5th centuries, the
Kushanas got a new title— Kidara. Their existence has been proved by the
discovery of a large number of coins. However, it is difficult to say anything
about the exact period of their rule, their order of succession and even the limits
of their territory.
Kushana administration
A critical study of the coins and inscriptions of the Kushanas helps us to gather
an idea of India under the Kushanas. We find that the administrative systems of
the Kushanas were a mix of both foreign elements and Indian elements. The
important foreign element was the government by satraps. The latter were
viceroys or governors of the provinces. There were some functionaries who
had foreign names. The name strategos stood for a general or military governor,
while meridach represented district magistrate. Amatyas and mahasenapatis
were officers of Indian origin. The officers having foreign names were stationed
in the North-West, while officers having Indian names were stationed in the
interiors.
Kingship was the prevailing type of polity, although there are references
to republics also. The Kushana rulers took up such titles as Mahisvara,
Devaputra, Kaiser and Shahi-Sahanushabi. There was a tendency to deify
ancestral kings. The Mathura inscription of Huvishka refers to a devakula or a
shrine where the statue ‘the grand father of Kanishka’ was installed. A strange
system of two kings ruling at the same time also prevailed during the Kushana
period. It is also known that Kanishka II and Huvishka ruled jointly. It is possible
that this institution was borrowed from the Indo-Greeks.
The Kushana kings are said to have had unfettered powers. Although
there is a reference to an advisory body to assist the king in Buddhist literature,
it is not safe to assert that such a council existed in the Kushana period as there
is no reference to such a body in the Kushana records.

The satraps in India were called mahakshatrapas and kshatrapas. Some

of them are mentioned as rajan mahakshatrapas. These officials had powers to
issue coins. The assumption of the title points its conferment by some overlord.
The term kshatrapas in Sanskrit literature is used in the sense of dominion, rule
and power, as exercised by gods and men. It is used in the sense of a ruler in
the Rig Veda. Even before the Kushanas, there were Kshatrapas of Kapisa and
Abhisara Prastha and of Mathura. The Kushana rulers followed the system of
their predecessors. Kanishka’s kshatrapas enjoyed a position different from
that of the western kshatrapas. It is pointed out that if the kshatrapas had been
independent, their names would have occurred in the inscriptions and not those
of Kanishka or Huvishka alone.
The terms dandanayaka and maha dandanayaka formed a link in the
Kushana administrative machinery. These terms occur for the first time in the
Kushana records. The term dandanakaya has been translated as ‘magistrate’,
‘the leader of the four forces of the army,’ a fortunate general, ‘commander of
force’, a ‘judge’, ‘administrator of punishment’, ‘criminal magistrate’, ‘the great
leader of the forces’, ‘prefect of police’ and ‘Commissioner of Police’. It is
maintained that dandanayakas were feudatory chiefs who were appointed by
the king. They owed allegiance to the king and were required to render civil and
military service. The civil aid was in the form of personal service for maintaining
law and order. The Kushanas were the first to introduce this system which was
later followed by the Guptas. The names of all the kshatrapas, mahakshatrapas
and mahadandanayakas appear to be foreign and that explains the absence of
Indian official heads at the higher level.
There are references to gramikas and padrapalas. The term gramika was
used for the head of the village while padrapala was a local head. Some historians
hold the view that the Kushana administration must have ensured safety as
there are references to people coming to Mathura from Abhisar, Nagara,
Odayana and even Wokhana or Badakshan. The administration was responsible
for the safety and security of the common people that helped in the progress
and prosperity of the country. This was evident from the life of the people in
general and a large number of welfare schemes that were initiated by the rulers
of the state.

Figure 10.2 Coins from Kanishka’s Era
Activity 2
On a map of India, mark the extent of Kanishka’s kingdom. Identify some
of the important present-day cities in this area.

(a) The Malavas and the Kunindas got their independence and became
prominent after successfully revolting against the authority of the
Kushanas.
(b) The term gramika was used for the head of a village.
(a) The ________ coins of the Yaudheyas are similar to those of
Kushanas.
(b) Kanishka’s important buildings and works of art are found in
Peshawar, Mathura, _______ and _____________.

10.4 Summary

• The Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas and the latter ruled for 112
years from about 185BC – 73BC. Pushyamitra, the Mauryan Commander-
in-Chief killed the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha and ruled the kingdom
for thirty-six years. Pushyamitra was successful in usurping the throne on
account of a general feeling of dissatisfaction against the weak Mauryan
rulers who had failed to protect the people against Greek invaders.
• Pushyamitra is stated to have ruled for thirty-six years. There are
references not only to his son, but also to his grandson taking part in the
administration of the country.
• Chinese historians tell us that the Kushanas were a section of the Yueh-
chi race. The Yueh-chi race were constituted or nomadic groups that
inhabited the borders of modern China. They were driven out from the
lands which they conquered from the Sakas and were forced to resume
their march. They occupied the valley of the Oxus and reduced to
subjugation its peaceful inhabitants. It is possible that the domination of
the Yueh-chi extended over Bactria to the south of the Oxus. Around
10BC, the Yueh-chi lost their nomadic habits and settled down.
• Kanishka was the most striking figure from the Kushan Dynasty of India.
A great conqueror and a patron of Buddhism, he combined in himself the
military ability of Chandragupta Maurya and the religious zeal of Asoka.
Most scholars believed that Kanishka was the founder of the Saka era.
He ascended the throne in 78AD.
• A critical study of the coins and inscriptions of the Kushanas helps us to
gather an idea of India under the Kushanas. We find that the administrative
systems of the Kushanas had both foreign elements and Indian elements
in them. The important foreign element was the government by satraps.
The latter were viceroys or governors of the provinces.
• There were some functionaries who had foreign names. The name
strategos stood for a general or military governor, while meridach stood
represented a district magistrate. Amatyas and mahasenapatis were
officers of Indian origin. The officers having foreign names were stationed
in the North-West, while officers having Indian names were stationed in
the interiors.

10.5 Glossary
• Ashwamedha Yojna: An ancient Vedic ritual wherein horses were

sacrificed
• Satrap: A Persian word used for heads of provinces
• Kshatrap: Sanskrit word meaning an Indian satrap
• Suzeranty: A sovereign exercising control over a dependent state
especially in its foreign affairs
1. Write a note on the political condition after the downfall of the Mauryan
empire.
2. Discuss Pushyamitra’s achievements as an emperor.
3. How did the Kushanas establish their empire?
4. Analyse Kanishka’s achievements as an able ruler.
5. Write a note on the administrative excellence of the Kushanas.
6. Explain briefly the causes of the downfall of the Kushanas.
10.7 Answers
1. (a) Commander-in-chief
(b) Twice
4. (a) Copper
(c) Kashiskapura; Takshashila


Books.

Unit 11 Post-Mauryan South India

Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Sangam Age
11.3 Satavahanas
11.4 Pallava Dynasty
11.5 Chalukya Dynasty
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.9 Answers
11.1 Introduction
The previous unit dealt with the socio-political condition of north India after the
downfall of the Mauryas. This unit will discuss the condition of the southern
states during the era.
Inscriptions from Chandragupta and Asoka mention the existence of certain
influential states of south India. Asoka’s inscriptions mention that Cholas,
Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satiyaputras (comprising modern Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala and Mysore) flourished in the region. The Cholas and Pandyas started
dominating the eastern coast and were associated with Tamil culture. Accounts
maintain that Kharavela, the king of Kalinga defeated the Tamil confederacy
consisting of the Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras (also called Cheras),
famously known as the ‘three crowned kings’. Kalinga established a commercial
relation with the south after this war. Megasthenes states that Herakles’ daughter
had founded the Pandya kingdom. Probably, this could explain the matrilineal
society of early south India which survived even until half a century ago. The
Pandyan queen supposedly had an army of 500 elephants, 4000 cavalry and
13,000 infantry. The main source of information for the period lies in the Sangam
literature. Many centuries ago, three successful sangam or assemblies had
been held in Madurai, where all the bards and poets gathered to share their
talents. Mythology holds that the first assembly was attended by gods though
the poetry composed during this period could not stand the test of time. The

earliest Tamil grammar was composed in the second assembly and eight
anthologies were prepared in the third assembly consisting of over two thousand
poems. These poems insist that the Pandyas, Cholas and the Cheras were
constantly at war with each other. This had provided scope for the composition
of heroic ballads and verses. These three kingdoms have also participated in
the battle of Kurukshetra as mentioned in the Mahabharata. In the 2nd century
BC, the Tamils attacked and ultimately occupied northern Ceylon after building a
strong navy. However, their success was short-lived as the Sinhalese king
Dutthagamini defeated them in the latter half of the century. The Chera king
Nedun Cheral Adan and the early Chola kings also find mention in the
anthologies. The supremacy of the Cholas helped them gain access to the
eastern as well as the western coasts of the southern peninsula. They took
advantage of the situation and built road and seaways for inland and foreign
trade.
Monarchy was the prevalent form of government in this era and though a
mention of village councils and local assemblies have been found, they have
not been defined properly. The temple was the centre of social life in villages.
The coming to power of the Satavahanas improved trade practices between
north and south India as the kingdom straddled both regions. Foreign trade
also gained a fillip from this powerful dynasty.
Objectives
• Describe the political situation in south India after the downfall of the
Mauryas
• Evaluate the southern kingdom of the Satavahanas
• Describe the administration, art and literature of the Pallava era
• Discuss the achievements of the Chalukya period
11.2 Sangam Age
The Sangam age refers to the period during which voluminous Tamil literature,
known as Sangam literature was produced. The Sangam was the society of the
learned in ancient Tamil. It appears that the word ‘Sangam’ was used by
Buddhists and Jains as a euphemistic substitute for the earlier Tamil word kudal.
Three Sangams are said to have flourished in the Pandyan kingdom and were

patronized by its kings. It is believed that the first Sangam had its seat in old
Madurai and had 549 members. The distinguished ones among them were
Tiripuramirittba, Virisadaikkadavul (Shiva), Kunramerinda Murugaver (Muruga)
and Rishi Agastya who presided over it. The Sangam approved the works of
4499 authors and produced works such as the Akattiyam, Paripadal, Mudunarai,
Mudukuruku and Kalariavirai.
Augastyam, a work on Agastya is believed to have consisted of 1300
sutras. The second Sangam met at Kapatapuram and it approved the works of
3700 poets. Some of the distinguished works of the period were Akattiyam,
Tolkappiyam, Muparanam, Isai-Nunukkam, Bhuta-puranam, Kali, Kuruku,
Vendali and Vyalamalai. It had a large library of 149 works. All the works except
Talkappiyam (a work on grammar by Tolkappiyar, one of the twelve disciples of
Agastya) were swallowed by the sea. The Sangam was patronized by 59
Pandyan kings. The third Sangam met at north Madurai. It had 49 members
and was headed by Nakkirar. 449 poets submitted their works to it for approval.
The outstanding works of this period were Nedunthokai, Kurunthokai, Natrinai,
Ainkurununru, Paditruppattu, Nutraimbathu, Paripadal, Koothu, Vari, Perisai and
Sitrisai. Most of these works are now completely lost. Some of the principal
works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the shape of anthologies;
of these Patthuppattu, Ettuthokai and Padinenkilkanakku are well-known.
The most prominent feature of the Sangam culture is its composite quality.
It is the unmistakable result of the blend of two originally distinct cultures, best
described as Tamilian and Aryan. However, it is not easy to differentiate between
the elements of the pre-Aryan Tamil culture that have amalgamated with the
fundamental Aryan civilization. Everything in the area has already been
thoroughly overlaid with the Aryan influences which sometimes act as a superficial
veneer disguising the original traits, but more often pervaded by transforming
practices and institutions beyond recognition. There are, at present, no traces
of any literary work in the Tamil language; however, ancient Tamil literature
does not betray Sanskrit influence to any extent.

(a) The Sangams took place in Mathura.
(b) Augastyam, a work on Agastya is supposed to have consisted of
1300 sutras.


(a) In 2nd century BC, the Ceylonese king _________ defeated the
Tamils.
(b) The third Sangam was headed by _________.
11.3 Satavahanas
A controversy exists regarding the origins of the Satavahanas. Kings referred

to as Satvahanas and Satakarnis (in inscriptions and coins) are given the name
of Andhra, Andhra-bhrityan and Andhrajatiya in the Puranas. From this, scholars
have come to the conclusion that the Satavahanas or the Satakarnis were
identical with the Andhras. The Satavahanas lost their northern and western
possessions and were often confused with the people of Andhradesa whom
they ruled. The Puranas thus called them not only the ruler of Andhradesa, but
also gave them the title of Andhra Kings.
Gautamiputra Satakarni
Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty. Gautamiputra Satakarni
was the most famous king of this dynasty. He ruled from about AD70–95. He not
only restored the fallen fortunes of his dynasty, but also brought vast territories
under his rule. He overthrew the Sakas, Yavanas and Pallavas, destroyed the
Ksharatas and re-established the glory of the Satavahana race. Gautamiputra
also held sway over Rishika, Asmaka Mulaka and Vidarbha. They roughly belong
to modern Gujarat, Saurastra, Malwa, Berar, North Konkan and the region around
Pune and Nasik. He described himself as the lord of Vidhyas, Rikshavat,
Pariyatra, Sahya, Mahendra and other mountain ranges encircling the Indian
peninsula. He took up the title of Tri-Samudra-toya, Pita, Vahana which means
‘one whose charges drank the waters of the three seas’—the Bay of Bengal,
the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. It appears that before his death,
Gautamiputra Satakarni lost most of his territories conquered by him from
Nahapana. He lost these territories to Kardamak of another Scythian dynasty.
The latter record proves that he ruled for at least twenty-four years.
Rudradaman
Rudradaman I, the grandson and successor of Chastana was the most
outstanding Saka of Ujjain. His exploits are described in the Junagadh rock
inscription dated AD150. It represents him as having won the title of Mahaksatrapa.
He conquered the ‘proud’ Yaudheyas and twice vanquished Satakarni, lord of

Saksinapata. The fact that these claims were not mere boasts is evident from
the homes of lands, where his authority was recognized. They included northern
Gujarat, Saurastra, lower Indus valley, north Konkan, Mandhata-region eastern
and western Malwa, Kukara and Meru, that is, a part of the Rajuputana empire.
Another important event of his reign was the bursting of the embankment of the
Sudarsana lake. However, it was rebuilt three times stronger mainly by the
efforts of his Pallava governor of ‘the whole of Anartta and Surastra’ named
Suvisakha, who was the son of Kulaioa. It is also known that Rudradaman bore
the expenses of its repair and did not resort to the usual royal device of imposing
additional tax on his subjects. This incident exemplifies his empathetic nature
as a ruler who was indeed worried about the welfare of his people. Figure 11.1
shows a coin from Rudradaman’s era.
Not much is known about Rudradaman’s successors. Damajada or
Damajadasari was the son and successor of Rudradaman. He was succeeded
by Rudrasena I. The last saka satrap of Ujjain was Rudrasena III who was
defeated and killed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
Figure 11.1 Coin from Rudradaman’s Era

(a) Gautamiputra Satakarni was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
(b) Rudradaman was an oppressive ruler.


(a) Gautamiputra lost his territories to ___________of another Scythian
dynasty.
(b) Rudradaman was succeeded by __________________.
11.4 Pallava Dynasty
There are different opinions regarding the origin of the Pallavas. The famous
historian and author Dr V.A. Smith considers them to be Parthians while some
other scholars accept them as Kadama or Pahlava. Historians, however, are
anonymous in believing that they were Kshatriya by caste.
Early kings
The first known king of the Pallava dynasty was Simhavarman. It is evident
from an inscription, written in Prakrit, that it was Simhavarman who founded the
Pallava dynasty. Simhavarman was succeeded by Skandhavarman who was
perhaps his son. Initially, he was a yuvaraja (prince) and later took the title of
Maharajadhiraja. He made Kanchi his capital and performed horse sacrifices,
Agnistoma and Vajapeya Yajnas. His kingdom extended up to the River Krishna
in the north and the Arabian Sea in the west. The name of Vishnugopa also
comes up as the king of the Pallava dynasty. During his reign, Samudragupta
attacked and defeated him. There is little knowledge about the history of the
Pallava dynasty. The history of the Pallava dynasty after Vishnugopa is
determined by the edicts of the Ganga kings who had mentioned the Pallavas
as their contemporary. An account entitled Lokavibhaga helps in determining
the chronology of the Pallava dynasty.
Simhavishnu
The first great king of the Pallava dynasty was Simhavishnu. He founded a new
dynasty. The Pallava culture was at its zenith during his time. He expanded his
power in south India and defeated the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Malawas.
He was a follower of the Bhagavat religion. During his time, many temples of
Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma were built. He made every effort to disseminate the
Sanskrit language and the Bhagavat culture. Bharavi, the writer of Kiratarjuniya,
and Dandin were his court poets. Simvishnu was a worshipper of Lord Vishnu.
Mahendravarman
After the death of Simhavishnu, his son Mahendravarman became the king.
The most memorable part of his rule was that he was the first king who developed

the art of building temples by carving out hard rocks. Moreover, the epic
Kiratarjuniya was written during his time. In his rule, people were happy and
affluent and lived in peace. Although the Pallava–Chalukya and Pallava–Pandya
wars began in his time, there was an immense development in the field of arts.
Not only was he a contemporary of Harshavardhan and Pulakesin, he was also
a liberal king, patron of art, culture and architecture. Mahendravarman
established political unity by conquering all the small states in the south of the
River Krishna. He took several titles like Mattavilasa, Gunabhara,
Paramamaheshwar, Mahendravikrama and Cettakari.
Narasimhavarman
Narasimhavarman was the son of Mahendravarman. He became king in the
second half of the 7th century and was brave and brilliant like his father. He
defeated Pulakesin II and captured his capital, Vatapi. After this victory, he took
the title of Vatapikonda. Following his father’s footsteps, Narasimhavaraman
built several temples and promoted art and culture. He built temples at
Chitranapalli by carving out rocks. He also founded a town named
Mahabalipuram.
Parameshwarvarman
Parameshwaravarman was the son of Narasimhavarman. He was defeated by
the Chalukya king Viramaditya. However, this victory is disputed as contemporary
accounts fail to provide any definite detail on this. He ruled from AD660–680.
Narasimhavarman II Rajsimha
Narasimhavarman II became king after Parmeshwaravarman. He built the
Kailash temple, Shora temple (at Mahabalipuram), Airavateshwar temple (at
Kanchi) and Panamalai temple. His rule was an era of literary activism.
Nandivarman Pallavamala
Narasimhavarman succeeded Nandivarman II Pallavamala. In his rule
the war between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas was revived. Nandivarman’s
rule was a history of military activities, expeditions, attacks and counter-attacks.
He built the Mukeshwar and Baikuntha temples at Kanchi and ruled for sixty-
five years.
Dantivarman and his successor
Dantivarman was the son of Nandivarman. The Rashtrakutas attacked Kanchi
during his reign and he was succeeded by Nandivarman III. He extended his
empire by conquering the Pandyas and married a Rashtrakuta princess.
Nripatungavarman, his son, succeeded him to the throne. He defeated the

Pandya king Srimara. Aparajitavarman was the last king of the Pallava dynasty.
The Chola king Aditya I defeated him and ended the Pallava dynasty.
Pallava administration
The Pallavas established a well-organized administrative system. The monarch
was the head of the state and administration. There was a council of ministers,
known as Rahasyakid to advice the king. Other pillars of administration were
provincial governors and departmental ministers. R. Gopalan (well-known author)
opines, ‘The administration of the Pallavas reminds me of some aspects of the
Maurya and some aspects of the Gupta administrations.’
The Pallava Empire was divided into rastras or mandalas. Its chief was
known as visayaka. A rastra was subdivided into kottam and nadu (village), the
rulers of which were known as deshatika and vapitta. There was also a village-
assembly, which managed the village administration by sub-committees. A
complete, written account of the land was also maintained. About eighteen
different types of taxes were collected from the village.
Pallava literature
The Pallava kings were active patrons of literature and culture and they
patronized several scholars. Due to this, literature grew immensely under the
Pallavas. Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas was a famous centre of Sanskrit
learning since the ancient times. Bharavi, the writer of the Kiratarjuniya was
the court-poet of Simhavishnu. King Mahendravarman himself wrote
Mattavilasaprahasana. Renowned scholars like Bhasa, Shudraka and Dandin
have contributed immensely to this period. Sanskrit was the state language.
The Pallava kings were tolerant towards other religions though they
themselves followed Vedic rituals. They performed several sacrifices and
patronized Sanskrit. The famous Chinese Buddhist monk and traveller, Hieun
Tsang writes, ‘There were about hundred Buddhist monasteries and over one
thousand monks in Kanchi. They belonged to the Mahayana sect and studied
the doctrines of the Sthavira sect.’ Mahendravarman was the first Jain in the
dynasty. While the famous Shaivites, Appara and Tirujnana Sambandara helped
spread Shaivism in south India, Alwar saints spread Vaishnavism.
Pallava art
It would not be an exaggeration to say that the Pallava age gave birth to several
arts. This age witnessed an immense growth in the arts. Rock-cut architecture
was introduced in south India by the Pallavas. They were the first people to
encourage the Kandara style or dari temple, an example of which is present in

Trichinapalli or modern Tiruchirapalli. After this, ratha temples in Mahabalipuram

were built. In the Pallava age, artists were skilled in several arts. Four art styles
that were prevalent during the Pallava age were the following:
(1) Mahendra style
The style of the temples at Dalavanapur, Pallavaram and Vallam were developed
by Mahendravarman I. This new style was called the Mahendra style. In it, the
pillars of the gateway are constructed in a row. The features of the temples are
spherical phalluses, extraordinary doorways, arched gateways and triple-
mouthed pillars.
(2) Mammal style
Since this style was developed in Mammalapuram, it is called the Mammal style
(Figure 11.2). In this style, pavilions or chariots were carved out in a rock-cut
temple. Ten pavilions were built in this style. The ratio of decorations on the
pillars are especially beautiful. The depiction of the descent of the Ganges,
Vishnu lying on the serpent king, Varahavatar, etc., in rock-cut hills are brilliant
examples of this style. The chariots in the Mammal style is known as
Saptapagoda. There are eight such chariots, named Draupadi ratha, Arjuna
ratha, Bhima ratha, Dharmaraja ratha, Sahadeva ratha, Ganesh ratha, Pindari
ratha and Valaiyana kuttai ratha. All these were perhaps Shaiva temples. The
roofs of some of the rathas have been shaped like pyramids.
Figure 11.2 Mammal Style of Architecture
(3) Rajasimha style

In Rajasimha style, rock-cut temples were built. The shrines of these temples
face the sea. There are six temples in this style; of them three are in

Mammalpuram, one in Pamalai and the remaining two are in Kanchi. The Kailash
temple of Kanchi and Saptapagoda, and Shor temple of Dala are examples of
this style.
(4) Aparajita style
The Aparajita style is named after the Pallava king Aparajitavarman. The Pallava
culture had developed fully by this time. This style is more ornate, resembling
the Chola architecture. A few temples built in this style are found at Dalavanur.
The noteworthy feature of some shrines is that they are adorned by beautiful
life-like images of Pallava kings and their queens. They are unique in the history
of the temple architecture. The influence of the Pallava style can be clearly
seen on the arts of the eastern islands like Java, Cambodia, etc. During this
period, a tradition of cultural growth was seen in most parts of south India.
Activity 1
Create a dynasty table for the Pallava dynasty.
5. Choose the correct word from the options given.

(a) The first known king of the Pallava dynasty was _________.
(i) Simhavishnu
(ii) Singhagosa
(iii) Aparajitavarman
(iv) Pallavavarman
(b) The influence of Pallava art was seen in foreign countries
like___________.
(i) Cambodia
(ii) China
(iii) Japan
(iv) Italy
(a) The chariots in the Mammal style are known as Saptapagoda.
(b) Rock-cut temples were built in the Rajasimha style.

11.5 Chalukya Dynasty
Like the Satavahanas, Indian historians are divided on the origin of the
Chalukyas. According to Indian legend, the Chalukyas were Kshatriyas from
the north and originated from the water pot of Hariti. However, consensus has
been reached to declare that the Chalukyas of Badami were residents of present
Karnataka. The Chalukyas had three branches and you will learn about each of
them in detail ahead.
(1) Chalukyas of Badami
The first emperor of the Chalukya dynasty was Jayasimha who established an
independent state after defeating the Kadambas and the Rashtrakutas.
Jayasimha’s son Ranaranga only defended his empire but Pulakesin I was the
real king of this dynasty because he was an independent king. He extended his
empire and proved his mettle by performing horse sacrifices. His capital was
Badami. You will learn about the important Chalukyas of Badami ahead.
Kirtivarman
He was brave like his father, Pulakesin I and defeated the kings of Anga, Banga,
Kalinga, Vantur, Magadha, Madraka, Keral, Ganga, Pandya, Damil, Chiliya,
Aluka and Vaijayanti. He ruled from AD566–597.
Mangalesh
When Kirtivarman died, his son was still young. Therefore, his stepbrother
Mangalesh ascended to the throne. His achievements were the conquests of
Revati Island and Kalachuri. Vaishanavite Mangalesh built a grand cave Vishnu
temple in Badami. It is one of the best specimens of contemporary art.
Pulakesin II
Pulakesin II (AD620–642) was the most extraordinary ruler of his dynasty. He
deposed his uncle and ascended the throne. Taking advantage of this civil-war,
many subordinate states declared independence. At the same time, Mangalesh’s
sons also attacked in a bid to take over the kingdom from him. Pulakesin II had
to face simultaneous foreign aggressions. In such a difficult situation, the young
ruler displayed amazing patience, and made foreign aggressors his friends.
After strengthening his position, he started the campaign of conquests.
He forced Navasis, the Gangas of Mysore, Alupas of Malabar, and Konkan
Maurya of North to join him. He also crushed Lats of Gujarat, Malawa and
Gurjars. The greatest achievement of Pulakesin II was his victory over
Harshavardhana. His prestige increased immensely after he defeated Harsha.

He made the Cholas, Keralas, and Pandyas his friends and defeated the
Pallavas. However, the Chalukyas’ power was on a decline during the last days
of Pulakesin II. Narsimhavarman killed Pulakesin II in a war.
Vikramaditya I
The Chalukya’s seat of power, Badami, was under the possession of Pallavas
for thirteen years but Vikramaditya, the son of Pulakesin II, re-established the
Chalukya power. He was victorious like his father. After the death of Vikramaditya,
his son Vijayaditya ruled from AD680–698. He was succeeded by Vikramaditya
II who ruled from AD696–733.
Vikramaditya II
Vikramaditya II fought the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. During his reign, the
Arabs, after conquering Sindh in AD712, attacked south India but Vikramaditya
defeated them. However, he could not destroy the Pallava power completely.
After Vikramaditya II, Kirtivarman II became the king. He was the last
king of the Chalukya dynasty. In AD753, the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga
subjugated Kirtivarman II and destroyed his power. However, other branches of
the Chalukyas kept their kingdoms intact.
(2) Chalukyas of Vengi
The Chalukyas of Vengi ruled over a part of Andhra and Kalinga for five centuries.
Pulakesin had made Vishnuvardhan, the rule of Pistapur, his vassal, but his
successors became independent. The most able kings of this dynasty were
Vijayaditya II and Vijayaditya III who defeated Rastrakutas, Gangas and other
contemporary powers. Rajaraja Chola weakened the power of this dynasty but
its king Shaktivarman regained the lost glory and extended the boundaries of
his empire. Shaktivarman’s successor Vimaladitya was married to the Chola
princess Kundava and improved his relations with them. Vimaladitya’s son
Rajaraja Vishnuvardhana married the daughter of Rajendra I. Rajendra Chola,
born of this marriage ousted Vijayaditya VII from Vengi in AD1070 and thus the
Cholas annexed the Chalukya kingdom.
(3) Chalukyas of Kalyani
Tailap II established the Chalukya Empire of Kalyani by deposing the Rastrakuta
king in AD973 and made Kalyani his capital. He then defeated the Chola and
Kalachuri kings and defeated king Munja of the Paramars. He ruled for almost
twenty-five years. After the death of Tailap, his son Satyashraya ascended to
the throne. Though the neighbouring Cholas created troubles in his kingdom,
Satyashraya regained his power. After the death of Satyashraya, Vikramaditya

ascended to the throne and ruled for ten years. He was succeeded by Jaisingh
II. He defeated Paramara king Bhoja. After him, Someshwar I Ahavamalla
ascended the throne. He defeated the Chola king Rajadhiraja Kanchi and
annexed his empire to his kingdom. He also defeated Chediraj and the
Kalachuris. He restrained the growing power of the Yadavs, Hoyasalas,
Kadambas in south India. He was the most famous and efficient king of this
branch of the Chalukyas. He made Kalyani his capital. It is said that he lost his
life by submerging himself in water in a yogic posture of meditation.
After the death of Someshwar I, his son Someshwar II (AD1068–1076)
ascended the throne. He was succeeded by Vikramaditya VI. He was not only
a brilliant king, but also a patron of learned persons. Poet Bilhana was in his
court. He wrote Vikramdudevacharita. Vijnaneshwar, the writer of Mitaksara
also lived in his court. There were several kings after Someshwar but none
were as powerful. In 1190, this kingdom was annexed by Yadav King Bhillama
of Devagiri.
Chalukya culture
In their reign of several centuries, the Chalukyan kings set new standards in the
political and cultural fields. The Chalukya administration was feudal in nature.
Sandhi-vigrahaka was appointed as a contact official between the king and
feudatories. Feudatories had certain privileges; they had their own army and
had independence in internal matters. Though the king was the highest seat of
power and justice, a council of ministers helped the king in the administration of
the state.
When the Chalukya dynasty was founded, Brahminism occupied a
predominant place. This gave impetus to the growth of Vedic religion. Several
temples were constructed and Pulakesin II performed the horse-sacrifice and
Vajapeya sacrifice. Jainism also flourished because of the religious tolerance
of the Chalukya kings. Ravikirti, the writer of the Aihole inscription was a follower
of Jainism, and he built a temple of Jinendra. Huen Tsang has written that there
were more than hundred Buddhist monasteries in which over 5000 monks of
both the Hinayana and Mahayana sects. There were five Asoka Stupas inside
and outside the capital. This provides evidence of the growth of Buddhism in
the country.
There was immense development in the field of arts during the rule of the
Chalukyas. Similar to the Buddhists and Jains, the building of cave-temples for
Hindu deities was an important contribution of this age. Virupaksa is a famous
temple of this period adorned with frescoes from the Ramayana. The policy of

religious tolerance, liberalism, and love for learning of the Chalukya kings, and
patronization of scholars provided opportunity for literary creation. Jain teachers
of the period laid the foundation for literary creation in provincial languages like
Marathi, Kannad and Telugu.
Activity 2
Read the details of socio-political situation under Pulakesin II on the Internet
or in books at a library and write a note on it. Discuss why you think Pulakesin
II is regarded as one of the most important kings of south India. Then trace
the expansion of the Chalukya kingdom on a map of India.

(a) Tailap II established the Chalukya Empire of Kalyani by deposing
the ______ king.
(b) Virupaksa is a famous temple of the Chalukya culture adorned with
frescoes from the ____________.
(a) There was an immense development in the field of arts during the
rule of the Chalukyas.
(b) When the Chalukya dynasty was founded, Brahminism occupied a
predominant place.
11.6 Summary

• Inscriptions from the Chandragupta and Asoka eras mention the existence
of certain influential states of south India. Asoka’s inscriptions mention
that Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satiyaputras (comprising modern
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Mysore) flourished in the region.
• Megasthenes stated that Herakles’ daughter had founded the Pandya
kingdom. This explains the existence of the matrilineal society of early
south India which survived even until half a century ago. The main source
of information regarding the period lies in the Sangam literature.

• Sangams were assemblies, where bards and poets gathered to share

their talents. Mythology holds that the first assembly was attended by
gods though the poetry composed during this period could not stand the
test of time. The earliest Tamil grammar was composed in the second
assembly; eight anthologies were prepared in the third assembly consisting
of over two thousand poems. These poems insist that the Pandyas, Cholas
and the Cheras were constantly waging wars with each other. This had
provided scope for heroic ballads and verses being composed. These
three kingdoms have participated in the battle of Kurukshatra as mentioned
in the Mahabharata.
• The Sangam age refers to the period during which voluminous Tamil
literature, known as the Sanagam literature was produced. The Sangam
was the society of the learned in ancient Tamil. It appears that the word
Sangam was used by the Buddhists and Jains as an euphemistic substitute
for the earlier Tamil word kudal. All three Sangams are said to have
flourished in the Pandyan kingdom and patronized by kings.
• There is a controversy regarding the origins of the Satavahanas. Kings
called Satvahanas and Satakarnis in inscriptions and coins are given the
name of Andhra, Andhra-bhrityan and Andhrajatiya in the Puranas. From
this, scholars have come to the conclusion that the Satavahanas or the
Satakarnis were identical with the Andhras. The Satavahanas lost their
northern and western possessions and were often confused with the
people of Andhradesa whom they ruled. The Puranas thus called them
not only the ruler of Andhradesa, but also gave them the title of Andhra
Kings. Important rulers of this period were Gautamiputra Satakarni and
Rudradaman I.
• There are different opinions regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Dr V.A.
Smith considers them as Parthians while some other scholars accept
them as Kadama or Pahlava. Historians, however, are anonymous in
believing that they were Kshatriya by caste. The first known king was
Sinhavarman. Other imp ortant kings were Simhavishnu,
Mahendravarman, Narasinhavarman, Parameshwarvarman and
Narasimhavarman II.
• Indian historians are divided on the origins of the Chalukyas also. According
to Indian legends, the Chalukyas were Kshatriyas from the north and
originated from the water pot of Hariti. However, consensus has been
reached to declare that the Chalukyas of Badami were residents of present
Karnataka. The Chalukyas could be divided inot three branches: (1) the

Chalukyas of Badami, (2) the Chalukyas of Vengi, and (3) the Chalukyas
of Kalyani.
11.7 Glossary
• Visayaka: Chief of a province under Pallavas

• Sandhi-vigrahaka: Officials working between the king and feudatories
1. Name the kingdoms that found a mention in Asoka’s inscriptions.

2. Write a note on Sangam literature.
3. Evaluate the growth of literature under the Pallavas.
4. What was the significance of the Pallava administration?
5. Discuss the progress of art under the Pallavas.
6. Write a note on the three branches of Chalukyas.
11.9 Answers
1, (a) False; (b) True

2. (a) Dutthagamini; (b) Nakkirar
4. (a) Kardamak; (b) Damajada
5. (a) (i); (b) (i)
7. (a) Rastrakuta
(b) Ramayana


Books.

Unit 12 Gupta Dynasty

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Political Conditions after the Kushanas
12.3 Early Guptas
12.4 Chandragupta I
12.5 Samudragupta
12.6 Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
12.7 Skandagupta
12.8 Disintegration of the Empire
12.9 Summary
12.10 Glossary
12.12 Answers
12.1 Introduction
The last two units discussed the socio-political conditions of north and south
India after the disintegration of the Maurya Dynasty. This unit deals with the
Gupta Dynasty and evaluates the Golden Age in ancient Indian history.
The Gupta Dynasty, famed as ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India, has a special
importance in the history of India. The Gupta rulers re-established the political
unity that existed during the Mauryan period, and ruled over a large principality
of northern India. The Gupta Age is marked as an era of unprecedented progress
in all aspects of polity, religion, art and literature. Indian history is proud of the
Gupta emperors who nurtured Indian culture and protected Indian nationalism.
In this unit, you will learn about the rise of the Gupta empire, the reign of
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Skandagupta
and the down fall of the Gupta empire.
Objectives
• Describe the political conditions after the Kushanas
• Recall the early history of the Gupta Empire

• Discuss the achievements of Chandragupta I

• Describe the reign of Samudragupta
• Evaluate the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
• Recall the reign of Skandagupta
• Assess the causes of disintegration of the Empire
12.2 Political Conditions after the Kushanas
The weakening of the Kushanas was followed by political disarray in the country.
Numerous republican principalities and monarchical states surfaced. Among
these, some played significant role in overthrowing the Kushanas. None among
them, however, was strong enough to integrate the country into a political unity.
That high task fell to the share of the Guptas. Samudragupta and his successors
eliminated the regional kingdoms, local chiefs, the republican communities and
brought a large part of the country under a strong central authority. Political will,
once again, was at work. The Guptas performed this task successfully and well.
They restored to the country, once again, unity and solidarity. They set before
the people a new horizon. A bird’s eye-view of the political state on the eve of
the emergence of the Guptas to political prominence and the role they played
on the contemporary political stage is obviously expedient to follow the course
of events.
Republican states
Several republican states rose to prominence in the North-West and the Punjab,
the region which had felt, the impact of the rise and fall of the Yavanas, the
Pallavas, Sakas and of the Kushanas the most. Among them, some republics
of the ancient origin, though small in size and resource, with resolution and
determination, exerted on their own or in cooperation with the like-minded, threw
away the Kushana hegemony. The Yaudheyas were the strongest among them
and also probably the first to strike effectively. They had probably the cooperation
of the Kunindas and of the Arjunayanas in this task. Their success made the
Malavas assume independence.
1. Yaudheyas: The Yaudheyas were the republican people. In the
Mahabharata, Yaudheya appears as the name of the son of Yudhishthira,
and it is not improbable that the Yaudheya people claimed descent from
the Pandava king. They were known as the ‘Kshatriyas par excellence’.
They held sway over Rajasthan and south-eastern Punjab. By the end of

the 2nd century AD, they were one of the first to have liberated themselves
from the yoke of the Kushanas. In the present state of knowledge, there
is nothing to single out the Yaudheyas or any of their neighbours in Punjab,
UP, and Rajputana as having been solely responsible for the collapse of
the Kushana rule in India.
2. Kunindas: The Kunindas were republicans of the ancient origin. They
had good neighbourly relations with the Yaudheyas. They cooperated
with the Yaudheyas in overthrowing the Kushanas. They held the territory
between the Sutlej and the Beas.
3. Arjunayanas: The Arjunayanas were republicans of the Mahabharata
origin. They probably claimed descent from the Pandava prince Arjuna or
from the Haihaya king of the same name. They held the territory around
Agra–Jaipur. They continued to hold their own down to the middle of the
4th century AD.
4. Malavas: The Malavas were of the ancient origin. They held the Ravi–
Sutlej territories. On the eve of Alexander’s invasion, probably under
political pressure, they moved southwards and established themselves in
Ajmer–Tonk–Mewar region with Malavanagar, near Jaipur, being their
capital. They are said to have given their name to Malwa (Malava).
5. Madras: The Madras made themselves independent of the Kushanas
and established their authority over the Ravi–Chenab doab. They made
Sialkot their capital.
6. Audumbaras: The Audumbara republic held sway over Kangra,
Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur region. They are said to have merged with the
Malavas.
Later, these republics, according to the Allahabad pillar inscriptions,
accepted the supremacy of Samudragupta. He recognized and respected their
autonomy.
Monarchical states
1. Nagas: The Nagas were serpent-worshipping, non-Aryan tribes of the
ancient India. Their great power, culture and political prestige are hinted
at in such epic legends as those relating to Vasuki and Takshaka, the
death of Parikshit, and the serpent sacrifice of Janamejaya as well as in
literary traditions like that of Nilanaga, the pre-historic protector of Kashmir.
According to some scholars, one of the earliest historical Naga royal lines
was the dynasty (or dynasties) represented by Sisunaga and Naga-

Darsaka, king of Magadha. Serpent-worship was a popular cult in all parts

of ancient India. The existence of the Nagas in different parts of India in
early and medieval periods and of their descendants in the present times
is evidenced not only by epigraphic, numismatic and literary records, but
also by numerous localities named after the Nagas (e.g., Nagapura,
Uragapura, Nagarakhanda, etc.) and a large number of families (including
many royal houses) with the cognomen Naga.
The Nagas were an important power. They are said to have played
a significant role in terminating the Kushana authority in the Gangetic
valley. But the manner in which it was done is not clear. The success of
the Yaudheyas, the Kunindas and the Arjunayanas emboldened the Nagas
of Padmavati to reassert their independence.
The Padmavati Nagas were known as the Bharasiva ‘whose royal
line owed its origin to the great satisfaction of Shiva that was caused by
their carrying a Shivalinga placed as a load upon their shoulders’ and
‘who were besprinkled on the forehead with the pure water of the Bhagirathi
that had been obtained by their valour.’ Thus, the name of the Bharasivas,
a family of Nagas who were usually Shaivas, has been explained by their
carrying a linga. It is also suggested that their home was away from the
Bhagirathi (Ganga) but that they extended their power as far as the valley
of the river.’
They held their authority over Gwalior and the neighbouring region.
Padmavati was their capital. It was situated near the confluence of the
Sindhu and the Para and thus had the natural protection from three sides.
It was a famous centre for education and culture. Its fame did not diminish
even after the fall of the Nagas. The Puranas refer to the rule of nine
Naga kings at Padmavati. Bharasiva Naga dynasty was one of the most
important that flourished on the ruins of the Kushana Empire. They are
credited to have thrown away the Kushanas and performed ten
Asvamedhas. The Dasavamedhaghat at Benaras, commemorates these
sacrifices. But according to a historian, this large number of horse-
sacrifices need not, however, be taken as proof that they were the leading
power to oust the Kushanas; for horse-sacrifices were often performed by
petty rulers in that period.’ They had extended their authority over Punjab.
Of this line, Bhavanaga (c. AD 305–340) reigned over the kingdom
bordering the Bhagirathi. He gave his daughter in marriage to the Vakataka
crown price Gautamiputra in c. AD 300. The Vakataka records mention
that Bhavanaga was the maternal grandfather of Rudrasena I.

Another Naga family ruled over western UP with their capital at

Mathura. According to a Puranic statement, seven Naga kings ruled over
Mathura.
By the middle of the 4th century AD, Nagasena and Ganapati were
reigning at Padmavati and Mathura respectively. Both of them were
defeated by Samudragupta and their territories were annexed. A Naga
line, however, continued as the feudatories or as officers of the Guptas.
2. Maukharis: The Maukharis ruled Badva in Kota, Rajasthan. They were
enthusiastic about the cause of Vedic religion. Sacrificial pillars have been
discovered commemorating the Triratra sacrifices performed by four of
them. Their relation with the later Maukharis of Bihar and Kanauj is not
clear.
3. Maghas: Magha is the name given to the dynasty by the Puranas as four
of their known kings have names ending in Magha. The family, according
to the Puranas, had nine kings but the details of all of them are not
available. Their principality was in the south-east of Padmavati. In the
beginning, it was confined to Baghelkhand alone. Earliest of their kings
was Vasishthiputra Bhimsena. His son and successor Kautriputra Pothasiri
was an able ruler. His capital was Bandhogarh. It flourished under his
fostering care. Merchants from distant places came to visit the place and
made religious endowments. Later, the crown prince Bhadra-magha
snatched Kausambi from the Kushans. He started the ‘Magha’ series of
coins. The dynasty ceased to exist after 300 AD.
4. Western Kshatrapas: The western Kshatrapas, touched the zenith of
power and glory under Rudradaman I. His successor put up with the
fluctuations of their fortune. Finally, in 304 AD, an upstart, Rudra Simha II
brought the house of the Chashtana to an end. The last of the line of the
upstart was Rudra Simha III. He was defeated by Chandragupta and his
territory was annexed to the Gupta dominion.
5. lkshvakus: The Satavahana line was brought to an end by lkshvakus,
one of their feudatories. The earliest of this line was Vasishthiputra
Santhmula, who reigned over Dhanyakalaka and the neighbouring territory
in the second quarter of the third century AD. Nothing much is known
about the predecessors of Santhmula. The Ikshvaku of the far sought
appear to have had their capital at Vijayapuri situated in the valley of the
Nagarjunikonda hills. The Ikshvakus continued for long as a local power.

Among the other minor dynasties that reigned in the region were the
Brihatphalayanas in the Kistana district, with their capital at Pithunda; the
Anandas at Guntur and the Salankayanas at Vengapura.
6. Vakatakas (c. AD 225–510): The Vakatakas were the most important power
that arose on the wreck of the Satavahana Empire. Vendhyasakti was the
founder of the house. Their original principality was Berar. They established
matrimonial relations first with the Nagas and later with the Guptas in the
north. They continued to hold their domination down to AD 540. Their weak
and incompetent successors failed to hold their own against the challenge
from the Kadambas of Karnataka, the Kalachuris of Northern Maharashtra
and the Nalas of Bastar, who steadily absorbed most of their territory.
Later, the Chalukyas of Karnataka rose to be mighty and swept them out
of the existence.
7. Dakshina Kosala: The kingdom consisted of Raipur, Bilaspur, Sambalpur
and Orissa. The region Dakshina Kosala, in contrast to the Uttara-Kosala,
which roughly corresponded to modern Oudh, may have been originally
colonized as suggested by Altakar, by the princes of the Ikshvakus dynasty
of Ayodhya in the middle of the 4th century AD. It was headed by Mahendra.
Samudragupta.
8. Kalinga: Soon after the fall of the Chedi dynasty, Kalinga broke into small
principalities and each was headed by a minor reigning house. Significant
among them were the Pitribhaktas of Simhapura and the Matharas of
Pishtapura.
Thus, the country had been divided into a number of republican and
monarchical states. But, still the Kushanas had not been completely uprooted.
They continued to rule over the north western parts. The Sakas, though in a
state of decline, held authority over Gujarat and Malwa. There was a political
void. The Guptas met the consequent challenge and moved to the centre of the
political stage.

(a) The Magha dynasty had _________ kings.
(b) Dakshina Kosala roughly corresponded to modern __________.


(a) Bharasiva Naga dynasty was one of the most important that flourished
on the ruins of the Kushana Empire.
(b) Art touched a high standard in the Gupta Age.
12.3 Early Guptas
The Guptas came to the center of the political stage, as it were, by the will of
God. They were not among the powers that challenged the Kushanas; they did
not come up in consequence of their decline. Among their contemporaries, they
were undoubtedly the only power determined to restore to the country its lost
political unity. They brought the region between ‘the Godavari and the Sutlej’
under their direct authority and also indirectly ruled over most of other parts of
the country. They commanded respect for their powerful war machine, military
process and political acumen. They massacred the Huns. No one else could do
it anywhere in the contemporary world. Their government was based on the
accepted principle of centralization and progressive decentralization. The central
government was powerful, yet in ‘the district headquarters, the officials of the
Central Government were assisted and controlled by popular councils, whose
sanction was necessary even if the state wanted to sell its own wasteland.
Villages had their own popular councils which administered almost all the
branches of administration, including collection of taxes and settlement of village
disputes.’ The local opinion was given due cognizance, laws were effective and
humane. Public welfare was attended to; poor and sick were provided relief.
Roads were well protected. ‘Gupta peace’ brought in its wake all-round prosperity.
Agriculture improved, industry progressed, commerce expanded, shipbuilding
and foreign trade gained new dimensions. Gold and silver flowed into the country
from abroad. Coins of precious metals were in circulation; people lived in comfort.
As evidenced by the contemporary literature and paintings, they used fine clothes
and ornaments.
The improved means of communication and transport, movement of men
and ideas and the enrichment of urban life stimulated de-linking of varna and
vocation, encouraged caste mobility, brought about the transformation of tribes
into castes and the assimilation of the foreign racial stocks into the social whole.
The position of women remained distinct. The emphasis on the concept of ‘ideal
wife’ inculcated deeper and there was a wider sense of family correspondence
and social intercourse.

The orthodox and heterodox religions existed side by side everywhere, at

all levels and even in the individual families. Freedom of belief and expression
was valued and cherished. Thinkers and writers, debaters and preachers by
their erudite postulation of dogmas and theories presented a feast of intellectuality
and rationality to the interested. Conflict of views was assumed. Mutuality and
harmony among the believers in the rival dogmas prevailed as a measure
unknown anywhere in human civilization. It was accepted as part of the social
order. The harmony of beliefs stimulated bhakti. It developed as the concomitant
of people’s religious belief. Religion was understood to be for the good of all.
Preachers carried this message to the people beyond the heights of mountains
and the expanses of the oceanic waters.
Education received full attention. The endowment of Agrahara villages
made the local institutions financially independent. Scholars discussed the
contributions of other people in learning. They looked out for new ideas,
appreciated others’ points of view and were completely free from ‘self-
complacency and narrowness of the outlook’. The intellectual urge of the age
strengthened the rational attitude in matters that were ecclesiastical and
temporal.
Sanskrit language was the vehicle of this great intellectual efflorescence.
Immense literature was produced on numerous disciplines. This language was
adopted as the medium of expression in quarters where Prakrits had all along
held the sway. It became the link language between India beyond the frontiers
and the people here.
Art touched a high standard; sundaram and roopam characterized it. It
was worshipped in order to deepen the consciousness of the soul and awaken
it to a new sense of spiritual joy and nobility. Kalidasa, the supreme genius and
poet of this age, has expressed this attitude of life devoted to beauty in a sentence
addressed to Parvati, the goddess of personal charm, by her consort Shiva: ‘O
fair damsel, the popular saying that beauty does not lead to sin is full of
unexceptional truth.’ The path of virtue is the path of beauty—this appeared to
be the guiding impulse of life in the Gupta age. ‘To create lovely forms and
harness them to the needs of higher life—this was the golden harmony that
made Gupta art a thing of such perpetual and inexhaustible attraction.’
All over the country, there developed a peculiar uniformity of social pattern,
domestic order and of individual role in a particular situation; of religious practices
and social ethics; ritual and ceremony and of manners and behaviour. People
acquired a spirit of oneness and a sense of belonging—the hallmark of heritage.

They impressed this on everything they touched and carried it along wherever
they went.
The origin and the early history of the Guptas are not clear. The locality
they ruled remains unspecified. The first two kings of the dynasty, Sri Gupta
and his son Sri Ghatotkacha are called Maharaja. It has made several historians
say that they might have been feudatories; but, their paramount ruler is not
mentioned. It is, therefore, held that they may have been petty rulers, and like
some of that class assumed the title Maharaja. The son of Maharaja Sri
Ghatotkacha, however, assumed a higher title of Maharajadhiraja, implying
obviously that he was more powerful ruler than his predecessors. He may have
given extension to his patrimony, gained greater authority and thus assumed a
higher title.
I Tsing, who travelled to this country during 671–695AD, referred to a king
Sri Gupta who happened to have raised a temple for Chinese pilgrims in
Magadha. Some scholars identified him with the founder of the dynasty of the
same name, traced the temple in Magadha and consequently, placed his kingdom
in Magadha. There is, however, no justification for the view that the temple
which this king built for the Chinese was situated in Magadha. ‘The bearing and
the distance given by the Chinese Pilgrim place it in the western borders of
northern or central Bengal and this is corroborated by some other details
mentioned by him. We may, therefore, hold that Sri Gupta’s kingdom comprised
a portion of Bengal.’
Sources of information
The sources of information for the Gupta period comprise both literary and
archaeological. These are found all over the country from Bengal to Kathiawar.
They are comparatively richer and fuller in content and character and have
proved very helpful in reconstructing the main outline of the history and
chronology with greater degree of certainty.
Literary sources: The Puranas, especially the Vayu, Brahmanda, Matsya,
Vishnu and the Bhagvat Purana are a rich source of information. They indicate
the extent of the domination of Chandragupta I; make a distinction between the
territory that the Guptas had under their direct control and over which they
exercised paramount control and provide information on the princes subordinate
to them and on their contemporaries. The Puranas, infact, received their touch
during this period. The Smrities of Vyas, Pitamaha, Pulastya and of Harita though
assigned to this period are available only in the quotations found in the
Dharmasastras. Among the Dharmasastras, those of Katyayana, Narad and of

Brihaspati belong to this period. They provide rich information on the social and
religious conditions of the people.
Some dramatic works with political bearing on the Gupta period are
obviously helpful. Thus, the Kaumudi Mahotsava depicts the political condition
of Magadha during the beginning of this period. It is of considerable importance
for the origin and the rise of the Gupta power. The Devichandraguptam by
Vishakhadatta throws light on the manner in which Chandragupta II came to
the throne and married Dhruvadevi. It is available, however, only in quotations.
Another work of the same author, the Mudrarakshas, though an important source
of information on the rise of Chandragupta to power, mentions people and tribes
such as the Yavanas, Sakas, Kiratas, Cambojas, Bhalikas, Parasikas, Khasas,
Gandharas, Cinas, Kaulutas, Maghas and others who existed during the reign
of Chandra Gupta II. The Kamandaka Nitisara, said to have been the work of
Sikhara, the chancellor of Chandragupta II, upholds the murder of the Saka
king through disguise.
The accounts left by the Chinese travellers are a rich source of information.
Fa-Hien travelled across this country in the reign of Chandragupta II and his
record and Fo-Kuo-ki or Record of Buddhist Kingdom throws considerable light
on the condition of the country during the period.
Archaeological sources: Numerous archaeological source materials on
the Gupta period are available. The numerous types of coins that the Guptas
issued throw great light on their rise and fall and on the economic condition of
the people. The coins both of the early and of the later Guptas have been listed
in the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. In the book of Catalogue of the Coins of
the Gupta Dynasty, you can see a systematic study of the coins.
The epigraphic evidence available from the Allahabad Pillar Inscription
and the Eran Stone Inscription throws light on the military strength and the
territorial expansion of Samundragupta. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription refers
to one king Chandra, who defeated a confederacy of enemies, conquered the
Vanga countries and defeated Vahlikas across the seven mouths of river Sindhu.
He thus achieved sole supremacy in the world.
The Mathura Stone Inscription, the Sanchi Stone inscription, the Gadhwa
Stone Inscription and the Udayagiri Cave Inscription of Chandragupta II give
ample information on several aspects of his polity. Some details about Kumar a
Gupta I are available form the Gadhwa Stone Inscription, the Bilsad stone Pillar
Inscription and the Mankuwar Stone image Inscription. The Junagadh Rock
Inscription, the Kahaum Stone Pillar Inscription, the Indore Copper Plate

Inscription, the Bihar Stone Pillar Inscription in two parts and the Bhitari Stone
Pillar Inscription refer to Skandagupta. The Bhitari Pillar Inscription of
Skandagupta records his fight with Pushyamitra and probably also with the
Huns during the reign of his father Kumar a Gupta I.
A large number of seals recovered at Vaishali (in the Muzaffarpur district)
give an idea of the provincial and local administration of the period and provide
a nomenclature of the officers.
Of the Gupta architecture and art, whatever has come down to us remains
a rich source of information. The temples at Udayagiri, Pathari, Deogarh and
Aihole reveal much about the evolution of temple architecture and point to the
popular gods and goddesses. The sculptural remains are indicative of both
their artistic richness and aesthetic appeals and hence of cultural maturity.

(a) The Puranas, especially the Vayu, Brahmanda, Matsya, Vishnu and
the Bhagvat Purana are a rich source of information.
(b) The accounts left by I-Tsing are a rich source of information.
4. Choose the correct option
(a) Some details about Kumara Gupta I are available form the ______
stone inscription
(i) Gadhwa Stone Inscription
(ii) Pataliputra stone inscriptions
(iii) Junagard stone inscriptions
(iv) Pilbhit stone inscriptions
(b) Fa-hien traveled thro ugh the Empire during the reign of
_____________.
(i) Chandragupta II
(ii) Samudragupta
(iii) Skandhagupta
(iv) Chandragupta

12.4 Chandragupta I
After Ghatotkach, his son Chandragupta I (AD 319–324) became king of this
dynasty. He was the first independent ruler of this dynasty as the previous Gupta
rulers were feudatories/vassals. He adopted the tile of ‘Maharajadhiraja’. He
was an imperialist and an important ruler than his predecessors. Chandra of
Maharauli is also equated with Chandragupta I, but unfortunately, not much
information is available about him.
The main event of the age of Chandragupta was to enter into marital
alliance with the Lichchhavis, who were very powerful during that time. He
strengthened his position by establishing matrimonial relationship with the
Lichchhavis and expanded his empire from Awadha and Magadha to Prayaga
in the coastal areas of the Ganges. Chandragupta married Lichchhavi princess
Kumar Devi. This marriage had political importance. There are several evidences
of this marriage. This marriage not only increased immensely the power and
grandeur of the Guptas but it also made Kumar Devi the princess of the
Lichchhavi kingdom which she inherited from her father. As a result, the entire
Lichchhavi kingdom came under the control of Chandragupta I.
Chandragupta not only received Vaishali on account of his marriage but
also expanded his kingdom. Maharauli pillar informs that he, having crossed
Sindh, fought a severe battle with Bactria and conquered it. On one side its
boundary touched Bengal while on the other side it touched Central India and
Punjab. This victory over the Northwest and Balkh took Chandragupta from
Indus to Saurashtra.
Chandragupta started a new era, known as Gupta Samvata. Although,
controversial, it is believed that Chandragupta began his accession to the throne
by founding a samvata, the first year of which was AD 319–320.

(a) Chandragupta married Lichchhavi princess Kumar Devi.
(b) Chandragupta started a new era, known as Das samvata.
(a) Chadragupta extended his Empire from Indus to Saurashtra.
(b) The first year of Gupta Samvata was AD 319–320.

12.5 Samudragupta
After Chandragupta, his son Samudragupta (AD 325–375) became king of the
Gupta dynasty. He established a vast kingdom by conquering different battles
and strengthened the Gupta dynasty for centuries. On account of his immense
talent, Chandragupta chose his successor in his own life. Samudragupta was
an able emperor, skilled commander and a man of great personality. He was a
great conqueror; hence, he is compared with Napolean. It is popularly said that
Asoka is famous for his peace and non-violence while Samudragupta is famous
because of his victories.
Conquests of Samudragupta
Samudragupta, having established political unity, united entire India under one
umbrella. He not only conquered North India but also hoisted his flag of victory
over South India including some principalities of abroad. His victories are
described as follows:
First expedition of Aryavarta: The land between the Himalayas and
Vindhyas was called Aryavarta. It is known that Samudragupta launched
victorious expedition twice over Aryavarta. In his first expedition, he vanquished
the following kings:
• Acyuta: The first king Samudragupta defeated in Aryavarta was
Acyuta. He was the king of Ahichchhatra. His kingdom was around
modern Ram Nagar in Barelli.
• Nagasena: It is known from the coins of Naga dynasty of Narwar,
situated in Gwalior that he was the king of Naga dynasty and his
capital was Padmavati. In Prayaga Prashasti, the letter before ‘ga’
has been destroyed but the letter ‘ga’ is readable. Perhaps he might
have been the ruler Ganapatinaga.
• Kotakulaja: Samudragupta defeated this Kota king as well.
But, several scholars have expressed their views regarding the
first Aryavarta expedition. Some scholars consider that the first
Aryavarta battle was not his expedition of victory but a defensive
battle.
Second expedition of Aryavarta: In his second expedition, he defeated
many kings. Some of them are described as follows:
(1) Rudradeva: King Rudradeva was king Rudrasena I of Kaushambi.

(2) Matila: A coin has been found in Bulandashahara, which contains

the symbol of Matil and Naga. Probably he was a king of the Naga
dynasty.
(3) Nagadatta: He was a king of Mathura and belonged to the Naga
dynasty.
(4) Chandraverma: There is a dispute regarding this entry. Some
consider him the king of Pusakarana while others consider him the
king of Eastern Punjab.
(5) Ganapatinaga: He was a ruler of Vidisha and belonged to the Naga
dynasty.
(6) Balaverma: He was a predecessor of king Bhaskarverma of Kamrupa.
(7) Nandi: It is mentioned in the Puranas that Shishunanda Shivanandi
was the King of Central India and belonged to the Naga dynasty.
It is mentioned that Samudragupta defeated all the dynasties of North
India. He annexed all these kingdoms to his empire.
He made all the kings of vana (forest) his slaves. When he proceeded to
conquer South India after his conquest of North India, he subjugated all Atavika
kings lying on his way to southern conquest. It is assumed that Atavika state
was spread from Gazipur to Jabalpur.
South expedition
Samudragupta conquered south after his first expedition of Aryavarta. He
defeated twelve kings of the south and thereafter he returned their kingdoms
and made them his loyalists. Thus, on the one hand, these kings were
independent while on the other, they accepted the suzerainty of Samudragupta.
Samudragupta conquest had three features: to imprison enemies, to free them
and to return the kingdoms of the defeated king after the acceptance of
conqueror’s suzerainty. These kings were as follows:
• Mahendra of Kaushal: Mahendra was the king of Kaushal. Modern
districts of Raipur, Sambhalpur and Vilaspur were included in it.
• Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara: Vyaghraraja was the king of Mahakantara,
which was the forest area of Orissa.
• Mantaraja of Koral: It was the central part of Orissa and Tamil Nadu and
the king of this area was Mantaraja.
• Mahendragiri of Pishtapur: Pishtapur in Godavari district is modern
Pithapurama.

• Swamidatta of Kottura: Kottura is equated with Coimbatore.

• Daman of Erandapalla: Erandapalla is considered as Erandola of
Khanadesh. Its relationship is also established with Erandapalla near
Chinkokole on the coast of Orissa.
• Vishnugopa of Kanchi: It was the capital of Pallava. Modern Kanjeevaram
near Madras is Kanchi.
• Nilaraja of Avamukta: It was a small kingdom in the neighbourhood of
Kanchi and Vengi states. Its king Nilaraja was a member of the Pallava
confederacy.
• Hastivarman of Vengi: It was in existence near Peduvengi in Ellore. Its
king belonged to Shalankayana dynasty.
• Ugrasena of Palakka: It was near Palakollu on the coast of Godavari.
• Dhananjaya of Kusthalapur: Kuhalur, situated in Arakar district, was
Kusthalapur.
• Kubera of Devarashtra: It was Yellamanchili in Andhra Pradesh. Some
historians believe that southern rulers formed a confederation against
Samudragupta and halted Samudragupta near a famous lake, known as
Kolekha. Samudragupta conquered this confederation.
Subjugation of frontier states: It is clear that the frontier states, having
seen the conquest-expedition of Samudragupta, accepted his suzerainty. These
states were: Samatata, Davaka, Kamrupa, Nepal, Karttripur.
There were nine republics on western frontier which accepted the
suzerainty of Samudragupta. These were Malava, Arjunayana, Yodheya,
Madraka, Abhira, Prarjuna, Sanakanika, Kaka, Kharaparika.
Policy towards the frontier states: Samudragupta adopted three kinds
of policy against these states, such as Sarvakara, i.e., these states accepted to
pay all types of tributes, Ajnakarana, i.e., these states carried out the order of
Samudragupta, and Pranamakarana, i.e., they appeared individually and greeted
the king.
Conquest of foreign states
Some of the foreign states, such as Daivaputra, Shahi, Shanushahi, Shaka,
Murunda, Saimhal, etc were also conquered by Samudragupta. They accepted
defeat and offered their daughters to him.

Extent of Samudragupta’s kingdom

Samudragupta’s empire extended from the Himalayas in the north to Vindhyas
in the south and from Bay of Bengal in the east to Eastern Malawa in the west.
He had indirect influence over Gujarat, Sindh, Western Rajaputana, West Punjab
and the frontier states of Kashmir, and he had friendly relations with Saimhala
and the other islands. Samudragupta’s adopted the policy of expansion of his
empire. The main aim of his conquest was to hoist his flag of victory.
Horse-sacrifice
Samudragupta performed horse-sacrifice in the beginning of his reign. His coins
also carry depiction of horse sacrifice.
Estimate of Samudragupta’s reign
Samudragupta’s name is lettered in golden ink in Indian history for his talent
and conquests. He was an extraordinary warrior, victor of thousands of battles
and emerged invincible during his time. He was a valiant and brave king; able
politician and warrior; famous musician; and well-versed and a good-hearted
poet. Although he inherited a very small kingdom from his father, he expanded
the boundaries of his kingdom beyond India by his talent and valour. He is
regarded as the first Indian king who defeated southern and foreign rulers by
his prowess. He was considered as a unique emperor. The strength of his arms
was his only companion in the different battles he ably fought. He was famous
for his valour and his body was adorned with several wounds and was immensely
beautiful.
Figure 12.1 Samudragupta’s Gold Coins

7. Choose the correct option:

(a) In his first expedition to Aryavarta, he defeated ________.
(i) Acyuta
(ii) Nagarjuna
(iii) Mihirakula
(iv) Skandagupta
(b) Samudragupta ascended his throne on AD ________.
(i) 325
(ii) 356
(iii) 335
(iv) 322
(a) Samudragupta was a great poet.
(b) Samudragupta’s coins also carry depiction of horse sacrifice.
12.6 Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
Ramagupta ascended to the throne after the death of Samudragupta but he

could not hold on to his Empire. Therefore, Chandragupta II (AD 380–412)
ascended to the Gupta throne in AD 380. Like his father he proved to be a brave,
valiant, invincible and able emperor. He was adorned in his coins with the titles
of Devashri Vikramanka, Vikramaditya, Simha, Vikrama, Ajivikram, Simha-
chandra Apratiratha, etc. Although there is no unanimity regarding the date of
accession of Chandragupta II, his reign is considered from AD 380 to 412.
Matrimonial alliances
Chandragupta II adopted both the policies of matrimonial relationship as well
as war for strengthening his empire. His contemporary Naga dynasty was very
strong and had influence over several regions of North India. Establishment of
matrimonial relationship with the Nagas helped him much in strengthening his
sovereignty over the newly established empire. Matrimonial alliances with
Vakatakas helped him a lot. Therefore, Chandragupta II gave his daughter

Prabhavatigupta in marriage to Vakataka king Rudrasen II. Vakataka King had

control over such geographical region wherefrom he could have assisted or
opposed the Northern aggressor against the Shaka vassals of Saurashtra. This
matrimonial alliance proved much important for him. It is evident from the Talgund
inscription that the princess of Kuntal, King Kakustha Verma was married in the
Gupta dynasty.
Conquests of Chandragupta II
Like his father, Chandragupta II expanded his empire by conquering many states.
The most important victory of Chandragupta II was over the Shaka. The kingdom
of the Shakas was spread in Gujarat, Malwa and Saurastra. Having defeated
the great Shaka vassal Rudrasimha III, Chandragupta II took the title of Shakari.
Chandragupta II’s war minister has written in the Udayagiri cave inscription that
he came to Eastern Malwa along with his master (Chandragupta II) who aspired
to conquer the whole world. With this victory, he not only ousted the foreigners
from India but also ensured its monopoly over western trade by extending his
empire upto the western coastal ports.
There were several small republics such as Madra, Kharapatika, etc. He
conquered them and ended their existence by annexing them into his empire. It
is known from the Maharauli iron pillar that Chandragupta II conquered Vahlikas
by crossing over five mouths of Indus: Bengal and other eastern states formed
a confederation due to the inability of Ramagupta. Chandragupta II conquered
this confederation.
Horse-sacrifice
Several evidences maintain that Chandragupta II performed horse-sacrifice. A
stone-horse has been discovered from Varanasi on which the word Chandraguh
(Chandragupta) is inscribed. Besides, Punadanapatra referred to the donation
of several cows and thousands of coins (aneka gau hiranya koti sahasra padah)
by Chandragupta II from which it seems that Chandragupta might have organized
horse-sacrifice after his conquests.

Figure 12.2 Chandragupta II on Horseback as Depicted on a Coin
Extent of Chandragupta II’s empire

The empire of Chandragupta Vikramaditya was larger than that of
Samudragupta. His empire expanded from the Himalaya in the north to river
Narmada in the south, and from Bengal in the east to Arabian Sea in the west.
Many famous trading cities and ports were included in his vast empire. Because
of the expansion of his empire, he made Ujjain his second capital.
Estimate of Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II was one of the greatest rulers of India. Under him, the
government, expansion of empire, art, economic or social aspects of life were
at its zenith. ‘Chandragupta tested the sharpness of his sword against the wicked
and unrighteous Shakas and defeating them, he expanded his empire immensely
and by conquering the unconquered states, he increased the extent of his empire
more than the extent of his father’s empire. He destroyed the Shakas and
restored the glory of Hindu civilization and culture. The reign of Chandragupta
II is also considered as the golden age of the Gupta period. Chandragupta II
took his empire to a new era of maturity of political greatness and cultural revival.
The governance of India had never been better than the rule of Chandragupta
II Vikramaditya.


(a) Chandragupta expanded his empire by conquering many states.
(b) The Maharauli iron pillar maintains that Chandragupta conquered
Vahlikas by crossing over five mouths of Indus.
10. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word.
(a) Bengal and other eastern states formed a confederation due to the
inability of _______.
(b) Under Chandragupta II, all the aspects of socio-political life of the
common man reached its __________.
12.7 Skandagupta
Skandagupta (AD 455–467) ascended to the throne after the death of

Kumaragupta. His reign was full of difficulties and upheavals. He had inherited
such a vast empire that it was difficult to keep it intact. He was a great conqueror,
the liberator of the nation, the restorer of the pride of imperial Gupta sand above
all foundation (head) benevolent administration. It was said if Samudragupta
was Sarvarajochccheta and Chandragupta was Shakati, Skandagupta was
Huna-conqueror. He was in no way less than any other Gupta kings.
Skandagupta had proved his talent during the lifetime of his father when he
defeated Pushyamitras, but he had to face more fierce battles during his reign.
Victory over Hunas
After his victory over Pushyamitras, he fought a fierce battle against the Hunas.
The Hunas were the barbarians. They had, over the years, become terrors for
kingdoms in Asia and Europe. The Bhitari inscription maintains that ‘when the
Hunas faced Skandagupta in battle the earth began to tremble by his valour of
the strength of arms and there raised a great whirlpool.’ Finally, the Guptas
defeated the Hunas. It is difficult to say at which place and where the Hunas
were defeated, but this victory made him famous all over. Skandagupta deserved
the highest praise as he was the first brave warrior of Europe and Asia who
defeated the Hunas. Skandagupta made a great service to the nation by stopping
the destruction of the nation by the Hunas for the next fifty years.

The Junagarh inscription referred to defeat of the serpent kings by

Skandagupta. Vakatakas had captured Malwa during Skandagupta’s reign by
taking advantage of the numerous wars that Skandagupta was fighting
simultaneously. Therefore, Skandhagupta had to remain satisfied by appointing
Pranadatta in the region. Govindgupta was a son of Chandragupta II and he
was governor of Vaishali. Historians believe that he revolted after the death of
Kumaragupta in western Malwa, but Skandhagupta crushed his rebellion
successfully.
Extent of Skandagupta’s empire
His Empire was spread from the Himalayas to Narmada and from Saurashtra
to Bengal. In one of the inscriptions it is mentioned that heads of the hundreds
of kings bowed to his feet. He was the emperor of hundreds of kings. He was
equivalent to Indra and was founder of peace in his empire. It is mentioned in
the Junagarh inscription that he established his suzerainty over the earth
surrounded by four seas. Praising him, it is said that his brave actions justified
the title Vikramaditya which he assumed like his grandfather.
Estimate of Skandagupta’s reign
Skandagupata was the last powerful and effective emperor. He always worked
for the integrity of his empire. He was a brilliant example of his braveness. Valour
ran in his blood. His image of chivalry frightened even his strongest enemies.
Activity 1
On a map on ancient India, mark the conquests of the major Gupta kings.
Read about the social conditions of the people under these kings in detail
and make a presentation on this topic.

(a) Skandagupta ascended to the throne on AD 455.
(b) Skandagupta defeated Pushyamitras during his father’s reign.
(a) The ________ inscription referred to defeat of the serpent kings by
Skandagupta.
(b) Skandagupta always worked for the ________ of his empire.

12.8 Disintegration of the Empire
The Gupta dynasty had the distinction of providing to the country a galaxy of
great kings. Comparatively, they stayed longer at the top. They trained their
successors well in the art and science of maintaining a huge empire, peace and
fighting wars; and kept the inevitable at bay. They avoided the pitfalls such as
neglect of training the successors, single-track approach in polity, dominance
of ideology to the neglect of other vital interests, concentration of power at the
top, state monopoly in trade, top heavy and expensive bureaucracy and neglect
of the war machine. On the political front, however, there is nothing to distinguish
the Gupta monarchs from those who preceded and succeeded them. They did
not discard the ancient belief that the local power in the interest of total unity
should be eradicated and institutions should be developed to train leadership
and to encourage the people to participate in decision-making at higher levels.
It appears that the people had no direct role in administration and politics. They
seem to have been mute witnesses to the succession or elimination of kings
and to matters of peace and war. Over the time, the dynasty suffered loss of
vitality, vigour and authority. And, as the succession conflicts, internal challenge
and external pressure developed, there followed the squeezing of the empire
territorially to nothingness and with it, its grandeur too obscured. The causes of
disintegration of the Gupta Empire are as follows:
• Internal dissensions: The post-Skandagupta period was characterized
by internal dissensions within the reigning family. Though the records are
silent on the course of events, it is in view of the available information
assumed that the dissensions created factions, generated divided loyalties,
weakened the political system, rendered the central authority weak and
lowered the prestige of the emperor. The death of Samundragupta was
tantamount to the removing of the cornerstone of the edifice.
• Confused succession: In the present state of knowledge, scholars have
not been able to fix among the later Guptas the order of succession and
duration of the reigns of several kings whose names have been revealed
by the coins and inscription. Some appear to have ascended the throne
only to be removed later. The stress and strain under which the political
system and administration must have operated is imaginable. It must
have caused severe weakness to the system.
• Short reigns and quick successions: The later Guptas present a
spectacle of short reigns and quick successions. The reigning heads must
have been unable to consolidate their position and make their authority

felt. Especially, in view of the situation that a king was the pivot around
whom everything moved, and that his personality influenced the policy
and administration, short reigns and quick success of kings must have
wrecked the system in several directions.
• Centrifugal tendencies: Factionalism was thus dominant and its impact
was percolative. Once the central authority developed infirmities, local
chiefs asserted their strengths. Thus, Budhagupta, though acknowledged
as the paramount authority, had to make an awkward compromise to
maintain the apparent in installing a successor of Bhatarka to the royal
status in Malwa. It could never have been to his pleasure. The other
provincial heads too made their offices hereditary. Some among them
assumed royal titles. The emperor in his high position must have felt his
empire crumbling and imagined the inviolable. The centrifugal forces thus
demolished the empire steadily.
• Inability of the reigning heads: None among the later Guptas had the
ability to check the rot that the system had developed from within. The
crowned heads failed to stand up to the challenge and arrest the forces of
decline. They were mute witnesses to the tragic spectacle.
• Lack of political comprehension and mental vigour: The later Gupta
kings lacked these qualities substantially. Budhagupta, Baladitya and the
others had hardly any leadership qualities. They were unable to play their
rightful role. The case of Baladaliya is highly illustrative in this connection.
On coming to know that an attack by Mihirakula, the Hun was imminent,
he summoned his ministers and as narrated by Hiuen Tsang, told them: ‘I
hear that these thieves are coming and I cannot fight with them (their
troops;) by the permission of my ministers I will conceal my poor person
among the bushes of the morass.’ The story may or may not be correct,
but it is obvious that the later Guptas did not have the qualities to sustain
their authority and integrity of the empire. Their political thinking and military
ability was not in agreement with the requirement of their high office.
• Depredations caused by Toramana and Mihirakula: The Guptas, unlike
the Mauryas neglected the defense of the north-western region. They did
not maintain effective control over the mountain passes and the plains of
the Punjab. Thus, the Huns came down to the plains unhindered. They
caused devastation in the region and had to be fought back on the plains.
Later, the region fell to the depredations of Toramana and Mihirakula for
the same reason. The wars they engendered and the devastation they
caused weakened the central authority and the political system. The

depredations caused by Toramana and his son Mihirakula exhausted the

nerve of the empire even though both of them were ultimately defeated.
Yet it humiliated royalty and frustrated the common man. It must have
torn apart the prestige of the great empire in a tragic way. The western
part of the empire was most subjected to the barbaric vandalism.
• Economic disruption: The depredations caused by Toramana and
Mihirakula must have disrupted the economic activity, destroyed security
and arrested social mobility. The scarcity of gold coins brought in circulation
by Budhagupta and his later debasement of the gold coins indicates that
the economic prosperity had suffered a severe dent. The western part of
the country had been rendered unsafe.
• Challenge and rebellions: The disruption and insecurity was rendered
worse by the challenge the rebels threw to the emperor. Harisena (AD
475–510), the Vakataka ruler was the first to unfurl his standard of rebellion.
He occupied Malwa and Gujarat. Yasodharman, a local chief of Malwa,
established independent authority and carried raids all around and wrecked
the empire. Others followed the course. It is difficult to say which of the
several causes were more significant than the rest that brought about the
end of the empire. It is clear, however, that the story commenced with the
internal dissensions. The crowned heads did not show the ability to meet
the challenge. The adverse effect of the raids of Toramana and Mihirakula
on the course of events cannot be denied. It is, however, obvious that the
decline was not sudden. It followed its natural course.
Activity 2
Make a chronological table for the Gupta Empire. You could refer to coins,
inscriptions, literary works, architecture, etc.
State whether true or false.

13. Centrifugal tendencies was a cause for the downfall of the Gupta Empire.
14. The depredations caused by Toramana and Mihisakula dispruted the
economic activity and social nobility.

12.9 Summary

• The Guptas came to the center of the political stage just by chance. But
they were the only power in those times who wanted to restore to the
country its lost political unity.
• The area between ‘the region and the Sutlej’ was under the direct authority
of the Guptas. They commanded respect for their powerful war machine,
military process and political acumen.
• The Guptas massacred the Huns and their government was based on
the accepted principle of centralization and progressive decentralization.
• During the rule of the Guptas, the central government was powerful, but
in ‘the district headquarters, the officials of the Central Government were
assisted and controlled by popular councils, whose sanction was necessary
even if the state wanted to sell its own wasteland.
• Villages during the Gupta period had their own popular councils which
administered almost all the branches of administration, including collection
of taxes and settlement of village disputes.
• Public welfare, attending to poor and sick were given prominence.
• The origin and the early history of the Guptas are not clear. The first two
kings of the dynasty, Sri Gupta and his son Sri Ghatotkacha were called
Maharaja.
• The son of Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha assumed a higher title of
Maharajadhiraja, implying that he was more powerful ruler than his
predecessors.
• After Ghatotkacha, his son Chandragupta I became king of the Gupta
dynasty. He was the first independent ruler of this dynasty. He was an
imperialist and important ruler than his predecessors.
• After Chandragupta I, his son Samudragupta became king of the Gupta
dynasty. He established a vast kingdom by conquering different battles
and strengthened the Gupta dynasty for centuries.
• Ramagupta ascended to the throne after the death of Samudragupta but
he could not hold to his Empire. Therefore, Chandragupta II ascended to
the Gupta throne in AD 380. He was also a brave, valiant, invincible and
able emperor. He was adorned on his coins with the titles of Devashri

Vikramanka, Vikramaditya, Simha, Vikrama, Ajivikram, Simhachandra

Apratiratha, etc.
• Skandagupta ascended to the throne after the death of Kumaragupta.
His reign was full of difficulties and upheavals. He had inherited such a
vast empire that it was difficult to keep it intact. He was in no way less
than any other Gupta kings. Skandagupta has proved his talent during
the lifetime of his father when he defeated the Pushyamitras.
• Internal dissension, weak central authority, lack of proper succession laws,
brought about the disintegration of this empire.
12.10 Glossary
• Asvamedha: Rite of the Vedic religion in ancient India, performed by a

king to celebrate his supremacy
• Suzerainty: Sovereign or state having some control over another state
that is internally autonomous
• Huns: Group of semi-nomadic people who, appearing from east of the
Volga, migrated into Europe and built an enormous empire
1. Write a note on the political situation of India before the rise of the Gupta
Empire.
2. Elaborate on the monarchial states that were prevalent after the Kushanas.
3. What were the literary sources for the early Guptas?
4. Write a note on the rise of Chandragupta I.
5. Analyse the political conquests of Samudragupta.
6. Explain about Chandragupta II.
7. What were the causes of the downfall of the Gupta Empire? Analyse any
three in detail.

12.12 Answers
1. (a) Nine (b) Oudh

2. (a) True (b) True
4. (a) (i); (b) (i)
5. (a) True (b) False
7. (a) (i); (b) (i)
10. (a) Ramagupta; (b) Zenith
12. (a) Junagarh; (b) Integrity
13. True
14. True
1. Refer to section 12.2


Books.

Unit 13 Administration, Society and

Economy under the Guptas
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Gupta Administration
13.3 Socio-Economic Changes in the Gupta Age
13.4 Summary
13.5 Glossary
13.7 Answers
13.1 Introduction
The Gupta age was a period of relative peace and prosperity. The people enjoyed
basic rights and liberties and there was no unnecessary state interference. The
Gupta state could be called a welfare state as public welfare was of high priority.
The town and cities were well run and full of rest houses, charitable asylums,
orphanages and hospitals. Even culturally, this was a golden age for India. The
people had high standards of morality. Trade was also greatly encouraged.
In this unit, you will learn about the administrative set-up of the Gupta
empire. For ease of administration, the Gupta empire was divided into a number
of provinces, which were further divided into administrative units of towns and
villages. You will also learn about the widespread social changes that took place
in this period. Finally, you will learn about trade, items that were traded internally
and externally, and about traders’ and artisans’ guilds.
Objectives
• Describe the administrative set-up of the Gupta empire
• Assess the socio-economic changes that took place under the Guptas
• Discuss the various aspects of trade in the Gupta empire

13.2 Gupta Administration
The Gupta administrative system was based on earlier historical tradition to

which several amendments had been made to adapt it to the contemporary
situation. Gupta administration featured elements of the administrative systems
of the Mauryas, the Satvahanas, the Scythians and the Kushanas. According to
Chinese accounts, ‘The Gupta administrative system was always appreciable
because it was liberal and in public interest. And the kings could not have been
unrestrained and autocratic in spite of having limitless power.’ Undoubtedly, the
Gupta governance was of high quality. The fifth century Chinese monk Fa Hien
writes about this period, ‘The people were happy and prosperous. The people
had to give neither account of small things in their houses nor attendance before
any justices or kings.’
13.2.1 Features of Gupta Administration

The Gupta government had the following two bases:
Monarchy: The nature of the Gupta administration was monarchical, with the
emperor as the supreme authority. In the Prayaga Edict, Samudragupta has
been referred to as a king who lived on earth like god.
Feudal system: The Gupta empire was vast and, therefore, ruling over it was
very difficult without decentralization. Hence, the feudal system was introduced.
Central government
King: The king was the axis of the central government because it was a
monarchy. The king was the highest official in the government, army, justice
and other aspects of administration. According to the Prayaga edict, ‘It is the
duty of the king to provide good governance. An ideal king is one who has the
firm resolve to provide his people from the core of his heart all comfort and
happiness.’ Officials were appointed and sacked by the king. There was no
such concept that the king had the right to be autocratic on account of having a
divine character. In spite of having a divine character, serving in the battlefield
and obtaining suitable education were essential for the king. The king took up
numerous titles such as Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara Paramamdaivat and
Rajadhiraja.
Council of ministers: There was a council of ministers to advise and assist the
king in administrative affairs. As a basis for governance, Kautilya’s concept that
the discharge of royal functions should be done with mutual co-operation and

goodwill was recognized. Therefore, it was expedient for the king to appoint a
council of ministers to get co-operation and proper advice. Ministers were
appointed on the basis of their qualifications. However, this position later became
hereditary. Names of some prominent ministers have come down to us. They
include Mahadandanayaka, Mahapratihara, Mahasandhivigrahika,
Bhandagaridhikrita, Mahapaksapatalika and Dandapashika. Although the king
took their advice, he was not bound to accept it.
Provincial administration
The Gupta empire was very vast. Direct control of such a vast empire was not
possible. Hence, it was divided into several provinces. Provinces were known
as bhukti, bhoga and pradesha. Such a division of the government was an
indication of administrative intelligence and wisdom. Provincial rulers were
appointed by the king. They were known as uparika maharaja. They generally
belonged to the royal family. Their duties were maintenance of peace, law and
order in the empire, public interest, and obeying the emperor.
Visaya (district) administration
The province was divided into visayas (districts). The head official of the visaya
was called visayapati. He was appointed by the king or uparika. Other officials
of the province included sarthavaha, prathamakulika, prathama kayastha and
pustapala.
Town administration
There were several towns in a province. The chief of the town was known as
nagarapati. He was appointed by the visayapati. Each town had a council, the
functions of which were to collect tax, take care of the public health and run the
town administration.
Village administration
The village was the smallest unit of administration. The area of a village was
fixed. The head of the village was called gramapati or mahattar. A grama
panchayat was indeed a small democracy. People in the grama panchayat
performed acts of simple officials. Sub-committees were constituted in the
panchayats it there was more work. There were separate committees for the
management of irrigation, agriculture, religion, etc.
Judicial system
The judicial system was highly competent. It is evident from Narada Smriti that
there were four types of judicial courts – (1) royal (2) puga (3) guild and (4)

family. According to Fa Hien, ‘ The punishment during the Gupta age was not
severe. Capital punishment or punishment by amputation was rarely carried
out.’ He adds that there were few crimes and criminals were only given medium
or high economic punishment. The decision of the king was final.However,
according to Kalidasa and Visakhadatta, punishments were very severe.
Military organization
A big and strong army was necessary for the defense of such a vast empire.
The government of the Gupta kings was based on military power. The army had
four parts – infantry, chariot, cavalry and elephants. The smallest unit of infantry
was called chamuya. The chief of the army was known as mahasenapati or
mahabaladhikrita. ‘The highest official of the army was the senapati (general).
Mahadandanayaka, ranabhandagarika, mandashvapati were under him. No
discrimination was made in the military service in respect of any specific caste.
The army was under the control of the king. Provinces had some army and they
helped the king in the time of need.’ There was an armoury to store weapons.
Revenue system
The main source of income was land-tax. The share of produce, which was
given to the king or state, was called bhaga. There were five kinds of tax that
made up the income of the state: (1) controlled tax such as land-tax, (2) periodical
tax, (3) economic penalty (4) income from the state’s wealth and (5) income
from the subjugated feudal. It is evident from Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha that the
ideal of the tax-collection of the Gupta king was people’s welfare. One-sixth of
the produce was levied as land-tax. The Guptas’ empire was an ideal Hindu
state, and they adopted the ancient system to run it. During this time, state tax
was not a kind of punishment.
Demerits of the Gupta administration system
The Gupta administration was extremely competent. Its organization in the centre
and provinces was very able. The Gupta emperors expanded their empire and
established a very high quality of balanced and appreciable administration in
the conquered regions, the parallel of which can hardly be found.
However, it suffered from a few demerits as well. It was, above all, a
feudal system. Feudal rulers became autocratic. As the provincial rulers were
conferred more powers, this proved to be disastrous for the Gupta empire in the
course of time.

Activity 1
Conduct a research to draw a comparative analysis between the
administrative system of the Gupta dynasty and the modern day India.

(a) Gupta administration was centralized in nature.
(b) Land-tax was the chief source of income for the Gupta rulers.
(a) Provincial rulers were known as _______________
(b) The chief of a town was known as ______________.
13.3 Socio-Economic Changes in the Gupta Age
The Gupta period is known as the golden age of Indian history because of its
political, social, economic and religious conditions, arts, literature and cultural
life, prosperity and fame.
Able and talented kings
There were several kings of great competence, both from military and strategic
points of view, during this period. They increased the prosperity of the nation by
protecting it from internal and external dangers.
Political unity
After the decline of the Mauryas, India was divided into small states which the
Guptas again organized under one umbrella and protected from foreign
aggression.
Economic prosperity
Internal peace, good governance, safety, security and successful administration
provided an impetus to local and foreign trade. Consequently, the Gupta age
witnessed great progress in trade and commerce.

Religious tolerance
Although the Gupta Kings were followers of Vaishnavism, they were tolerant of
other religions, including Brahminism, Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist
monasteries near Hindu temples were a common sight.
Art, literature and science
The Gupta period marked immense development in the field of literature. The
Gupta emperors encouraged poets, playwrights and philosophers such as
Kalidasa, Bharavi, Shudraka, Vishakhadatta, Vasubandhu, Dandin, Harisena
and Varahamihir. The arts of this period were not only limited to royal palaces
but they also had close links to daily life.
In science, some of the notable achievements of this age were in the
fields of astronomy and mathematics.
13.3.1 Social Conditions
Joint family system

In the Gupta age, it was the joint family system that prevailed. A separate and
nuclear family system was inconceivable. The family was managed by a patriarch
who was shown profound respect. All the members of the family obeyed his
orders and all family traditions were maintained by him. The father was the
owner of all property but it was also shared by the sons and the brothers.
Position of women
The position of women had deteriorated during the Gupta age. Women had to
live under various restrictions throughout their lives. In childhood, they had to
obey their father, in youth their husband and in old age their sons. They had no
individual liberty. Girls were married off at an early age and could rarely attain
any higher education. They had no choice when it came to their marriage.
According to the law of Manu, a father had to get his daughter married before
maturity and if he failed to do so, he shall go to hell. Women were barred from
attaining Vedic injunctions or religious education. This, however, does not mean
that women were completely uneducated. Many women were experts in dancing,
painting and playing musical instruments. They also understood verse. Very
importantly, remarriage of widows was allowed. Chandragupta himself married
his brother’s widow Dhruvswamini. The sati system prevailed but in a mild form.
Sculptural representations assert that the purdah system was not in vogue, but
it is believed that women of noble families used veils when they went out.

Caste system
During the Gupta age, the caste system had become the very foundation of
society. The Shudras were looked down upon by members of the upper castes.
The Gupta period was an age of revival of Hinduism and Brahminism. It was an
age of manifold rites and rituals, customs and ceremonies. The Brahmins
occupied a respectful place in the society and art and literature flourished. The
Brahmins were split into different categories on the basis of the study of the
Vedas. A Brahmin who studied the Rigveda was called Rigvedin and others
were called Yajurvedin, Samavedin and Atharvavedin. Vaishyas had also
organized themselves into different sections. As they were prosperous and
wealthy, they commanded respect.
Figure 13.1 Gupta Art Depicts Costumes and Hairstyles of the Period
Slavery
Slavery was common in Gupta society. Slaves included prisoners of war,
bankrupts and gamblers who had lost their freedom. Their servitude, however,
was not permanent.
Food and drinks
Vegetarian and non-vegetarian meals were popular. Fa Hien writes that the
people did not consume alcohol, onions, meat and garlic and it was believed

that only the untouchables ate such things and reared poultry and pigs. But Fa
Hien’s accounts cannot be completely relied on. His observations are most
likely limited to Buddhist society. According to the literature of the age, people
consumed fish, meat and alcohol and according to the smritis, only women
were restricted from their consumption, especially those whose husbands were
not residing at home. The smritis particularly allowed meat for sick persons. In
southern India, especially in aristocratic families, a variety of meat dishes were
known to have been prepared. People also chewed betel leaves after meals.
Dress and ornaments
Literary evidence and art throw light on the dress and ornaments in vogue during
the Gupta age. The men wore dhotis and covered themselves with a shawl.
Although Central Asian communities such as Scythians had brought coats and
trousers with them, the Guptas continued using dhotis. The men also wore
turbans.
Female attire comprised blouses, saris and petticoats. Scythian woman
wore jackets, blouses and long skirts. The Scythian dress was popular among
dancing girls but was otherwise not in use.
Cotton clothes were the most popular, although woolen and silk clothes
were also worn, depending on the weather. Silk was imported from China and
was highly prized. Ornaments were also very elaborate. Women wore rings,
bracelets and necklaces. Men were also fond of rings and necklaces. The
ornaments were mostly made of gold, silver and ivory. Like today, fashions in
hairstyle changed over periods. Head dresses were popular and both men and
women even wore artificial hair. Women used to embellish their hair with flowers.
Games and amusement
Games were a major form of recreation for the people of the Gupta period.
There were many sources of amusement. The king and people were fond of
hunting. Their love for games is revealed not only in literary evidence but also in
coins, which bear a portrait of Samudragupta killing a tiger. The people also
entertained themselves witnessing elephant or buffalo fights. Theatre, music
and dance were also popular in cities.
13.3.2 Religious Conditions
Bhakti
During the Gupta period, people had profound faith in bhakti. Many gods and
goddesses were worshipped and it was believed that bhakti was a path to

salvation. The kings, merchants and other wealthy patrons sponsored the
construction of temples dedicated to Vishnu, Siva, Karttikeya and Surya. Temples
served as places of idol worship, accompanied by a number of elaborate rites
and rituals.
Religious freedom
Literary and archaeological sources depict the spirit of religious tolerance under
the Guptas. State services were open for all irrespective of their religious beliefs.
The Buddhists and the Jains were provided with all the facilities that were provided
to the Brahmins.
The religious tolerance of Samudragupta can be gleaned from the fact
that he readily conceded to the request of Meghavarna, the king of Ceylon, for
the construction of a monastery at Bodhgaya. Even economic assistance was
given to members of other faiths. The monastery of Nalanda was set up by
Kumaragupta. Donating charity was very common.
A number of religious texts were written or rewritten in the Gupta period,
including smritis and puranas. The oral epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata
were written down.
Chief religions
Buddhism: Asanga, Vasubandhu and Kumarjiya were well-known preachers
and philosophers of Buddhism. Although Buddhism declined and paved way for
a revival in Brahminism, it continued flourishing in Punjab, Kashmir and modern-
day Afghanistan. The artistic remains at Sarnath, Paharpur, Ajanta and
Nagarjunikonda reveal that the Gupta period was a golden age of Buddhist art.
In Bodhgaya, a monastery was made for Chinese pilgrims. In Western
Maharashtra, at places like Bhaja, Kuda, Mahar, Bedsa and Junnar, many
Buddhist monasteries were built under the patronage of merchants and guilds.
Ajanta and Ellora were important Buddhist centres. Ayodhya and Kanchi were
full of Buddhist monasteries and stupas.
Jainism: Bengal, Mathura, Vallabhi, Pundravardhana, Udayagiri and Kanchi
were important Jain centres. In the south, the Kadambas, Pallavas and Paradya
rulers patronized Jainism. In the year 453, a meeting was held to revise the Jain
books. Although there was a rivalry between Jainism and Saivism, there was no
religious persecution in any form.
Hinduism: The revival of Brahamanism had begun during the Sunga period.
The Guptas continued that trend. From inscriptions, we learn that the Guptas
constructed many temples and made liberal grants to religious institutions. The

Guptas also performed Vedic rites and rituals, although those were probably
not popular among the masses. The Guptas also revived the Asvamedha
sacrifice.
Vaishnavism had also become very popular, because people believed
that Lord Vishnu was an incarnation of the almighty and he had taken birth in
the form of various avatars to protect the people from demons.
Figure 13.2 The Gupta Rulers were Worshippers of Shiva
Saivism: While the Gupta, Pallava and Ganga rulers patronized Vaishnavism,
the Bharsivas, Vakatakas and the rulers of the Nala dynasty extended their
patronization to Saivism. Prithvisen and Saba, important officers of the Guptas,
were ardent followers of Saivism. Siva was worshipped in different forms.
The majority of the Siva images of the Gupta period combine the phallic
with the human form.
Hindu renaissance
Prior to the Guptas, during the Kushana and Mauryan rule, Buddhism flourished
in India. Emperors like Asoka and Kanishka spread Buddhism throughout India
and also abroad. It was only after the Sungas came to power that Hinduism saw
a revival which progressed further under the Guptas.

The Gupta rulers were unfaltering believers of Hinduism and they had
profound faith in Vedic scriptures. Brahmins gained importance in society. On
account of the great progress of Hinduism, the Gupta age came to be termed
as an age of Hindu Renaissance. The Gupta age not only saw a revival of
Hinduism, but also that of Sanskrit. Sanskrit was made the state language and
the rulers adopted it for their coins. The great literary works of this age are all in
Sanskrit.
13.3.3 Economic Conditions

The country had greatly prospered during the Gupta period. The Guptas were
benevolent monarchs and established peace and order in the country. Without
peace, a country can never prosper. Agriculture, trade and commerce greatly
flourished under the encouragement of the Guptas.
Agriculture
During the Gupta period, agriculture was the basis of economic life. Agricultural
land was not owned by the state but by individual families. Many kinds of crops
were grown. Peasants received state assistance when needed. The Sudarshan
Lake in Gujarat was repaired by Skandagupta to aid agriculture and irrigation.
Scientific methods of improving agricultural produces were encouraged.
13.3.4 Trade and Industry

Trade
Agriculture and different professions gave an impetus to trade. There was brisk
internal trade during the Gupta period. Fa Hien’s description reveals that traders
were given full freedom and could easily move from one place to another. Trade
relations existed with foreign countries and internal trade was made possible by
good transportation and road networks and also sea routes. Ujjain, Banaras,
Vaishali, Gaya, Prayaga, Pataliputra and Mathura were important centres of
trade. According to Fa Hien, roads on the trade network were safe and free of
any incidents. Merchants mainly carried their goods on bullock carts. Rivers
such as the Ganges, Krishna, Godaveri and Brahmaputra were also utilized for
trade networks. Most of the trade was carried out for commodities such as
clothes, wheat, spices, salt, diamonds and precious stones.
Trade through rivers was cheap and comfortable. This period saw the
flourish of the ship-building industry. Important ports include Tamralipti in Bengal
and Tondai in the south. There are even records of Roman merchants arriving
in India for trade in precious stones, clothes, perfumes, spices, drugs, coconut
and ivory. Copper, tin, lead, dates and horses were important items of import.

Guilds
Traders and merchants were organized in guilds. There is mention of guilds of
srenis in various Gupta inscriptions. According to historians, corporate activity
was a salient feature of all three aspects of national life, that is social, political
and economic.
There were guilds among workers and weavers as well. These guilds did
the work of banks such as depositing and lending money. Guilds were highly
respected in society. During emergencies, a guild could even raise a militia
from among its own members and employers to afford protection to the persons,
property and merchandise of its members. These guilds also improved vocational
and professional education.
Industry
From literary and archaeological sources, we learn that the clothes industry
flourished during the Gupta age. Millions of people earned their livelihood by
spinning and weaving. Present day Gujarat, Bengal and some states in the
south were the centres of the cloth industry in those days. Cotton, woolen and
silk clothes were popular. Clothes were dyed with different types of chemicals.
Initially, only unstitched clothes were used, but later under Scythian influence,
stitched clothes like coats and pajamas were also used.
Beside weaving and spinning, another popular industry was that of
goldsmiths. Ornaments were studded with precious and semi-precious stones.
Ivory was also extensively used for decorating woodenware. Diamond cutting
was also carried out.
Activity 2
Visit a museum or research on the Internet and note the chief elements of
the Gupta society as depicted in its art and architecture.

(a) The Gupta rulers were great sponsors of Buddhism.
(b) The great literary works of this age were written in Sanskrit.

4. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word.

(a) The chief male garment during the Gupta period was the
_____________.
(b) A major past time for Gupta rulers was ____________.
13.4 Summary

• The Gupta age was a period of relative peace and prosperity.
• The Gupta age is known as the golden age in the history of India for its
achievements in politics, art, literature and science.
• Gupta administration was divided into provinces, districts, towns and
villages.
• The Gupta age saw a revival of Hinduism and Sanskrit, and Gupta rulers
were mainly followers of Vaishnavism.
• Freedom and educational opportunities for women were limited during
the Gupta age.
• Agricultural land was not owned by the state but by individual families.
• Trade relations existed with foreign countries and internal trade was made
possible by good transportation and road networks and also sea routes.
• Traders and merchants were organized in guilds.
13.5 Glossary
• Pradesha: One of the many provinces the Gupta empire was divided into
• Uparika maharaja: A provincial ruler in the Gupta empire
• Visaya: A district under the Gupta administrative set-up
• Visayapati: The head of a visaya
• Nagarapati: The chief of a town
• Senapati: A general in the Gupta army
• Dhoti: The chief male garment during the Gupta age
• Vaishnavism: A form of Hinduism which believes in the worship of Lord
Vishnu

1. Give an overview of the administrative set-up of the Gupta empire.

2. What were the disadvantages of the Gupta administrative set-up?
3. Why do you think that the Gupta age is called a golden age in Indian
history?
4. Give an outlook of the social conditions that were prevalent during the
Gupta age.
5. Describe the religious conditions during the Gupta age.
6. What were the chief economic activities during the Gupta age?
7. Give an overview of trade during the Gupta period.
13.7 Answers

2. (a) Uparika maharajas; (b) Nagarapati
4. (a) Dhoti; (b) Hunting


Books.

Unit 14 Rise of the Vardhanas

Structure
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.2 Founding of Vardhana Dynasty
14.3 Rise of Harshavardhana
14.4 Summary
14.5 Glossary
14.7 Answers
14.1 Introduction
To trace the development of Vardhana dynasty, it is necessary to first study the

period that was dominated by the decline of the mighty Gupta Empire and its
gruesome effects. The last unit dealt with the socio-political condition of India
after the downfall of the Kushanas and the detailed account of the glorious
reign of the Guptas. By the time the Gupta dynasty declined, the Huns were
also sent back and as a result, the whole of North India was left without any
strong dominance.
This situation led to the domination of small independent kingdoms in the
whole of the fifth century. One such kingdom that rose as a power centre was
the Kingdom of Thaneshwar, a major part of Srikantha Janpada. According to
the writings of Bana, the author of Harsha Charita, one person named
Pushyabhuti, a great devotee of lord Shiva, was responsible for setting up the
Kingdom of Thaneshwar. Even though his clan was known as the Pushyabhuti
dynasty, it was here only that Parbhakarvardhan, the first king of the Vardhana
Dynasty, came to the throne in 580 AD. Parbhakarvardhan also assumed the
titles of Parmabhatarka and Maharajadhiraj. The new king proved himself to be
a warrior of great worth. However, the greatest king of the Vardhana dynasty
was none other than Harshavardhana, the younger son of Parbhakarvardhan.
This unit will talk about the establishment and the expansion of the
Vardhana Empire and the achievements of the illustrious king, Harshavardhana.

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• State the characteristic features of the socio-economic condition of post-
Gupta India
• Discuss the foundation of the Vardhana Empire
• Assess Harshavardhana as a ruler and conqueror
14.2 Founding of Vardhana Dynasty
After the decline of the Gupta Empire, the political unity of India was once again
disintegrated. Anarchy prevailed everywhere in the country. Kings started fighting
among themselves for the sake of their own interests. In such a situation there
arose the Vardhana dynasty in Thaneshwar (Shrikantha Janapada, near Delhi).
Pushyabhuti was the founder of this dynasty. Because of this, the Vardhana
dynasty was also known as the Pushyabhuti dynasty. However, Nara Vardhana
is considered as the first acknowledged king of this dynasty because the
existence of Pushyabhuti could not be found in the inscriptions or literary sources.
From the discoveries made in Sonepat, Nalanda, Madhubana, we know the
genealogy of the Vardhana dynasty, was as follows:
King Queen
Nara Vardhana Vajrini Devi
Rajya Vardhana Apsara Devi
Aditya Vardhana Mahasenagupta Devi
Prabhakara Vardhana Yashomati Devi
Prabhakara Vardhana was the first powerful king of the Vardhana dynasty.
He had two sons, Rajya Vardhana and Harsha Vardhana, and a daughter,
Rajyashri. In the last days of Prabhakara Vardhana, the Huns attacked. Rajya
Vardhana was sent to face the Huns. During this battle, Prabhakara Vardhana
expired.
Rajya Vardhana
When Rajya Vardhana returned to his capital after defeating the Huns, he got
the news of his father’s death, which made him sorrowful. So he started thinking
of renouncing the worldly life. In the meantime, he was informed by his servant
that the wicked king of Malwas had killed Grihaverma and his wife and Rajya
Vardhana’s sister Rajyashri had been imprisoned. He heard the speculation

that the king of Malwa wanted to attack his kingdom since the king had expired.
Rajya Vardhana attacked Malwa and became victorious in the battle. However,
King Shashanka of Gaur killed him.
Activity 1
Conduct a research on the Internet and also refer to various historical books
to write a paragraph on the independent kingdoms that rose before the
Vardhanas.

(a) The Vardhana dynasty was established in Thaneswar
(b) Rajyashri was Rajya Vardhana’s wife
(a) ________________ was Prabhakara Vardhana’s wife.
(b) The king of ____________ had imprisoned Rajyashri.
14.3 Rise of Harshavardhana
After the death of his brother Rajyavardhana, Harshavardhana (AD 606–647)

ascended the throne at the age of sixteen in AD 606. After his accession to the
throne, he vowed to destroy Gaur and kill Shashanka. Harsha was moved by
his father’s and brother’s death. His first priority was to free his sister Rajyashri
from the imprisonment of the king of Malwa and to punish Shashanka. His army
commander Simhanada said to a disturbed and grieving Harsha – ‘Leaving
aside your cowardice grief, keep your parental heritage and royal powers under
your possession as a lion keeps fawn under its control.’ Ultimately, Harsha gave
up his grief and decided to seek revenge.
Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, mentions that Harsha marched with
a powerful army to take his revenge against Shashanka. On his way, he was
informed by his army commander that a king named Gupta had captured Kannauj
and his sister Rajyashri had fled from the prison. Handing over the command of
his army to his chief commandant and an order to attack Gaur, he personally
went in search of his sister Rajyashri. Harsha stopped her from entering into a

funeral pyre and brought her back to camp. What happened after Harsha
dispatched his commander to attack Gaur, is an issue on which, however,
Harshacharita is silent. It is evident from the Ganjam inscription that Harsha’s
army forced Shashanka to return to Gaur. Defeating Shashanka, Harsha
annexed his empire. It is written in the Arya Manjusri Mulakalpa that a king
(Harsha) whose name begins with letter ‘H’ defeated a king who bears the
name of ‘Soma.
Figure 14.1 Harsha’s Statue in Kannauj
Problems of Kannauj
Kannauj King Grihaverma had died and he had no son. Hence, the question of
a successor arose. When the throne was vacant after the death of childless
Grihaverma, his throne was happily handed over to Harsha by his courtiers.
Huen-Tsang’s account also corroborates this action. But Harsha did not accept
this proposal. Perhaps the real fact, which is mentioned in the Chinese text
Phangchi, is that he (Harsha) ruled over Kannauj with his sister.
Harsha’s conquests
Harsha wanted to hoist his flag of victory over the entire India. He had proclaimed
at the time of his accession, ‘All kings upto Udayanchal...Subela
....Astagiri.....Gandhamadan should be ready to pay him tax or to take up arms
to face him in the battle.’ Huen-Tsang wrote, ‘Soon he took revenge of his
brother’s death and he became master of India.’ Harsha as a great and powerful
emperor. He shifted his capital from Thaneshwar to Kannauj for administrative
convenience. King Bhaskarverma of Kamrupa sent a proposal of a treaty, which
was accepted delightedly by Harsha. It was a diplomatic move. The treaty was

in the mutual interest of both as they were common enemy of Shashanka.

When Harsha attacked Vallabhi, king Dhruvasena II sought refuge under the
Gujars. Making a diplomatic move, Harsha gave his daughter in marriage to
Dhruvasena. It is known from Huen-Tsang that Harsha had a desire to conquer
his neighbouring states. Hence, he proceeded towards the east and became
victorious after waging war for six years. The five states that Harsha conquered
were Punjab, Kanyakubja, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thus, he got control over
North India. Harsha plundered Sindh’s wealth after conquering it.
War with Chalukya King Pulakeshin II
Once Harsha had conquered North India, he turned his attention towards south.
Huen-Tsang wrote, ‘He collected an army from Pancha Bharata (the five states
of North India), invited the best commanders from all states and himself took
over the command of the collected army and marched to defeat Pulakeshin.’
But, Harsha was defeated by Pulakeshin II. According to the Aihole inscription,
Harsha’s elephantry massacred soldiers, but he still could not win the war. The
battle in which Harsha was defeated was fierce. The famous battle occurred
perhaps between AD 630 to 634.
Nepal conquest
It is evident from Harshacharita that Harsha collected tax from the ‘mountain
region of white snow’. He had conquered Nepal. So, Nepal was definitely under
the suzerainty of Harsha.
Kashmir conquest
Huen-Tsang wrote that Harsha had heard that one of the teeth of Buddha was
in Kashmir. So, he went to Kashmir and asked permission to see the Buddha-
tooth. The Buddhist order granted him permission. Kashmir king initiated
mediation and he himself presented the Buddha-tooth in front of Harsha. Having
seen the Buddha-tooth, Harsha was overwhelmed with joy and took away the
Buddha-tooth forcefully.
Control over Uttar Pradesh and Magadha
It is evident from the inscriptions found from Banskhera Madhubana (in modern
Uttar Pradesh) that Harsha captured Mathura, Govishana, Ayodhya, Prayaga,
and Kaushambi. After that Harsha took the title of Magadharaja.
Relation with China
Harsha sent his ambassador to China with a proposal of friendship. Besides,
he also had diplomatic relationship with Iran (Pharasa). These kings exchanged
gifts with each other.

Extent of Harsha’s empire

Harsha’s empire was very vast. Pannikar, an Indian Historian associated with
the Marxist school of historiography, mentions that Harsha was the undisputed
master of North India. The areas from the Himalayas in north to the Vindhya
mountain ranges in south, and Kamarupa in east to Saurashtra in west were
included in his empire. Harsha was the last Hindu King of the ancient India.
Harsha was called ‘Savachakravartinam dhaureye’ and ‘Chatuh samudradhipati’.
He had inherited a small kingdom from his father but he established his control
over almost the entire India by means of his talent and ability. Harsha extended
his suzerainty over the areas from the bank of Shatadru on the north to Narmada
on the south and from the frontier state of Western Malwa to the regions near
the Himalayas.
Figure 14.2 Extent of Harsha’s Kingdom
Cultural achievements of Harsha

Harsha was undoubtedly one of the greatest rulers of the ancient Indian history.
According to Panikkar, Harsha has a high place in the Indian History as a ruler,
poet and religious king. Harsha was not only brilliant as a ruler and conqueror

but more efficient as an ambassador of peace. Harsha’s achievements in the

cultural field are immense. His cultural achievements could be narrated as
follows:
Kannauj assembly
The first example of the cultural achievements of Harsha was organizing the
Kannauj Assembly. Harsha is the only king in the Indian history who is credited
with holding public assemblies at regular intervals for religious and cultural
purposes. According to Huen-Tsang’s accounts, Harsha wished to hold great
assemblies in Kanyakubja. All Brahmins, Sramanas and non-Budhhists were
ordered to join the assembly so that they would relate to the religious principles
of Mahayana Buddhism.
The kings of eighteen countries, 3,000 Brahmins, 3,000 Jains, and 1,000
monks of Nalanda Buddhavihara participated in the assembly of Kannauj, which
was chaired by Huen-Tsang. A huge pavilion and 100 feet high chaitya were
built on the bank of River Ganges. A human sized golden image of the Buddha
was installed in it. When Huen-Tsang writes about the proceeding of the
assembly, he mentions that a 3 feet high image of the Buddha, kept on an
elephant was taken out daily in a procession. The procession reached the
assembly hall where the image was installed on a throne and offering was
made to that image. Thereafter, the scholars entered into the assembly hall.
First of all, the principles of Mahayana were eulogized. And then Huen-Tsang
made an announcement –‘If any person proves my proposal logically wrong or
creates doubt about it in debate, I will cut off my head on rival’s assertion to this
effect.’ But, Harsha immediately announced for the protection of Huen-Tsang ‘If
any one touches or hurts the religious teacher, he would be condemned to
death and who would speak against him his tongue would be cut off.’ Huen-
Tsang was given the title of Mahayanadeva or Moksadeva. In such a situation
no one dared to speak against him.’
Brahmins reacted sharply at the promotion of Buddhism. They put this
hall on fire and a conspiracy was hatched to make an assassination bid on
Harsha. But Harsha survived. He captured five hundred Brahmins and expelled
them. An announcement was made in the entire empire of Kannauj that the
Chinese pilgrimage traveller established the doctrines of Mahayana after refuting
the principles of other religions. No one could dare debate it.
Prayaga assembley
Harsha organized a great assembly in Prayaga. He organized this assembly in
every five years. Eighteen kings including Huen-Tsang participated in the this

assembly. According to Huen-Tsang, ‘Harshavardhana worshipped the Buddha

statue and offered it all his precious gems. Thereafter, he donated all this offering
to the priests living therein. Harsha distributed all his property among students,
orphans, widows and the poor. When nothing was left to him, he donated his
gem imbedded crown and garland. When all the accumulated wealth of five
years was finished he distributed all his personal ornaments and clothes, and
then wore old clothes, which he asked for from his sister Rajyashri. Wearing it
he worshipped the Buddha in all the ten directions…’ It is believed that Harsha
established a unique record in the individual charity in the world. Harsha wanted
to donate all his wealth for the welfare of humanity in order to receive blessings
from Buddha. According to Dr Ishwari Prasad an Indian historian who dealt
mainly with the Muslim rulers and the governments of India, ‘Harsha had forgotten
the partiality of religious intolerance, what he demonstrated in the Kannauj
assembly by his expressed charity and liberality in Prayaga assembly.’
Literary interest of Harsha
Harsha is famous not only for his victories but also for his books. He demonstrated
the best example of his literary talent by composing Sanskrit dramas,
Priyadarshika, Nagananda and Ratnavali. Banabhatta called him adept in
composing beautiful poetry. Harsha was not only a patron of the learned scholars,
but, used his pen as skillfully as he used sword. Banabhatta was his royal poet.
Besides, he patronized scholars like Shilabhadra, Jayasen, Matanga Divakar
Mayur, etc.
Harsha’s religious belief
There is a dispute regarding the religion that he followed. It is evident from
Harshacharita that Harsha and his ancestors were Shaivites. Although Harsha
was bent towards Buddhism, he had faith in Shiva and Surya also. But, seeing
his support for Buddhism, some scholars consider him Buddhist. Perhaps he
had accepted Buddhism in his later life. Huen-Tsang and Kannauj religious
assembly are evidences to it. But it is not entirely clear.
Harsha’s administration
Harsha’s administrative system was well managed and organized like the Guptas.
According to Huen-Tsang, ‘Harsha was hard-working and used to forget to take
even his food and sleep.’ The main features of his administration were as follows:
Central government: Central government consisted of the following:
• King: King was the highest official of the administration. He took the titles
of Maharajadhiraja, Prameshwara, Paramabhattaraka, Paramadevata,

etc. The responsibility of the entire governance was on the king. Harsha
personally supervized his subjects’ welfare. He was the supreme judge
and supreme commander of his army. Apart from the administrative
activities, he was also involved in religious activities and public welfare.
According to the Madhubana edict, ‘Harsha divided his daily activities
into three parts of which one part was reserved for the administrative
activities and the remaining two parts were reserved for his personal and
religious acts.’
• Council of ministers: The king had a council of ministers to assist him in
the administrative affairs. The Council of ministers had an important place
in the empire as it had control over the autocratic behaviour of the king.
Central administration was divided into several departments. These
departments acted under the control of ministers or chairpersons. The
important officials were Mahasandhivigrahaka, Mahabaladhikrita,
Senapati, Rajasthaniya (Foreign Minister), Uparika Maharaja, etc. Huen-
Tsang had written that the administration of the country was under the
control of these officials.
• Provincial administration: Harsha’s empire was very vast. Therefore,
for the sake of the administrative convenience, it was divided into
provinces, which were known as Bhukti or Desha. Its chief official was
known as Uparika Maharaja. A member of the royal family was appointed
to this post. Every province was divided into district (visaya). Its head was
called Visayapati. The Visayapati was appointed by the Uparika Maharaja.
• Local or village administration: Every district or visaya was divided
into several pathaka (circles), and the pathak was divided into several
gramas (villages). Grama was the smallest unit of the administration. An
official, known as Mahattara was referred to among the village officials,
who perhaps looked after the village administration. But, we do not know
for certain whether he was a state official or respected elderly villager.
Gramika was perhaps the head of a village.
• Revenue system: The main source of the income was Udranga (land-
tax). Besides, the other taxes were Uparikara, weath, gold, etc. According
to Huen-Tsang, royal land had four parts. One part was spent on religious
activities and government works. Second was spent over public works
and officials. The third part was spent to provide reward and salaries to
the scholars and the fourth was spent on donation and meritorious acts.
One-sixth of the produce was taken as land-tax.

• Judicial system: Huen-Tsang has written that there were no criminals

as the administration was run with honesty and the mutual relation between
the government and people was cordial. During the time of Harsha,
punishment was severe. Hence, the criminals were afraid of committing
any crime. The Harshacharita states that the criminals were set free on
the occasions of festivals, ceremonies, etc. Dandika or Dandapashika
was the title of the chief judicial officer.
• Department of Defence: To protect the vast empire, there was a need to
have a very efficient and large army. It is evident from the accounts of
Harsha that he organized a huge army as well as increased its numbers
after extending his empire. The numbers of elephant army were 60,000
and that of mounted army were 100,000. He also increased his arsenals.
• Espionage system: The espionage department was under the control of
the Department of Defence. This department discovered secretly any
disruptive activities taking place within or without the kingdom.
• Activity of public welfare: Harsha executed several acts of public welfare
because of which he is often compared with Asoka. He donated his wealth
every five years. Besides, he also built several chaityas, stupas and
temples. He worked for the development of the Nalanda University and
other educational centres.
Estimate of Harsha’s reign
Harsha’s characteristic had the mixture of the qualities of Ashoka and
Samudragupta. Like Samudragupta, he launched the campaign of conquest in
different parts of the country and attained the status of emperor and also achieved
historical unity of the country. Harsha occupies a special place in the Indian
history on account of his valour, able leadership, religious tolerance, literary
love and charity. He was a distinct person and should be counted among great
kings like Ashoka and Akbar. As an administrator of public welfare, literary patron,
and an accomplished dramatist, etc., he should be mentioned in the pages of
history as a talented and attractive king. Harsha, on the basis of his talent,
extended his empire in the whole of India and, thus, united it into a political unity.
Huen-Tsang’s account of India
Huen-Tsang had praised the administrative system of Harsha. He considered
Harsha as a king endowed with all qualities. According to him, Harsha had a
strong control over his administration, which was well-organized. The subjects
were affluent and contented. Crime was negligible, and the punishment was so
severe that none had the courage to commit any crime. The economic life of

the society was primarily dependent on the agriculture but there were many
industries and business settlement in addition to agriculture. Huen-Tsang writes
that every person fulfilled his needs peacefully. One-sixth of the produce of land
was paid as tax. Golden and silver coins were in vogue. Huen-Tsang was
especially attracted to the religious condition of India. He found mostly Brahmins
in this country. So, he called it ‘the country of Brahmins.’ Brahmins and the
others used Sanskrit language and were divided into several categories. Some
appeared with shaved head, garland of skulls, knotted hair or with the ash-
painted bodies. Recluses led a life of sacrifice. Huen-Tsang has also talked
about the eighteen sects of Buddhism. According to him, Harsha was a follower
of Buddhism but there were also several other religions in India at that time.
Brahminism was in a developed condition. Most of the people were either the
followers of Shaiva or Vaishnava thoughts.
Social condition
In the social sphere, Huen-Tsang praised Brahmins and Kshatriyas. According
to him, there was caste system in the society. Traditionally, there were four
divisions in the caste system. Four castes had religious-rites-based purity in
different quantity. The first caste was Brahmina, which was famous for knowledge
and moral conduct. The second was Kshatriya, which participated in the
administration. The third was Vaishya. They traded in and outside the country. The
fourth was Shudra, who did menial jobs. Each person married in his own caste.
Women did not remarry. Sati system and polygamy were prevalent in the society.
Huen-Tsang has categorized the character of the inhabitants of each state
in the following way:
‘The people of Kashmir are cheats and cowards. The people of Mathura
are learned and the best in moral conduct. The inhabitants of Kannauj are
beautiful. The inhabitants of Malwa are learned and polite. The inhabitants of
Kamrupa are aggressive and they respect the scholars. The inhabitants of Chola
are fearful and wicked. The Dravidians are faithful, courageous and lovers of
letters. The inhabitants of Maharashtra are grateful, egoist, war-lovers and self-
sacrifieers.’
The Indians were dutiful, truthful and talented. They always had care of
the vice and virtue, and mundane and supra-mundane. Their conducts were
polite and matured. There was less crime. Even for simple crime, the punishment
was amputation. To prove their innocence, the criminals had to undergo tests of
water, fire and poison. There were physicians and several medicines in the
country. Corpses were cremated or disposed of in water. Not being cured of

diseases, the old would commit suicide by immersing themselves into the
Ganges. It was a pious duty. Education was mandatory for higher castes and
every child had to learn grammar, art, medicine, logic and spirituality. Brahmins
were respected due to their knowledge and piety.
Activity 2
On an ancient map of India, trace the expansion of Vardhana Empire and
mark all the important kingdoms that it conquered along with the important
ports and cities that were prevalent in the era.
State whether true or false

3. The espionage system was under the Department of Defence.
4. The Brahminism was the only religion in India.
5. Criminals were not punished in Harsha’s kingdom.
6. Common people only practiced agriculture in the country.
14.4 Summary
Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit.

• After the decline of the Gupta Empire, the political unity of India got
disintegrated once again and anarchy prevailed everywhere in the country.
• The Vardhana dynasty in Thaneshwar (Shrikantha Janapada, near Delhi)
came up after the devise of the Gupta empire. Pushyabhuti was the founder
of this dynasty.
• Prabhakara Vardhana was the first powerful king of the Vardhana dynasty.
He had two sons, Rajya Vardhana and Harsha Vardhana, and a daughter,
Rajyashri. In the last days of Prabhakara Vardhana, the Huns attacked
and Rajya Vardhana was sent to face the Huns. During this battle, both
Prabhakara Vardhana and Rajya Vardhane expired.
• After the death of his brother Rajyavardhana, Harshavardhana (AD 606–
647) ascended the throne at the age of sixteen in AD 606. Harsha wanted
to hoist his flag of victory over the entire India. He shifted his capital from
Thaneshwar to Kannauj for administrative convenience.

• Once Harsha had conquered north India, he turned his attention towards
the south. But, he was defeated by Pulakeshin II. According to the Aihole
inscription, Harsha’s elephantry massacred soldiers, but he still could not
win the war.
• Harsha’s empire was very vast. He was the undisputed master of north
India and the areas from the Himalayas in north to the Vindhya mountain
ranges in south, and Kamarupa in east to Saurashtra in west were included
in his empire. He was also the last Hindu King of the ancient India.
• Harsha has a high place in Indian History as a ruler, poet and religious
king. He was not only brilliant as a ruler and conqueror but also more
efficient as an ambassador of peace. His achievements in the cultural
field were also immense.
• Harsha was the highest seat of justice and power in the country. He was
assisted in the administration by a Council of ministers and regional
officials.
• Huen-Tsang has written that there were no criminals as the administration
was run with honesty and the mutual relations between the government
and people was cordial.
14.5 Glossary
• Treaty: Formal agreement between two or more states in reference to

peace, alliance, commerce or other international relations
• Chaitya: Buddhist or Jain shrine including a stupa
• Espionage: The act or practice of spying or of using spies to obtain secret
information
1. Which dynasty was called the Pushyabhuti dynasty and why?

2. Who killed Rajyavardhana?
3. Write a note on Harsha’s conquest of north Indian kingdoms.
4. Describe the importance of the Kannauj and Prayaga assemblies?
5. List the titles authored by Harsha.
6. Discuss the main features of Harsha’s administration.

14.7 Answers

2. (a) Yashomati Devi; (b) Malwa
3. True
4. False
5. False
6. False

Books.

NOTES

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BAC104

History of India from

Edition: Summer 2011

Chairman Dr Ramesh Murthy, Director, SMU DE

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

History of India from Earliest Times up to 600AD

Objectives of studying the subject

Unit 1 The Earliest Societies

Information about the past is based on several sources, each contributing a

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• Compare the Mesolithic and the Neolithic Ages

1.2 Literary and Archaeological Sources

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1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.

1.3 Pre-Historic Paleolithic Cultures

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1.3.1 Characteristics of the Paleolithic Age

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1.3.2 Discovery of Fire

Homo Sapiens Rubbed Two Stones Together to Make Fire

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• They used it to keep themselves warm in winter.

Tools of the Palaeolithic Age

3. State whether the following statements are True or False.

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1.4 The Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Cultures

1.4.1 Characteristics of the Mesolithic Age

1.4.2 The Neolithic Age

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revolutionary change in the mode of subsistence. People no longer depended

Tools Used in the Neolithic Age

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5. Choose the right answer from the given options.

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1.5 Advent of Food Production

Vere Gordon Childe was an Australian archaeologist and philologist who

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7. State whether the following statements are True or False.

Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit:

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• Literary sources refer to written accounts. Archaeological sources refer

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• Manuscripts: Written records, which include both religious and secular

1.8 Terminal Questions

1. State the characteristic features of the Palaeolithic Age.

Answers to Self-Assessment Questions

1. (a) Manuscripts; (b) Numismatics

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5. (a) (iv); (b) (iii)

Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer to Section 1.3.1

1.10 Further Reading

1. Basham, A. L. 2004. The Wonder That Was India. London: Picador.

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Unit 2 Indus Valley Civilization I

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