Lesson1 BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST A VARIETY OF BOTH METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC PRODUCTS SUCH AS WELDS, FORGINGS, CASTINGS, SHEET, TUBING, PLASTICS AND CERAMICS. ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE DISCONTI- NUITIES WITH ACCESS TO ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE SPECIMEN. THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT RELIABIL- ITY BY MEANS OF: 1. OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES. 2. DISCLOSING THE NATURE OF THE DISCONTINUITY WITHOUT IMPAIRING THE USEFULNESS OF THE PART. 3. SEPARATING ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE MATERIALS IN AC- CORDANCE WITH PREDETERMINED STANDARDS. TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN THE ULTRASONIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RE- SULTS EVALUATED. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS THE USE OF THEIR DOCUMENT “RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A.” THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE- LINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NDT TECHNICIAN IN ALL METHODS. TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A “WRIT- TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED. THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A TO DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED INITIAL NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO BE CERTIFIED AS AN ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNICIAN.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTRY BY PROVIDING LEVEL III EXAMI- NATIONS IN THE BASIC AND METHOD AREAS. BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE SPECIFIC EXAMI- NATION IS STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER. THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO BE CERTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT. ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION" Basie, Method, Spectic— 18 yours Education experence [ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION: ‘Base, Metrod CUSTOMER ACCEPTANCE EXAMINATION BY OUTSIDE AGENCY EMPLOYER WAIVES EXAMINATION * Conticateiasued to evilLesson2 ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES IN ULTRASONIC TESTING WE USE SOMETHING CALLED “ULTRASONIC VIBRA- TIONS.” WE MUST KNOW TWO FACTS ABOUT A VIBRATION: 1. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT. 2. A VIBRATION IS ENERGY IN MOTION. A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A DISPLACEMENT. RUBBER BALL VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL AS A SUCCESSION OF PARTI- CLE DISPLACEMENTS. THIS CAN BE VISUALIZED AS SHOWN BELOW: THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR GROUPS OF ATOMS. THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE DIS- PLACED FROM THESE POSITIONS BY SOME FORCE. WHEN THE FORCE IS REMOVED, THE PARTICLES WILL TEND TO RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL POSI- TIONS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME iS CALLED THE FRE- QUENCY. EXAMPLE: IF THE BALL SWINGS THROUGH THREE COMPLETE CYCLES IN ONE SECOND, THEN THE FREQUENCY IS 3 CPS (CYCLES PER SEC- OND). IF YOU STRIKE A DRUM, IT HAS A FREQUENCY THAT IS LOW, APPROXIMATELY 50 CPS. THE TOP NOTE ON THE PIANO HAS A HIGHER FREQUENCY, APPROXIMATELY 4100 CPS. THE UNIT OF FREQUENCY USED TO DENOTE ONE CYCLE PER SECOND IS. HERTZ (ABBREVIATED Hz). ONE CYCLE PER SECOND (CPS) IS EQUAL TO ONE HERTZ (Hz); 2 CPS = 2 Hz, ETC. SOUND TRAVELS IN METAL AS WELL AS IN AIR. SOUND IS A VIBRATION AND HAS A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES. MAN CAN ONLY HEAR VIBRATIONS (SOUND) UP TO ABOUT 20,000 Hz. HOWEVER, SOUND FROM AN ULTRASONIC TESTING UNIT IS ABOUT 5,000,000 Hz. (5 MEGAHERTZ). VIBRATIONS ABOVE THE HUMAN HEARING RANGE ARE CALLED ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS. THE TWO TERMS, SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AS WE WILL USE THEM WILL MEAN THE SAME THING. THE BEST WAY TO DEFINE SOUND IS TO SAY THAT IT IS A VIBRATION THAT TRANSMITS ENERGY BY A SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY A TRANSDUCER CAN BE EITHER PULSED OR CON- TINUOUS. PULSED ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS SHORT GROUPS OF TRANSMITTED VIBRATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER WHICH THE TRANSDUCER CAN ACT AS A RECEIVER. STEEL, WATER AND OIL WILL TRANSMIT ULTRASOUND VERY WELL, BUT AIR PRESENTS A PROBLEM. ‘TRANSDUCER OWL STEEL SPECIMEN AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE DEN- SITY IS SO LOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO TRANSMIT SOUND ENERGY FROM PARTICLE TO PARTICLE. THAT IS WHY WE PUT OIL OR GREASE BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE SPECIMEN. THE PARTICLE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL HELPS DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF SOUND. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND WILL CHANGE AS IT MOVES FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL IS ALSO A FACTOR. Kod bddpbbdddd: 0.33_KM/SEC 1.48 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC AIR WATER STEEL VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AIR, WATER AND STEEL. THE IMPULSE MOVING THROUGH THE ROW OF BALLS CAN BE COMPARED TOA PULSE OF ULTRASONIC SOUND.UT Lecture Guide, Lesson 2 THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW SHOWS A TRANSDUCER VIBRATING AT A FIXED FREQUENCY (f) AND TRANSMITTING SOUND WAVES INTO THE SPECIMEN. VELocity—— Pe} | toto] SOUND WAVES —— ‘TRANSDUCER THESE SOUND WAVES MOVE AT A FIXED VELOCITY (v) THROUGH THE SPECIMEN. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED IF THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER VIBRATION CHANGES. VELOCITY WAVELENGTH = ————___ FREQUENCY EXAMPLE: YOU CAN SHORTEN THE WAVELENGTH BY INCREASING THE FREQUENCY. WAVELENGTH IS A RATIO OF A FIXED VALUE (VELOCITY) DIVIDED BY A VARIABLE (FREQUENCY). IN PRACTICAL SITUATIONS, THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY YOU CAN FIND WITH ULTRASONIC TESTING IS ABOUT 1/2 LAMBDA (WAVELENGTH). THEREFORE, TO DETECT SMALLER DEFECTS, YOU WILL NEED TRANSDUCERS THAT PRODUCE HIGHER FREQUENCIES. EXAMPLE: WHAT WOULD BE THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY THAT YOU COULD FIND IN A STEEL SPECIMEN WITH A VELOCITY OF ®KM/SEC USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FREQUENCY OF 3 MEGAHERTZ (MHz). 10° us = SATO OMISEC _ 2 MILLIMETERS 3 MHz IF THE SMALLEST DEFECT DETECTABLE IS 1/2 LAMBDA, THEN THE ANSWER IS 1 MILLIMETER OR 0.040 INCHES.Key Name. UT LESSON 2 WORKSHEET ‘A, The distance between two displacements is called the WAVELENGTH. This is the distance a wave advances while a particle makes one complete cycle. B. The symbol used to represent a wavelength” ) "is called LAMBDA. C. The wavelength I a ratlo of a fixed value (VELOCITY) divided by a variable (FREQUENCY) WAVELENGTHIg eos »— FREQUENCY ' D. For the purpose of this exercise, consider that the smallest discontinuity detectable using pulse echo testing is one hall lambda. 2060" 4, What is the smallest defect you can detect with 2 2 MHz probe inspecting a stee! speci men with a velocity of 6.0x 10" emisec? (answer in inches) (1. mm equals .040") _ a 3 miffemeter s : Beet ig ay 5.010" OD 22% 2. What is the smallest defect you could detect if you increased the probe frequency to 5 MHz? (answer in inches) btpe* ene 5 WA OR mrtmezers FL ata £25?" 3, what probe below would detect the smaest detect you were inspecting a steel speci men with 8 velocity of 89 x 10! em/sec? Whats ine tmailest each of he below would detect? (answer in inches) 2.047 25 mie 2.023 5.0 MHz 2.811 10.0 MHz ZeeL 4, witm everyining else eaual, would a wavelength be ionger in water or in steel? Sound moves Fésted in greet, THEZeFom LOGE KMUELENgEL. 11 possible points possible po! feLesson 3 ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT Tver 7 aeceiven anne we pulser wists CIRCUIT GENERATOR) = 7 rn ‘CIRCUIT SWEEP crcut rmansoucen 1 — | SPECI Power | ___. ro each cincutt) | SUPPLY DISCONTINUITY BACK REFLECTION THE ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO INSTRUMENT GENERATES HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL PULSES OF SHORT DURATION. THESE PULSES ARE APPLIED TO THE TRANSDUCER WHICH CONVERTS THEM INTO MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS. THAT ARE APPLIED TO THE MATERIAL BEING INSPECTED. A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE TEST PART BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER. THE REMAINDER IS REFLECTED BY THE BACK SURFACE OR DISCONTINUITIES. THE SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER IS CONVERTED BACK TO ELECTRICAL PULSES, WHICH ARE AMPLIFIED AND DISPLAYED ON THE CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) AS VERTICAL PULSES. THE A-SCAN DISPLAY INDICATES THE DEPTH AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY. THE AMPLITUDE IS A RELATIVE MEASURE OF THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTED ENERGY.UT Lecture Guise, Lesson 3 PULSE-ECHO IS THE MOST WIDELY USED ULTRASONIC SYSTEM. SHORT EVENLY TIMED PULSES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. THESE PULSES REFLECT FROM DISCONTINUITIES IN THEIR PATH, OR FROM ANY BOUNDARY THAT THEY STRIKE. THE RECEIVED REFLECTIONS ARE THEN DISPLAYED ON A CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT). THE SAME TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE. THROUGH TRANSMISSION REQUIRES THE USE OF TWO TRANSDUCERS, ONE FOR SENDING AND THE OTHER FOR RECEIVING. EITHER SHORT PULSES OR CONTINUOUS WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO. THE MATERIAL. THE QUALITY OF THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF ENERGY LOST BY A SOUND BEAM AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH THE MATERIAL. THERE ARE TWO TEST METHODS NORMALLY USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING. “CONTACT TESTING” - WHERE THE TRANSDUCER IS COUPLED TO THE MATERIAL THROUGH A THIN LAYER OF COUPLANT. “IMMERSION TESTING” - BOTH THE MATERIAL AND THE TRANSDUCER ARE IMMERSED IN A TANK OF COUPLANT (USUALLY WATER). atUT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 TWO CONTROLS, THE “SWEEP LENGTH” AND “SWEEP DELAY” REGULATE HOW MUCH OF THE TEST PART IS DISPLAYED AT ONE TIME ON THE CRT, AND WHAT PORTION OF THE PART IS DISPLAYED. THE SWEEP LENGTH (MATERIAL CONTROL) EXPANDS OR COMPRESSES THE DISPLAY ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW: -_ 40 Ft. 44 a i — EXPANDED SWEEP COMPRESSED SWEEP view A views THE SWEEP DELAY CONTROL ALLOWS ONE TO MOVE THE VIEWING SCREEN ALONG THE DEPTH OF THE TEST PART. IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE SWEEP DELAY CAN BE USED TO REMOVE THE INITIAL PULSE FROM THE CRT. A= INITIAL PULSE 8 FRONT SURFACE PIP (> 1ST BACK SURFACE REFLECTION PIP 23UT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 “DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE CONTROL” - IN ULTRASONIC TESTING THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP FROM A DISCONTINUITY OF A GIVEN SIZE DECREASES AS THE DEPTH INCREASES. TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS “ATTENUATION,” AN ELEC- TRONIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ADDED TO MANY ULTRASONIC UNITS. SOME OF THE COMMON NAMES FOR THIS GONTROL ARE: DAC - DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION. TCG - TIME CORRECTED GAIN STC - SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL THIS CONTROL IS VERY USEFUL WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE FLAW ALARM AND WITH RECORDING SYSTEMS. witHour Dac wate DAC ae 25(ames ee UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET 41 ‘A. As shown below, many ultrasonic units have 50 divisions along the base line of the CRT screen, By using the simple formula below. we can make the distance across the screen represent any distance we wish from about .5 inches to over 100 inches. The formula used to find the value of each division on the screen below is: Range x2 100 Increment/Division EXAMPLE: If you wanted the entire screen to represent 10", we would find that by using the for- mula that, each division on the base line represents 0.2". inciow = 2X2 =. __22__ soa 700 700 B. After you nave selected a suitable screen range it is then possible to use the sweep controls and match the pulses on the CRT to a known thickness calibration block. This will be discussed in later lessons. ©. Many Ultrasonic units have 100 divisions across the base line inst Givide the range by 100 to find the increment per division. D. On the next page fill in the CRT screens as instructed. d of 50. In this case simplyKey Name. UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #1 On the CRT screens below, draw in the lefi edge of the first back reflection and at least one multiple of the back echo as It would appear using a normal beam transducer on a properly calibrated unit 0 1, 2 a & 3 0 1 2 | i ri i | i | i He Ne : | : SCREEN RANGE - 1 Inch SCREEN RANGE - 25” PART THICKNESS - 0.49° PART THICKNESS - 4 3/16" 5.37 DM ¢ 7 Z 3 T 3 T 7 7 LI ea ! | | | i | ' | 1 we ! i H I | wit foto og eee . cv. F ee + + + T = = Eq i PS = es i : ! | i 7 7 7 i ' : a or + oo SCREEN RANGE - 20° nen out SCREEN RANGE - 1° PART THICKNESS - 6 7/8" PART THICKNESS - 3/167 37 DIU. 0 y z 4 0 1 z 3 | | T z [_ ij T y i t s SCREEN RANGE -25° 5g pip SCREEN RANGE 50° 70.36 214 PART THICKNESS - .68* 2 PART THICKNESS - 10 378°Key Name, UT LESSON 3 WORKSHEET #2 ‘A. Calculate the depth to each pulse on the CRT screens below. Consider that a normal beam trans ‘ducer was used on # properly calibrated unit. g fi a t | I the above CRT is calibrated to the above CAT is calibrated to 85° range, what is the distance 2 25° range, what Is the distance paar 5 ee to the pulse? _¢" ted toa what is the distance to the pulse? as If the above CRT Is calibrated toa 25° range, where would the pips for EACH SQUARE REPRESENTS 1/4" the two discontinulties and.back echoes — 31 pre appear as shown is Fig. 1?Lesson 4 MODES OF ULTRASONIC WAVE TRAVEL VELOCITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE WILL PROPAGATE THROUGH A MEDIUM IN A GIVEN UNIT OF TIME, USUALLY A SECOND. THE WAVE SPEED REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH A GIVEN MEDIUM. TRANSDUCER STEEL. N a lL COUPLANT alle = | _—$_Sruses a > LISTED BELOW IS A TABLE OF IMPEDANCE, VELOCITY AND DENSITY VALUES. THIS INFORMATION WILL BE USEFUL LATER IN THIS LESSON FOR PERFORM- ING BASIC ULTRASONIC CALCULATIONS. ACOUSTIC SOUND. IMPEDANCE, vevociTy, DENSITY MATERIAL ccrameu? -secr | icmrsecr | (GRaw/om?) AiR 0.000033 x 10° | 0.33 x 10° 0,001 WATER 0.149 x 10° 1.49 x 105 1.00 ‘ALUMINUM 1.72 x 10° 6.35 x 10° 2m STEEL 4,56 x 108 5,85x 10> 18 ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER A MEDIUM OF A DIFFERENT ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE. THE “SURFACE” AT WHICH THIS REFLECTION OCCURS IS CALLED AN “INTERFACE.” AN INTERFACE IS THE COMMON BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO MATERIALS OR, PHASES, SUCH AS ALUMINUM-TO-STEEL OR WATER-TO-STEEL.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 THE ANGLE OF REFLECTION AT AN INTERFACE OR BOUNDARY ALWAYS EQUALS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. ANGLE “A” = ANGLE “B” NORMAL INCIDENCE InciDent wave —_X ZL — REFLECTED WAVE INTERFACE ANGLE OF REFLECTION ae COUPLANT IMAGINARY LINE 7” ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS TRAVEL IN MANY MODES, AND THE MOST COMMON ARE: 1. LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSION) 2. SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) 3. SURFACE (RAYLEIGH) 4, PLATE (LAMB) EACH WAVE MODE HAS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION IN ULTRASONIC INSPECTION AND IT IS IMPORTANT THAT EACH BE UNDERSTOOD COMPLETELY.UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE WHEN A SOUND BEAM HITS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT MEDIA AT AN ANGLE OTHER THAN 90 DEGREES. MODE CONVERSION IN THE CASE PRESENTED BELOW PRODUCES TWO REFLECTED BEAMS: ONE BEAM CONSISTS OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE OTHER BEAM CONSISTS OF SHEAR WAVES. ‘TRANSDUCER, GREASE COUPLANT INCIDENT BEAM STEEL BLOCK (CONGITUDINAL WAVES) AIR REFLECTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) REFLECTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) THE ULTRASONIC ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER USES THE FOLLOWING EXAM- PLE. THE “REFRACTED” SHEAR WAVES ARE USEFUL IN MANY INSPECTION TECHNIQUES. THE “ANGLE OF REFRACTION” IS THE ANGLE FORMED BETWEEN A RE- FRACTED BEAM AS IT ENTERS THE SECOND MEDIUM AND A LINE DRAWN PERPENDICULAR TO THE INTERFACE. NORMAL INCIDENCE LE SZ INCIDENT BEAM (LONGITUDINAL) INTERFACE "ANGLE OF REFRACTION (LONGITUDINAL) REFRACTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) REFRACTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES) ANGLE OF REFRACTION (SHEAR) 39UT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN- CREASES. WHEN THE REFRACTION ANGLE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE REACHES 90 DEGREES, THE WAVE EMERGES FROM THE SECOND MEDIUM AND TRAVELS. PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE OR SURFACE. THIS IS CALLED ITS FIRST OR LOWER “CRITICAL ANGLE” ABOVE APPROXI- MATELY 28 DEGREES WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE GENERATED IN THE PART. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE PLasTiC REFRACTED LONGITUDINAL STEEL | WAVE { i Fv REFRACTED SHEAR WAVE IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS INCREASED PAST THE FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE, ONLY A SHEAR WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE PART. WHEN THE ANGLE OF RE- FRACTION FOR THE SHEAR WAVE IS 80 DEGREES, THEN WE HAVE REACHED THE UPPER OR SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE WHICH PRODUCES SURFACE WAVES. AS SHOWN BELOW, THERE IS THEN TOTAL REFLECTION FOR BOTH LONGI- TUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES. WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, THIS HAPPENS AT APPROXIMATELY 58 DEGREES. s REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL WAVE REFRACTED SHEAR STEEL ate (SURFACE WAVE) aUT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 PLATE WAVES OR LAMB WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO PROPAGATE THROUGH THIN PLATES IN A VARIETY OF WAVE MODES DEPENDING ON PLATE THICK- NESS, TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY AND INCIDENT ANGLE. PLATE WAVES ARE GENERATED BY USING LONGITUDINAL WAVES WHICH DEVELOP EITHER SYMMETRICAL OR ASYMMETRICAL WAVES AS SHOWN BELOW. PLATE WAVES OCCUPY THE ENTIRE THICKNESS OF THE PART. WITHOUT “SATURATING” THE PART, THE WAVE CANNOT EXIST. THIM SHEET OR PLATE THIN SHEET OR PLATE [birection as > parricue ¢ $ wovion SYMMETRICAL ASYMMETRICAL PLATE waves TO GENERATE PLATE WAVES, YOU ADJUST THE INCIDENT ANGLE TO THE POINT THAT MAXIMUM REFLECTIONS ARE OBSERVED ON THE CRT SCREEN FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR, IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE SHEAR OR SURFACE WAVES ON MATERIALS THINNER THAN ONE-HALF WAVELENGTH. THEREFORE, PLATE WAVES ARE USEFUL AS SHOWN BELOW. HOLLOW EXTRUSION 43Key Name. UT LESSON 4 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using Snell's Law and the attached Sine table, calculate the following refraction problems, us: ing the information in the sketch below. 29 Ne ' ae Lucite Zid (long. velocity 2.73 x 105 cm/sec) i 1 1 STEEL 1 ( long. velocity 5.9 x 10° em/sec) (shear velocity 3.23 x 10° cm/sec) SE's. Find the refracted longitudinal wave if the incident angle 6, is 25 degrees. (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) = SFR vIR eal » Ao GE —~4Z2. Find the retracted shes (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) 7 23 xX. 707 omy 267. 373 ah an ? x Tbe 273 ao £223, you wanted a shear wave to {ravel into the steel at 70 degrees, what would the incident angie through the lucite be? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) n2.23 ae -27 See se) 323 333 ae Hata 19, i$ it possible to have a refracted longitudinal wave? Mf yes, what is it? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) ino, why not? ee 180? .- 273_ XL x eS He 5. 19, = 36°. is it possible to have a retracted longitudinal wave? yes. what is it? (SHOW WORK) m0, why not? 1 fuer eet Seep en 10 possibie points 5Angle 1" 2 rs i 5° 6 7 a o 10° Ww 12 13° 1“ 16° 16° 7 18° 19° 20° ai 22" 23" 2a* 25° 26° 27° 28° 29° 30° ai 32° 33¢ 34° 35° 36" Sin 0175 0349 0523 0608 0872 1045 1219 1392 1564 1736 1908 2079 2aie “2588 2758 2924 3090 3256 3420 3746 3907 ‘4067 4226 A384 4540 4895 4848 5000 5150 5299 5488 5592 5736 5878 6018 6157 6293 6428 6581 6691 6820 6947 “7071 UT LESSON 4 WORKSHEET #1 a Angle 46° a7" 48° 49° 50° st 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° 57° 38° 59° 0° 61" 62" 63" 64" 65° es 67" 68° 69° 70° am 72° 73° 74" 75° 76° 77 78° 79° 80° art 82" 83" 84° 5° 88° 87° 88° eo" 90° Tan 1.0355 1.0724 4.1108 4.1504 1.1918 1.2349 1.2799 1.9270 1.3764 4.4281 1.4826 1.5399 1.6013 1.6643 1.7321 4.8040 4.8807 1.9626 2.0503 2.1485 2.2460 2.3559 2.4751 2.6051 2.7475 2.9042 3.077 3.2709 3.4g74 3.7321 4.0108 4.3315 4.7046 5.1466 5.6713 6.3138 71154 8.1443 5144 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900Lesson 5 COUPLANTS AND ULTRASONIC SOUND ENERGY THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF A COUPLANT !S TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE SOUND PATH BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE TEST SURFACE. A COUPLANT MUST EFFECTIVELY WET OR TOTALLY CONTACT BOTH SUR- FACES OF THE TRANSDUCER AND TEST PART. 1.THE COUPLANT MUST EXCLUDE ALL AIR FROM BETWEEN THE SUR- FACES AS AIR IS A VERY POOR CONDUCTOR OF SOUND. 2. THE COUPLANT FILLS IN AND SMOOTHS OUT IRREGULARITIES ON THE SURFACE OF THE TEST PART. 3. THE COUPLANT AIDS IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER OVER THE SURFACE IN CONTACT TESTING. 4.A PRACTICAL COUPLANT MUST BE EASY TO APPLY AND EASY TO REMOVE. IT MUST ALSO BE HARMLESS TO THE PART SURFACE. TRANSDUCER COUPLANT TEST MATERIAL. ~ OIL OR WATER MIXED WITH GLYCERINE (2 PARTS WATER AND 1 PART GLYCERINE) ARE COMMONLY USED COUPLANTS. EVEN WALLPAPER PASTE HAS ADVANTAGES AS A COUPLANT. HEAVIER COUPLANTS, SUCH AS GREASE OR HEAVY OIL CAN BE USED ON ROUGH OR VERTICAL SURFACES. SPECIALLY FORMULATED LIQUID AND PASTE COUPLANTS ARE ALSO AVAIL- ABLE FROM ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS. IN CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE USE OF LIQUIDS OR PASTE IS UNDESIRABLE, THIN RUBBER OR RUBBER.LIKE MATERIALS MAY BE USED. IN ALL CASES THE COUPLANT SHOULD BE AS THIN AS POSSIBLE. IF THE COUPLANT IS EXCESSIVE, IT MAY ACT AS A WEDGE AND ALTER THE DIREC- TION OF THE SOUND BEAM. 53UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, A GOOD BACK SURFACE REFLECTION INDICATES A GOOD RESPONSE FROM THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. IT IS REFLECTED BACK TO ITS SOURCE SIMILAR TO LIGHT STRIKING A MIRROR. IF THE SURFACES ARE NOT PARALLEL, THE REFLECTED ENERGY WILL BE DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER SIMILAR TO LIGHT FALLING ON A MIRROR AT AN ANGLE. TRANSDUCER. FRONT SURFACE FRONT SURFACE \ CONITIAL PULSE), reouceo —_ BACK SURFACE 1% moicarion specimen cross-section | REFLECTION BACK SURFACE CRT INDICATIONS. THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OR CONTOUR OF A PART MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN ATTEMPTING TO DISCERN WHETHER A DISCONTINUITY INDICATION IS REAL OR FALSE. Ex) $4 Cf EXAMPLES OF SOUND PATHS LEADING TO SPURIOUS INDICATIONS, IN TESTING LONG SPECIMENS, REFLECTION OF A SPREADING BEAM CAN PRO- DUCE FALSE INDICATIONS ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW. A SHEAR WAVE MAY BE GENERATED WHICH IS REFLECTED AT A STEEP ANGLE TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE, WHERE MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE. MODE CONVERSION WILL BE DISCUSSED IN A LATER LESSON. HOWEVER, THIS TYPE OF FALSE SIGNAL WILL APPEAR ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE FIRST BACK ECHO. LONGITUDINAL WAVE, SHEAR WAVE LONGITUDINAL WAVE. FIRST BACK TRAN moUT Lecture Guide Lesson TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN LOCATING AND EVALUATING ANGULAR FLAWS. 1. CONTACT TESTING UTILIZES AN “ANGLE BEAM” TRANSDUCER WITH A PLASTIC WEDGE TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION. 2. IMMERSION TESTING USES WATER AS A COUPLANT, TILTING THE TRANS- DUCER TO ACHIEVE THE NECESSARY DIRECTIONALITY. ANGLE BEAM TRansoucer TRANSDUCER. ee ‘STIC WEDGE WATER SPECIMEN. TANK [—srecimen ‘CONTACT TESTI IMMERSION TESTING THE SHAPE OR SURFACE CONDITION OF A DISCONTINUITY INFLUENCES THE INDICATION ON THE CRT. A DISCONTINUITY HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE WILL TEND TO SCATTER THE REFLECTION AS COMPARED TO A SMOOTH FLAW. NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE TYPICALLY ROUGH AND WOULD SCATTER THE SOUND MORE THAN A CRACK-LIKE DISCONTINUITY. 87UT Lecture Guide Lesson 5, CHANGING THE TRANSDUCER'S VIBRATING FREQUENCY WILL ALSO CHANGE THE BEAM SPREAD. DIVERGENCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY. THEREFORE, A HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER HAS A MORE CONSTANT DIAMETER SOUND BEAM THAN A LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER. BEAM DIVERGENCE CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY OR BY USING A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER. THE AMOUNT OF BEAM SPREAD IS DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING EQUA- TION: eo >=] SINO = 1.22 —_—r WHERE = WAVELENGTH D= DIAMETER HALF-ANGLE OF BEAM SPREAD TO. HALF-POWER POINTS p—naLr POWER POINT (.707 OF INTENSITY) THE BEAM SPREAD OF A 14/2 INCH fie DIAMETER, 1 MHz TRANSDUCER IS SHOWN TO BE 34 DEGREES. REMEMBER THAT WAVELENGTH ( ) ) 1S DETERMINED BY DIVIDING THE VELOCITY BY THE FREQUENCY. TO CHANGE INCHES TO CENTIMETERS, MULTIPLY BY 2.54. SECONDARY [a ae 59Key Name. UT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Understanding “Beam Spread” will help point out the importance of selecting the proper tr quency and size transducer. The length of the ultrasonic wave and the diameter of the trans- ducer are often critical in the determination of flaw size and location. B. Using the information given below, determine the “Beam Spread’ for the conditions listed. (a) Velocity in steel = .585 x 10° cmisec (b) Velocity in aluminum = .625 x 10" cm/sec (©) One Inch = 2.54 centimeters (0) Wavelengtn( ) = —Velocity_ — Frequency he (9) Sing = 1.22 £1. 1. What would be the beam spread using a 1" diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer on an alumi: um test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) pe tec gaara. sag no son BU 2/33 Orr LZ 2. What would be the beam spread using a 1" diameter, one MHz transducer on an alumi: rum test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) Ae Bee 8 coe om whe sia fi> sas $F 2 9 x00 rune? if" 3, What would be the beam spread using a one hall inch diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer on @ test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) pe eee = Dan Wee oe sng AE = gas0 woe ry 9 possible points aUT LESSON 5 WORKSHEET #1 (continued) Tan Angle sin Cos Tan 0175 45° 7193 0947 1.0355 0349 a7 7314 16820 1.0724 0524 48° 7431 6691 1.1108 0699 ao" 7547 6561 1.1508 0875 50° 7660 6428 1.1918 1051 51 am 6293 1.2349 11228 52° 7880 6157 1.2799 1405 53° 7986 6018 = 1.3270 1584 54 8090 5878 1.3764 1763 55° 8192 ‘S736 1.4281 1944 56° 8290 5592 (1.4826 2128 57° 8387 ‘5486 1.5999 2309 58° 8480 ‘5299 1.6013 2493 59° 8572 ‘5150 «1.6643 2679 60° 8660 5000 1.7321 2067 61 8746 4848 1.8040 3087 62" 8829 14895 1.8807 3249 63° 8910 4540 1.9626 3443 6a" 8988 4384 2.0503 3640 65° 9083 A226 2.1485, 3838 66° 9135 4087 2.24860 4040 67" 9205 3907 2.559 4245 ee 9272 ‘3748 2.4751 4452 69° 9336 (9584 = 2.6051 4663 70° 9397 342000 2.7475 4877 mt 9455 3258 2.9042 5095, 72° 9511 3080 3.0777 5317 73° 19563 12924 © -3.2709 5543 7a" 9613 (2757 = 3.4874 ‘S774 75° 9659 2588 3.7321 .8008 76° 9703 2419 4.0108 6249 me 9748 2250 4.3315 8494 78° 9781 2079 «4.7046 6745 79° 9816 1908 5.1446 7002 80° 9848 A738 5.6713 7285 ait 9877 1564 6.3198 7536 82° 9903 1199202 7.1154 7813 83° 9925 1219 8.1443 8098 Bat 9945 9.5144 8391 85° 9962 x 11.4301 ay 6561 7547 8693 86° 9976 0898 = 14.3007 ar 6691 7431 9004 ar 9986 0523 19.0811 8820 7314 9325, aa* 9904 0349 28.6363 0947 7193 9857 89° 9998 0175 57.2900 45° 7071 7071 4.0000 90° 1.0000 0000Lesson6 ATTENUATION, ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE, AND RESONANCE AS SHOWN BELOW, A BEAM OF SOUND ENERGY WILL SPREAD OUT (DIVERGE) AS IT MOVES THROUGH THE SPECIMEN, AND THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DE- CREASES WITH DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER AND AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF THE BEAM. SPECIMEN NEAR ZONE TRANSDUCER FOR A GIVEN SIZE TRANSDUCER: HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS PRODUCE NARROWER SOUND BEAMS THAN LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS. FOR THE PURPOSE OF ILLUSTRATION, ULTRASONIC SOUND CAN BE VIEWED AS A NARROW CONE-SHAPED BEAM WHICH IS DIVIDED INTO TWO ZONES. THE INTENSITY IN THE NEAR ZONE VARIES IRREGULARLY DUE TO SOUND WAVE INTERACTION CLOSE TO THE TRANSDUCER. THIS PREVENTS RELIABLE DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. IN THE FAR ZONE, THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DECREASES STEADILY DUE TO BOTH ATTENUATION AND BEAM SPREAD. ae SPECIMEN (MATERIAL) ‘TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER (TRANSMITTER) “ae » ~X (RECEWER THE INTENSITY AT POINT “Y" ABOVE IS LESS THAN AT POINT “X". ATTENUA- TION IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THIS CONDITION OF ENERGY LOSS. AT- TENUATION MEANS THE PROCESS OF LESSENING THE AMOUNT. THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ATTENUATION ARE ABSORPTION AND SCATTER- ING OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY. 60UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 IF ACOUSTIC ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED INTO TWO PIECES OF PERFECTLY BONDED IDENTICAL STEEL, WE FIND THE SOUND HAS THE SAME VELOCITY THROUGH BOTH, WITH AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF 1 TO 1. STEEL STEEL ‘TRANSDUCER ey ‘SOUND BEAM ——— | —— eas VELOCITY REMAINS CONSTANT AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF ANYTHING LESS OR GREATER THAN 1 TO 11S LESS THAN IDEAL. AS SHOWN BELOW A LARGE PORTION OF THE SOUND BEAM FROM A WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE WILL REFLECT BACK TOWARDS THE TRANSDUCER AND NEVER ENTER THE PART. —————oooeeeeeeeee Ny ‘TRANSDUCER, ‘SOUND BEAM SJ STEEL TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH OF THE ENERGY IS REFLECTED YOU CAN USE THE FOLLOWING FORMULA: z-2 ¥ REFLECTION FACTOR (R) = (a 2 + Zo Z = ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE IN THE ILLUSTRATION ABOVE, HOW MUCH OF THE SOUND ENERGY IS RE- FLECTED FROM THE WATER TO STEEL INTERFACE? \2 2 (1318 = ( 4-411 \> 66 PERCENT REFLECTED 4,56 + .149 4,709UT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 ULTRASONIC UNITS USING THE PRINCIPLE OF RESONANCE WERE COMMONLY USED FOR THICKNESS MEASUREMENT AND BOND OR LAMINATION INSPEC- TION. HOWEVER, PULSE-ECHO UNITS HAVE BEEN REFINED TO PERFORM MOST OF THESE FUNCTIONS AND RESONANT INSTRUMENTS ARE RARELY USED. RESONANCE OCCURS WHEN THE MATERIAL THICKNESS IS EQUAL TO A HALF- WAVELENGTH OR EXACT MULTIPLES. THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED BY VARYING THE FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY IS THE LOWEST FREQUENCY AT WHICH A SPECIMEN WILL RESONATE. HARMONICS ARE EXACT MULTIPLES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL (MINIMUM) RESO- NANT FREQUENCY. THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY CAN BE FOUND BY: v Fe MATERIAL, 4g FE v T “Ke FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE THICKNESS OF MATERIAL co TRANSDUCER. ——! "Re DISCONTINUITY AS SHOWN ABOVE IN “A", THE FREQUENCY HAS BEEN ADJUSTED UNTIL A STANDING WAVE “RESONANCE” HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED. IF THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED TO POSITION “B", THE MATERIAL WILL STOP RESONATING UNTIL THE FREQUENCY (WAVELENGTH) IS ADJUSTED TO AGAIN ESTABLISH RESONANCE AS SHOWN.Name UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #1 ‘A. Using the information given below, solve the problems relating to “reflection factors.” . The chart below lists the common Impedance values. (IMPEDANCE = VELOCITY X DENSITY) IMPEDANCE veLociTY DexsiTy. wcraureu? = seer | tcursecr | ccram/cu?? an 0.000033 x10" | 0.23x 10° warer 0.149 x 10" 1anx ae? aan araxist s.asxa0? see asexict $.15 x08 2-2, \* ©. Reflection factor = (—} 2, + 2 2 = Acoustic Impedance te aN ~Z2. +. wnat percentage of the original sound eneray willbe retiected back to the probe at the water to aluminum interface? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) tute), 22)" 3 V4, (DELTA —£2 2. What percentage of the original sound energy will finally enter the water on Its way back to the transducer from the back surtace of the aluminum part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) ‘Only consider the reflection factors, do not consider the normal attenuation that would ‘occur in the material Itsel 7/22 of remamag 297, 7 2067, whith is reflected up rom th beifem servace ° 20.6 Me Bb Me which és re Heched Pn eB remorain beck dawn frm the hp wurtise, feauiay anly C2 entering Ha 20 6Key Name. UT LESSON 6 WORKSHEET #11 (continued) 1d for bond detects. One material has a thickness of 0.3 Inch. ce of 5.0 x 10" pramicm- second and the other material is 4.0 Inches thick and has an acoustic Impedance of 4.5 x 10' gramicm* - second. *If the bond Is perfect and acceptable, what percentage of sound would you expect to be reflected from the interface? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts) f= are Gé)" GY ZH/EK 4, Would you inspect the bonded material through the thick side or through the thin side? Why? (2018) Wear Zene Prob lems 5. On the CRT screen below, using a5 inch screen range, sketch the approximat location and amplitude of the pips from an acceptable bond condition. (2 pts) oT I | Total) thickness 4.3" wp lnterface 4.0" (27 i ! $3 fit f° gE [its au gene eee | ieee ' ! I 7 +t t should be less than 20% for adequate bond inspection. 13 por ible points