A: Decline of the Mughal Empire.. 1.1 The Later Mughals and Process of decline ery 1.1.1 The Reign of Bahadur Shah/Shah Alam (1707-1712 AD). 1.1.2 The Reign of Jahandar Shah (1712- 113 1.1.4 The Reign of Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) (1719-1748 AD)... 1.1.5 The Reign of Ahmad Shah (1748- 1757 AD) 1.1.6 The Reign of Alamgir (1754-1759 AD). 1.1.7 The Reign of Shah Alam/Ali Gauhar (1759-1806 AD) 1.1.8 The Reign of Akbar Il (1806-1837 1.1.9 The Reign ofBahadur Shah li/Zafar (1837-1857 AD) 1.2 Reasons for the Decline of Mughal Empire 7 1.2.1 Theories and Views about the Decline of Mughal Empire ssn. 11 Emergence of Regional states... 2.1 Successor States... 2.4.1 Hyderabad... 2.1.2 Bengal 2.1.3 Awadh. 2.2' Rebel States: 2.2.41 Sikh state "2.2.2 Rohillas and Bangash Pathar 2.2.3. Thelats: 2.2.4 Marathas. 2.3. Independent States.. 2.3.2 Kerala 2.3.2 Mysore Table of Contents 2.4 Social and Economic Conditions During 3. Advent of Europeans .. 3a 32 33 3.4 35 3.6 37 18" Century 2.4.1 Agriculture 2.4.2 Trade 2.4.3 Education... 2.4.4 Social and Cultural Life 2.8.5. The Family system 2.4.6 Art, Culture and Architecture, 2.4.7 Literature 2.4.8 Science. Beginning of European settlements., The Portuguese 3.2.1 Portuguese Imperial Officers... 3.2.2 Favourable Conditions for Portuguese in In 3.2.3 Portuguese Administration in India and their settlement .-resene38 3.2.4 Dealing with Mughals and Decline of Portuguese The Dutch cm 3.3.1 Dutch Settlements in India. 3.3.2 Decline of the Dutch in India... The English 3.4.1 Growth of East India Com} Trade (1600-1744) «. 3.4.2 3.4.3 India Company The French.. 3.5.1 Expansion and. 3.5.2 Anglo-French The Danes. Reason of Success of European Powers...4, British Conquest of India (1756-1857) an 42 43 4a 4s 46 Conquest of Bengal. 4.1.1 Rise of Brtishers in Bengal 4.12 Fall of Bengal 4.13. The Battle of Plassey... 4.14 Aftermath Battle of Plassey... 4.1.5. Mir Kasim and the East India ‘Company. ‘The Battle of Buxar (1764) 416 Company's Struggle for Supremacy. 4.2.1 Characteristics of Company's Annexation (1757-1857) Conquest of Mysore.. 43.1 _Anglo-Mysore Wars.. Conquest of Marathas.... 4.4.1 Political Scenario of Marathas 44.2 Anglo-Maratha wars, 162 Conquest of Sindh... Conquest of Punjab. 4.6.1 Anglo-Sikh Wars 5. Structure of Government and Economic Policies of the British Empire (1757-1857).. 67 5a 52 53 54 Structure of Government under Company Raj 68 Constitutional Developments under Company Raj.. vse 69 Regulating Act (1773). Pitt’s India Act (1784) . Charter Act (1793) Charter Act (1813) Charter Act (1833) Charter Act (1853) British Economic Policy .. ‘Commercial Policy.. 5.4.1 1600 to 1757. 54.2 1757-1813.» 5.4.3 Industrial Revolution 5.44 Drain of Wealth.. 5.45 Development of Means of Transport and Communication. zt 5.5 Land Revenue Policy 5.5.1 The Permanent Settlement, 5.5.2 The Ryotwari Settlement .. 5.5.3. The Mahalwari Settlement 83 Administrative Organization Under British Rul 61 British Administration in India 611 612 Civil Services. Army: 6.13. Police 6.1.4 Judicial organization 6.15 Social, cultural & education policy under british rule. 93 Development of means of transport ‘and communication, 6.16 Social Reform Movements... 7 Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reforms 98 7.1.1 Impact of British Rule.. 7.4.2 _ Social Conditions promoted reforms 98. 7.2 Method and Scope of ReformS.rinnnns 100 7.24 Scope of the Reforms..nmnnnn 100 7.2.2 Methods of Reforms. 100 7.3. Types of Reform Movements sannnnne 100 7.4 Reforms in Eastern India 101 7.4.1 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo ‘Samaj 7.4.2 Later Brahmo Samaj... Reform movement under pandit ishwar chandra vidyasagat rn 104 Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio.. 105 ‘The Ramakrishna Movement and ‘Swami Vivekananda 7.4.6 Dharma Sabha... Reforms in Western India. 784 744 18 Bal Shastri Jambhekar (1812-1846)7.5.3 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1 7.5.4 Gopalhari Deshmukh “Lokahitawadi'(1823-1892) Prarthana Samaj. Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) 110 7.5.7 The Servant Society of india .....110 75.8 Social Service League.. 11 7.6 Reforms Movement in south India... 112 7.6.1 Kandukari Veeresalingam (1848- 1919). 7.6.2 Sree Narayana Guru .. 7.6.3 Self-Respect Movement. 12 112 7.6.4 Temple Entry Movement .. 7.6.5 Justice Movement 7.7 Reform by the Parsis 115 77-1 Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha .115 7.7.2 Seva Sadan. 115 7.8 Sikh Reform Movements.. 116 7.8.1 Singh Sabha Movement. 116 7.8.2. Akali Movement (Gurudwara Reform Movement). 116 7.9 Reform movement in North India .....117 7.9.1 Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 117 7.92 DevSamaj.. 219 7.19. Reform Movement among Muslims... 120 7.10.1. Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 7.10.2 Faraizi Movement. 7.10.3 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement. 7.10.4 Titu Mir’s Movement 7.10.5 Ahmadiyya Movement... 7.10.6 Deoband School... 7.11, Other Reform Movements... 7.11.1 The Theosophical Movement. 7.41.2 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala...124 7.41.3 Indian Social Conference ...co.124 7.12 Significance of the Reform Movements 124 7.13. Limitations of the Movements, 125 Revolt of 1857 and Administrative Changes Alter 1858.. tae 841 Sepoy Mutinies Before the Great Revolt of 1857... 8.1.1 Significant sepoy mutinies.. 8.1.2 Causes of uprisings. 82 Revolt of 1857. 8.2.1 Major causes. 8.2.2 The Beginning Of The Revolt, 82.3 The epicenters of the revolt.....133, 8.2.4 Suppression of the revolt unu.134 8.25 Reasons for failure of the revolt. 135 83 Concluding Remarks... Relationship of British India with Neighbouring Countries. $.1 _Anglo-Burmese Relations... 9.1.1 First Burma War (1824-26), 9.1.2 Second Anglo-Burma War (1852) 9.1.3. Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) 9.2 9.3 Anglo-Bhutanese Relation: 9.4 Anglo-Afghan Relations.. 94.1 1143 irst Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) 144 9.4.2 Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870- 80). 3.5 Anglo-Tibetan Relationship. 9.6 British India and the North-West Frontier ivil Rebellions and T 10.6.1 Factors Behind Uprisings . 10.1. Civil Rebellions. 10.1.1 Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 149 10.1.2 Important Civil Uprisings. 10.2 Concluding Remarks. 10.3 Tribal Uprising. 103.1. Classification of Tribal Revolts 158i. 2, 10.3.2 Characteristics of the Tribal Revolts 158 10.4 Categorization of Various Movements by Their Reasons venues 159 10.4.1. Tribal Movements of Maintand..159 104.2 Tribal Revolts of North East. 10.5 Concluding Remark Peasant Movements and Uprisings Before snes 166 11.1 Factors that Caused Peasant Movements 167 11.1.1 Stagnation and deterioration of Agriculture sn 167 11.1.2 Commercialization of Agriculture 168 11.1.3 impoverishment of Peasantry....169 11.2 Characteristics of Peasant Movements In Indic 169 11.21 Pre 185: 169 11.2.2 Post 1857... cana 170, 11.3 Peasant Movements before 1857... 172 11.3.1. Narkelberia Uprising (1782-1831) aoe a7 11.3.2 Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857) ......171 11.3.3 Pagal Panthis (1825 to 1835).....172 11.3.4 Uprisings/ (1836-1854 & 11.4 11.4.1 Indigo Revolt (1859-60) 11.42 Pabna Agrarian Leagues (1870s-1880s) 11.4.3. Deccan Riots 1870s. 174, 11,5. Analysis of the Peasant Movements... 175 Growth of Nationalism and Foundation of Congress. 176 12.1. Factors Responsible for Growth of ‘Modern Nationalism.. 7 12.1.1 Administrative Unification of The Country. 177 12.1.2. Economic Unification of the Country 7 12.1.3 Assimilation of modern Western Ideas . Role of English language. Role of Press and Literature. Rediscovery of india’s Pas. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 178 121.4 12.4.5 12.1.6 12.4.7 1218 12.1.9. Global Impact of Contemporary Movements... 12.1.10 Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers 122 Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress. 1221 179 Political Organizations in Bengal 179 Political Associations in Bombay 180 Political Association in Madras .181 Political Associations in London.181 12.3 The Indian National Congress (Inc) 12.3.1 Foundation of the Indian National Congress... 81 12.3.2 Aims and Objectives of The Indian National Congress. 181 12.3.3. Importance of Indian National CoNgrESS nnn 182 12.4 Phases of National Movement «sus 182 12.5. The Phase of the Moderates (1885-1905) 183 1251 ‘Moderate Approach 183 125.2 Contributions of Moderate Nationalist 183 125.3. Evaluation of the Early Nationalists eo 125.4 Role of Masses in the Moderate Phase 12.5.5 Attitude of the Government 13. The Growth of Militant Nationalism and ‘Swadeshi Movement (1903-1909). 13.1. Phase of Militant Nationalism. 13.1.1 Existence of Militant Nationalist School of ThOUghE wenssnnnsnne BT 13.1.2. Growth of Militant Nationalism. 187 186 18713.2. The Partition of Bengal. 13.2.1. Official Reason for Partition. 13.2.2 Real Motive behind the Partition 13.23 13.2.4 Effect of Partition on people. 13.2.5. Anti-Partition Campaign .. 13.2.6 Characteristics of Swadeshi Movement ... 13.2.7 Extent of Swadeshi Movement ..193 13.2.8 Annulment of Partition 194 13.2.9 Evaluation of Swadeshi Movement 195 14. The Split in the Congress and the Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism 14.1. Surat Split (1907) . 14.1.1 Aftermath of Surat Splits. 199 14.2 Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism wv... 201 442.1 First Phase (1907-1917) vnneo202 14.22 Revolutionary Activities in India 202 1423 Revolutionary Activities in Abroad é 204 197 198 14.2.4 Conspiracies... 14.2.5 Reasons for Decline of Revolutionary Activities. 205 15. World War-| and Indian Nationalism.. 45.1 Impact of World War on Indian Nationalism 15.1.1. Impact on Indian Soldiers in World War-t ssn 20B 15.1.2 Response of Nationalists to British Participation in First World War. 209 15.1.3 British Attitude During or Immediately After World War-I..209 45.2. Revolutionary Activity During The First World War 209 _ 15.2.1 North America: The Ghadar Movement .. 210 15.2.2 Europe- The Berlin Committee ..211 15.2.3 Singapore. 211 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 17, Arrival of Gandhi 7.1 17.2 The Background of The Movement , 16.1.1. Setting up of two different Leagues a sss B43, 16.1.2. Objective of the Home Rule Leagues Government Response Significance of the Home Rule Movement 16.1.5 Reasons for the downfall of the Movement by 1919 215 Lucknow Session of The Indian National Congress (1916) «rr 216 16.2.1 Significant Developments at Lucknow Session . Montague’s Statement or Montford’s Declaration of August 1917... 16.3.1 Significance of Montford’s declaration of 1917 216 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act, 1919)... 218 16.4.1. Critical Evaluation of the Reforms 218) exp eee Early experiences of Gandhi in South. Africa.. ee 2224 17.1.1. Indian Immigrants in South Africa 17.1.2. Gandhi's Arrival and Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906)... Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagrah (1906-1914) 2m 17.2.1 Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906). 17.2.2 Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration. 17.2.3. Campaign against Poll Tax.n 17.2.4 Campaign against invalidation of Indian Marriages 17.2.5. Achievement of Gandhi in South. Africa .173 Gandhi's Return to India 17.4 Rowlatt Act... 227 17.3.1 Gandhi's initial movements in India 17.4.1 Features of Rowlatt Act 17.4.2 Impact of the Act... 17,5 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, April 13, 1919 e231) 17.5.1 Outcome of Jallianwala Bagh Massacte on 1.232 17.5.2 The Hunter Committee of inquiry 0.233 18, Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Andolan (1919-22) 235 18.1. Events Leading to Non-Cooperation 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 {Khilafat Movement) . 236 18.1.1 Impact of First World War i.n-236 18.1.2 Rowlatt Act, 1919 1.236 18.1.3 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre ......237 18.1.4 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.. The Khilafat Issue. 18.2.1 Development of the Khilafat-Non- Cooperation Programme. Congress Stand on Khilafat Question .. ‘Muslim League Support to Congress 18.2.2 18.2.3 Launch of Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement...» SS 18.3.1 Calcutta to Nagpur Session .....239 Main Phases of The Non-Cooperation Movement... 18.4.2 Spread of The Movemer Variations. 18.4.3 Government Response ... Last Phase of the Movement. 18.5.1 Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal of the Movement ...243 Causes of Withdrawal 244 Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation ‘Movement. one 244 19, Peasant Movements and Nationalism (1920- 1929), 19.1 19.2 19.3 20.1 20.2 Moplah Rebellion (1921)... 19.1.1 Advent of Rebellion on... 19.1.3 Result... Bardoli Satyagraha(1928).. 19.2.4 19.2.2 19.2.3 Methods Adopted by Vallabhai Patel. 19.2.4 19.2.5 Result 19.2.6 Drawbacks of the Movement. Awadh Kisan Movement (UP) .. 19.3.1. Cause of the Movement 19.3.2 Result ene 20. The Struggles for Gurudwara Reform and. Temple Entry (Gurudwara Reform). 250 Beginning of the Akali Movement... 20.1.1 Cause of The Movement 251 20.1.2 Alkali’s Role and Struggle for Sgpc ‘Temple Entry Movement 20.2.4 Introduction 20.2.2. Causes of the Movement 20.2.3. Vaikom Satyagraha 20.2.4 Methods Adopted... 20.2.5. Enthusiasm Developed for 20.2.6 20.2.7 20.2.8 Kerala Temple Entry Observ Scuffle between Temple and Satyagrahis.. 20.2.9 New Phase of Satyagraha 20.2.10 New Transformation thro Satyagraha . 20.2.1 Outcome of the Movement 20.2.12 Drawbacks of the Mo21. Swarajist Party, Emergence of New Forces and Revolutionary Activities During 19205256 24 21.2 213 214 215 21.6 Swarajists .. 21.1.1 No Changers, Formation of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party. 257 21.2.1 No-Changers’ Arguments for Denying Council Entry. 258 ‘Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 258 Programme of Swaralist Party ...258 ‘Swarajist Activity in Councils ....258 Reasons for Decline of Swarajist Party 259 Constructive Works by No-Changers .. 260 21.3.1 Criticism of the Constructive Work Done by No-Changers.. 260 Emergence of New Forces. 264 21.4.1 Spread Of Marxist and Socialist Ideas... 264 212.2 21.23 224 2125 21.42 Activism of Indian Youth... 21.4.3 Peasants’ Agitations 21.44 Growth of Trade U 21.45 Caste Movements. 265 Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s - 265 21.5.1. Revolutionary Acti 265 21.5.2 Government's Action Against the Revolutionaries 266 21.5.3 Bengal.. 266 Ideological Rethinking in Revolution: 5 +» 267 22. Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 271 22.6.1 Reasons Behind Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission.....272 22.6.2 Objective ff the Commission......272 22.6.3 The Simon Commission’s Recommendation: 272 22.6.4 Views of Different Sections on the Simon Commission sn 273 22.6.5 Police Repression ssw 274 22.1 23. Civil Disobedience Movement and the Round Table Conferences... 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 22.6.6 Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission Nehru Report (1928) 22.4.1 274 Recommendations of the Nehru Report, 275 Nehru Report and the Communal Dilemma.. 278 Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930)... Spread of Salt Law Disobedience2g1 Forms of Mobilization in Civil Disobedience Movement mmum.283 Extent of Mass Participation in Civil Disobedience Movement, Government's Attitude Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Comparison of Civil Disobedience Movement to Non-Cooperation Movement wn-nn Impact of Civil Disobedience Movement 23.1.10 Drawbacks of the Movement. 23.1.9 Karachi Congress Session~1931..... The Round Table Conferences 23.2.1 First Round Table Conference: 23.2.2 2nd Round Table Conference 23.2.3 3rd Round Table Conference... Civil Disobedience Resumed .. 23.3.1 People Resistance Towards Oppression by the Governt Communal Award (1932) sss 23.4.1. What Led to Communal Awai 23.4.2 23.4.3 23.4.4 23.4.5 Views on Communal Award: Compromise and Poona Pa Significance of the Poona Pa Impacts of the Poona Pact ot Depressed Classes23.5 Government of India Act, 1935 235.1 Concluding Remarks... 2A, Rise of the Left Wing... 24.1 Factors Behind Rise of LeR- Wing Groups 296 24.2 Left Wing in the Congress.. 24.2.1 Formation of Left Wing... 24.2.2 Aim of The Left Wing.. 24.2.3. Congress Socialism... | 243. Communist Movement. 298 24.3.1. Stages of Communist Movement in Indian 298 24.3.2 First Stage(1920-1928). 298 24.4 Reasons Behind Failure of Typical Communism Model .. 300 25, Debates on the Future Strategy After Civil | Disobedience Movement... 302 25.1. First Stage Debati 2203) 25.1.1 Nehru Representing a New Vision 25.2. The Second Stage Debate.. 25.2.1. Divided Opinions on Office ‘acceptance... 307 25.3 Congress Decided to fight elections... 308 25.3.1. Falzpur Session (December 1936) 6. Congress Rule in Prot 26.1 Features of the Congress Election Manifesto. 26.2 1937 Elections. 26.2.1 Formation of Congress Ministries in Provinces. eau 26.3 Congress Rule in Provinces (1937-1939) vm 311 26.3.1 Work under Congress Ministries 312 ae 26.3.2. Evaluation of Congress Rule... 314 27. Peasant Movements in the 1930s and 40s 315 27.3.1. Civil Disobedience Movement and Peasants Movement wenn 316 27.3.2 Allindia Kisan Sabha (AIKS) 0.317 Peasant Movements (1940s). 321 27.4.1 Background. 27.1.2 Tebhaga Movement (1946) . 27.4.3. Telangana Movement 1946-1948 2A ’ 323 27.2 Conferences of the All India Kisan Sabha c oe 10 323 28. The Freedom Struggle in Princely India..... 325 28.1. Condition of Princely state: 327 28.2. Influence of the National Movement . 327 28.2.1 The Political Mobilization in the Princely States. 327 28.2.2 All india States’ People’s Conference (aispc). eSB 28.2.3. Demand for Responsible Democratic Government in the Princely States. Congress Policy Towards Princely States 329 328 28.3 28.3.1 Policy of Non-Interference... 28.3.2 Change in Congress Policy. The Process of Integration. 28.4.1 Struggle in Rajkot 28.4.2 Struggle in Hyderabad 28.5. Evaluation of Strugg 28.4 29, Nationalist Response in the Wake of 29.1 Congress Crisis on Method of Str 29.1.1 Gandhij’s Views on Laund ‘Mass Struggle.29.2 Second World War Citta, S82 29.2.1 Response from Indian Nationalist and British Administration ..u342 29.2.2 Ramgarh Session (March 1940)..344 August Offer (1940), 344 29.3.1 Major Proposals in the August Offer 344 345 Individual Satyagraha. 345 29.4.1 Objectives of Individual Satyagraha Z 345 29.4.2 Method of Individual Satyagraha 29.3 29.3.2 Responses for August Offer.. 29.4.3 Start and End of Satyagraha... Cripps Mission (March 1942} 29.5.1 Reasons behind Arrival of Cripps Mission 29.5 29.5.2 29.5.3 Cripps Proposal . Responses to the Cripps Proposals 347 Reasons Behind Failure of Cripps Mis 29.5.4 347 30. Quit India Movement, INA and Post War ‘National Scenari ++ 350 30.1 Congress Meet at Wardha 351 30.2 Quit India Resolution 351 30.3 Quit India Movement aie 351 30.3.1. Spread of the Movement .usn-352 30.3.2 Responses and Trends in the Movement .. ser Government Repression svnru.354 Release of Gandhi. snes 385 Rajaji’s Proposals and the Wavell Plan 355, 30.4.1 Desai-liaquat Pact. 356 30.4.2 Wavell Plan: Shimla Conference. 356 Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army)358 1 Foundation of the First INA... 358 2 Subhash Chandra Bose and INA.358 eal 353 359 30.5 30.6 Post-War National Scenario. 30.6.1 Power shifting in Brital Controversy over the ‘Grouping Clause? ‘Objection, Acceptance and Rejection of Cabinet Missior Direct Action Day... Interim Government 30.7.3 30.7.4 30.8 30.9 Constituent Assembly... 31. Independence and Partition. 31.1 Attlee’s Statement 31.1.1 Major Features of Attlee’s Statement .. 31.1.2 Congress and Muslim League Stand 373 31.2, Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) san. 373 31.2.1 Major Points of the Plan. 374 31.2.2 Implementation of the ‘Mountbatten Plan 37 31.3 Congress and Partition snninmnnemne 3H 31.4 Integration of Princely States «nnn 37 31.5 Massacres that companied Partition 3 31.6 Critical events from 1909 to 1947 leadi to Partition a 31.7 Birth and Spread of Communatism in India... 31.7.1 Reasons for Growth of Communalism... 31.8 Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory. 32. Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial Developments 32.1 The Crown Rule (1858-1947) 32.1.1 Government of India Act of 32.1.2. Indian Councils Act, 21862 ===322 323 324 325 32.13. Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley- Minto Reforms) 1385, ‘Government of india Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) 387 Simon Commission. 3244 3245 32.1.6 32.1.7. Government of India Act, 1935,.389 32.1.8 Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) ....391 Evolution of the Civil Services in India 391 322.1 Civil Services Under the East India Company 1391 32.2.2 Imperial Civil Service (1858-1917) 393 32.23. Civil Services under the Government of India Acts, 1919 ‘And 193! Evolution of Judiciary in British India. 395 32.3.1 Judiciary in Pre-Colonial Era. 32.32 Judiciary under British ... ‘Administration Changes after 1857... 397 32.4.1 The New Administrative Set Up.397 32.4.2 Imperial Legislative Council. 3243 Provincial Ad 3244 Local Bodies. 32.4.5 Mayo's Resolution (1870) 32.4.6 Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 32.4.7. Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908) 324.8. The Resolution of May 1918 32.4.9 Under Dyarchy.. 32.4.10 The Government of India Act, 1935 ‘And After... semen 00 Police System. 325.1 Role of Comwalis. 32.5.2 Role of Mayo in Police System...401 325.3. Role of Bentick in Police System 401 32.5.4 Police Commission (1860) .......401 32.5.5 Indian Police Act, 1861 .nnn-402 325.6 Andrew Frazer Police Commission (1902) sno oe 42 33, Development of Indian Press and Education Origin of the Press in india Censorship and Regulations .. Nationalism and the Indian Press.. 33.3.1 Vernacular Press Act, 1878 .. Later Regulations. 33.4.1 Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) ‘Act, 1908. Press and World War! & 11 33.5.1 World War! 335.2 World War I 33.1 33.2 33.3 nee 404 33.4 335 33.6 Education under Company Rule. 409 Charter Act of 1813 410 ‘Wood's Despatch on Education, 1854 412 33.6.4. Efforts of Thomson . 414 33.7 Educational Development under Crown. Rule.. 414 33.7.1. The Hunter Commission (1882)..414 33.7.2 Indian Universities Act 1904 ....415 33.7.3 Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913 .nmmen G16 33.7.4 Sadler University Commission (1917-19)... 416 Hartog Committee, 1929 unm 416 Government of India Act, 1935..417 Development of Basic Education 417 Sergeant Plan of Education (1944) 41 Evaluation of British Policy On Education = ans 33.8 34. The Working Class and National Movement. 34.1 Growth of Modern Industries and Working Class 34.1.1 Growth of Tea Company. 34.1.2, Growth of Indian Raitwa342 343 344 345 34.1.3 Growth of Cotton and Jute Mills in Indi 422 34.1.4 Growth of Working Class nnnA22 Conditions of the workers. 423 34.2.1. Working and Living Conditions 423 34.2.2 Wage condition. 424 Nationalists and the Workers in the Early 34.3.2 Analysis of the Early Efforts Nationalists and the Workers during ‘Swadeshi Upsurge. oo AS ‘Nationalists and Working Class in the Era (of Mass Nationalism .rnsmnnnnsse 426 34.5.1 Working Class Movements from 426 34.5.2 Working Class and Nationalist Movement in Late 1927 and 1937 428 345.3 Working Class and Nationalism fr0M 1937 t0 1947 semen A29 35. Miscellaneou: 35.1 35.2 353 35.4 355 35.6 357 358 Freedom Fighters and their Contrib Governors-General & Viceroys of India Important congress sessions... Indian Associations and their details, Newspapers and JOUIMAIS sree Important Books and their Authors... Power tussle between Europeans...,. Women Personalities during Freedom Struggle...DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE2 aT Mughals ruled over a large part ofthe Indian sub-continent for more than two centuries. They started expanding their kingdom from Agra and Delhi in the latter half ofthe sixteenth century, During its zenith in the seventeenth century, the ‘Mughal empire extended to nearly al of the Indian subcontinent. However, the Mughal empire had witnessed a drastic decline ints power and prestige by the first half of the eighteenth century. The political boundaries of the Empire had shrunk and the Mughal administrative structure as built by Akbar and Shah Jahan also collapsed. In the wake of the collapse of the Mughal power, a number of independent principalities emerged in all parts of the Empire. The process of decline of the Mughal Empire reveals some ofthe defects and weaknesses of India’s medieval socal, economic and political structure, \which were responsible forthe eventual subjugation cof the country by the English East India Company. THE LATER MUGHALS AND PROCESS OF DECLINE ‘Aurangazeb was considered as the last powerful Mughal emperor. After Aurangazeb’s death in 1707 tillthe formal dissolution of the Mughal empire by the British in 1857,, the Mughal empire was ruled by weak successors known as Later Mughals or Lesser Mughals. The Later Mughals Bahadur Shah/Shah Alam (1707 - 1712 AD) Jahandar Shah (1712-1713 AD) Farrukh Svar (1713-1719 AD) Rafi ud-Darajat (1719 AD) Rafi-us-Daula (1719 AD) Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) 1719 ~ 1748 AD) Ahmad Shah (1748 - 1757 AD) ‘Alamgir (1754-1759 AD) ‘Shah Alam /Ali Gauhar (1759 - 1806 AD) ‘Akbar (1806 - 1837 AD) ‘Bahadur Shah/Zafar (1837 - 1857 AD) Note: The powerful Mughal Emperors -Bab Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and ‘Aurangzeb-are popularly known as Great Mughals, ‘THE REIGN OF BAHADUR SHAH/SHAH. Ata (1707-1712 AD) After Aurangazeb’s death in 1707, there was a war of succession amongst his three sons for the ‘Mughal throne. The 65-year old Bahadur Shah the third son of Aurangazeb, emerged victorious, Coinage of Bahadur Shah 4 He issued gold, silver, and copper coins, however, his predecessors’ coinage was also used to pay government officials and in commerce. Copper coins from Aurangzeb’ reign were re-minted with Bahadur Shah's name. Bahadur Shah | was learned, dignified, and able. He followed a policy of compromise and contiliation, and there was evidence of the reversal Cf some of the policies and measures adopted by. ‘Aurangzeb. Bahadur Shah adopted a more tolerant attitude towards the Hindu chiefs and raja There was no destruction of temps in his reign. In the beginning, he made an attempt to gain greater control over the Rajput states of Amber and Marwar (Jodhpur). Bahadur Shah also made an attempt to garrison the cities of Amber and Jodhpur. This attempt was, however, met with resistance. He restored the states of Amber ad Jodhpur to the Rajas Jai Singh and Ajit Singh, But their demand for high mansabs and theo subahdars of important provinces such as Mal and Gujarat was not accepted. Bahadur Shah’s Policy towards Mal Bahadur Shah’s policy towards the sardars (chiefs) was that of half hearted con He granted Marathas the sarde: Deccan but he failed to grant them: ‘thus to satisfy them fully. He also did ‘Dsus Petonspecline of the Mughal Empire Maratha Kingdom. The result was that Shahu | and the Maratha sardars remained dissatisfied 1 leading to instability in the Deccan. There could be no restoration of peace and order so long as the Maratha sardars fought one another as well as. fought against the Mughal authority, Bahadur Shah Policy Towards Sikhs Bahadur Shah had tried to reconcile the rebellious Sikhs by making peace with Guru Gobind singh and giving him a high mansab (rank). After "the death of the Guru, the Sikhs once again raised the banner of revolt in Punjab under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. Bahadur Shah decided to take strong measures and himself led a campaign against "the rebels. Bahadur Shah succeeded in capturing Lohgath and other important Sikh strongholds but the Sikhs could not be crushed and in 1712 they recovered the fort of Lohgarh. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were the sources of income for the Marathas under the rule of Shivaji They were basically taxes. Shivaji collected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukkhi, from the adjoining territories of his ‘empire, the Mughal provinces and the territories of the Sultan of Bijapur. Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by the Marathas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue ‘of his position as Sardeshmukh. The purpose was to maintain the hereditary right of the king on tax collection processes. Sardeshmukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the hereditary Sardeshmukh of his country. THE REIGN OF JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-1713 AD) Following the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712, the Mughal Empire once again was driven to civil war and war of succession. While previously the 3 contest for power had been between royal princes, the nobles had merely aided the aspirants to the throne. However, now the ambitious nobles became direct contenders for power and used Mughal princes to capture the seats of authority. Zulfiqar Khan was the most powerful noble of the time. Jahandar Shah (one of the sons of Bahadur Shah) won the civil war because he was supported by Zulfigar Khan. Jahandar Shah was 2 weak and degenerate prince who was wholly devoted to pleasure, He lacked good manners and dignity and decency. Zulfiqar Khan became Jahandar Shah's wazir and the administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfigar Khan. Zulfigar Khan believed that it was necessary to establish friendly relations with the Rajput rajas, Hindu Chieftians and the Maratha sardars in order to strengthen his own position at the Court and to save the Empire. In this direction, he took the following major steps: * _Jizya taxwas abolished. © Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of Mirza Raja Sawai and was made the Governor of Malwa. * Ajit Singh of Marwar was awarded the title of Maharaja and was made the Governor of Gujarat. * + The Maratha rulerwas granted the chauthand sardeshmukhi of the Deccan on the condition that these collections would be made by the Mughal officials and then handed over to the Maratha officials. a + He conciliated Churaman Jat and Chi Bundela + Note: Only towards Banda and theijerah ot revenue Farming: Under this system, Instead of collecting land revenue at a fixed rate 4 under Todar Mal’ land revenue settlement, the Mughal Government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the Government 2 fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants. It was started by Jahandar ‘Shal Bengal. Here, revenue collection rights were granted to the highest bidders. Unlike the Zamindari system, here ljarah did not have any proprietary rights Thisledtoincreased oppression of the peasants. ‘THE REIGN OF FARRUKH SIYAR (1713-1719 AD) Jahandar Shah's reign ended when he was defeated by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra in 1713. He ascended to the throne with the assistance of the Sayyid brothers-Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi). The Sayyid brothers soon acquired dominant control over the affairs of the Mughal administration. Actions of Sayyid Brothers Religious Tolerance: The Sayyid brothers adopted the policy of religious tolerance. They believed that India could be ruled harmoniously only by associating Hindu chiefs and nobles with the ‘Muslim nobles in governing the country They also abolished the jizyah immediately after Farrukh Siyar’s accession tothe throne. The pilgrim. tax was also abolished from a number of places. Policy towards other powers: Salyid Brothers tried using the Rajputs, the Marathas, and the Jats in their strugele against Farrukh Siyar and the rival nobles. Salyid Brothers won over to their side Ajit Singh ‘of Marwar, Jai Singh of Amber, and many other Rajput princes by giving them high positions of influence in the administration, They reached an agreement with King Shahu by granting him the swarajya (of Shivaji) and the right toccollect the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six Modern Histo mounted soldiers a Sayyid brothers wanted to exercise persona} authority. The Sayyid brothers were convinced th Mughal administration could be carried on proper the decay of the Empire checked, and their own: position safeguarded only if they wielded real authority and the Emperor (Farrukh Siyar) merely reigned without ruling, This resulted in prolonged struggle for power between the Emperor Farrukh and Sayyid Brothers. In 1719, the Sayyid brothers deposed and killed Farrukh Siyar. Note: In Farrukh Siyar’s place Sayyid Brothers raised to the throne in quick succession: * Rafi-us-Darajat (1719 AD): Within four months of ascending to the throne, he died due to excessive consumption. Rafi-us-Daula (1719 AD): He ruled the Mughal empire for three months with the title of ‘Shah Jahan IV. He died of Tuberculosis. The Saiyid brothers now made the 18-yearold Muhammad Shah the Emperor of India. THE REIGN OF MUHAMMAD SHAH (RANGEELA) (1719-1748 AD) The three successors of Farrukh Siyar Were mere puppets in the hands of the Sayyid. their personal liberty to meet people andt around was restricted. Thus, from 17; when they were overthrown, the wielded the administrative power oft When the Muhammad Shah’s ‘© study 1aPublstionspecline of the Mughal Empire ri “tosave the Mughal Empire from deteriorating. ‘Assassination of Salyid Brothers ——e—“—V—CV“C§vcOorore saiyid Brothers faced constant political rivalry, quarrels, and conspiracies at the court. The financial position of the state deteriorated rapidly 4s zamindars and rebellious elements refused to pay land revenue, officials misappropriated state revenues, and central income declined because of the spread of revenue farming. As a result, the salaries of the officials and soldiers could ‘not be paid regularly and the soldiers became indiscipline and even mutinous. Even though the Saiyid brothers had tried hard to conciliate and befriend all sections of the nobility, a powerful group of nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and ‘Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against Saiyid Brothers. These nobles were jealous of the growing power of the Saiyid brothers. The deposition and murder ‘of Farrukh Siyar frightened many of them: if the Emperor could be, killed, what safety was there for mere nobles? Moreover, the murder of the Emperor Farrukh Siyar created a wave of public revulsion against the two brothers. They were looked down upon as traitors-persons who had ‘Not been ‘true to their salt’ (namak haram). Many ‘of the nobles of Aurangzeb’s reign also disliked the Saiyid alliance with the Rajput and the Maratha chiefs and their liberal policy towards the Hindus. These nobles declared that the Salyid brothers were following anti-Mughal and anti-Islamic Policies, The nobles tried to arouse the fanatical Sections of the Muslim nobility against the Saiyid brothers, The anti-Saiyid nobles were supported by Emperor Muhammad Shah who wanted to free himself from the control of the two brothers. In 1720, | they succeeded in treacherously assassinating Husain Ali Khan, the younger of the two brothers, ‘Abdullah Khan tried to fight back but was defeated ‘ear Agra. Thus ended the domination of the ‘Mughal Empire by the Saiyid brothers known in Indian history as ‘king makers. against his own ministers. He even shared in the taken by his courtiers. Thus, he was unable Break-up of the Mughal Empire Nizum-ul-Mulk (the most powerful noble of the time) became the wazir in 1722 in the Mughal administration and had made a vigorous attempt to reform the administration. However, he was frustrated with the fickle-mindedness and the constant quarrels at the Mughal court. Therefore, he decided to follow his own ambition. He relinquished his office in October 1724 and marched towards the south of the Mughal empire to find the state of Hyderabad. The physical break- Up of the Mughal Empire had begun. As a result, the other powerful and ambitious nobles also now began to utilize their power for carving out semi-independent states. Hereditary nawabs owing nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor at Delhi arose in many parts of the country, for example, in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh, and the Punjab. Everywhere petty zamindars, rajas and nawabs raised the banner of rebellion and independence. The Maratha sardars began their northern expansion and overran Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand. Nadir Shah Invasion In 1738-1739, Nadir Shah invaded northern India. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by the fabulous wealth. The visible weakness of the Mughal Empire gave Nadir Shah an opportunity to invade India. He entered Indian Territory towards the end of 1738, without meeting with any opposition. He occupied Lahore. At this time preparations were made by the Mughals for the defence of Delhi, but the faction- ridden Mughal nobles refused to unite even in sight of the enemy. The nobles could not agree ona plan. for defence or on the commander of the defending forces. ae The armies of Nadir shah and Mughal met at Karnal on 13th February 1739 and the Mu ‘Shah was taken prisoner and Nadir Shal on to Delhi, He compelled Muhami of the river Indus, © Susy 1 PublicationsNadir Shah took possession of the royal treasury and other royal property, levied tribute on the leading nobles, and plundered the rich of Delhi. * He also carried away the famous Koh-i-nur mond and the jewel-studded Peacock Throne of Shahjahan. Nadir Shah's invasion inflicted immense damage on the Mughal Empire. It caused an irreparable Joss of prestige and exposed the hidden weakness ‘of the Mughal Empire to the Maratha sardars ‘and the foreign trading companies. The invasion ruined imperial finances and adversely affected the economiclife of the country. The impoverished nobles began to rack-rent and oppress the peasantry even more in an effort to recover their Jost fortunes. They also fought one another over rich jagirs and high offices more desperately than ever. The loss of Kabul and the areas to the west of the Indus once again opened the Empire to the threzt of invasions from the North-West. A vital line of defence was disappeared (North Western defence of Mughal Empire). Who was Nadir Shah? In the beginning of the 18th century Persia (a powerful and far-flung Empire), was under the ‘weak rule of the declining Safavi dynasty. Persia ‘was threatened by internal rebellions and foreign attacks. In the east, the Abdali tribesmen revolted and occupied Herat and the Ghalzai tribesmen detatched the province of Qandahar. Similar revolts occurred in the north and west. In Shirvan, feligious persecution of the Sunnis by fanatical Shias led to rebellion. In 1721, the Ghalzai chief of Qandahar, Mahmud, invaded Persia and ‘occupied Isfahan, the capital of Persia. ‘Also, Russia under Peter the Great began his invasion of Persia in July 1722 and soon forced Persia to sign away several of her provinces onthe Caspian Sea, including the town of Baku. {In the 1723, Turkey declared war on Persia. In June 1724, Russia and Turkey signed a treaty dividing all northern and most of western Persia between them, At this stage, in 1726, Nadir Shah ¢ major supporter. In 1729, Nadir won after defeating the Abdalis and Ghalzais from Isfahan and central and so Persia. After long and bitter warfare, he cor Turkey to give back all conquered territ 1735, Nadir Shah signed a treaty with Rt receiving back all seized territory. Next yea deposed the last of the Safavi rulers and mi himself the Shah of Persia. in the following. he reconquered the province of Qandahar. THE REIGN OF AHMAD SHAH (1748-1757 AD After the death of Muhammad Shah Rangeel in 1748, his son Ahmed Shah became the Mugh: emperor. The administrative weakness of Ahmad Shah led to the rise of his wazir Imad-ul-Mull Supported by the Marathas, Imad-ul-Mulk blinded and imprisoned the emperor Ahmad Shah in 175 The Emperor spent the remaining years of his lif in prison and died of a natural causes in 1775. Ahmad Shah Abdali invasions After Muhammad Shah’s death in 1748, bitter struggles and even civil war broke out amo nobles. Furthermore, as a result of the weakeni of the north-western defenses, the Mughal Empit was devastated by the repeated invasions ¢ Ahmed Shah Abdali, one of Nadir Shah's abl generals. Abdali invaded and plundered northel India right down to Delhi and Mathura b 1748 and 1767. In 1761, Abdali defeated Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat at gave a big blow to Marathas ambition of the Mughal Emperor and thereby domi country. THE REIGN OF ALAMGIR (1754-1759 AD) Alamgir Il was the son of Jahandar Shah. was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk after deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur in 1754. Ala! Il_ was a weak ruler, with all powers vested in © study 10 Publicationspeciine of the Mughal Empire "hand of his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk; During his reign Marathas became more powerful because of their colaboration with Imad- ul:Mulk and dominated the whole of northern India. Alamgir Il was murdered by Imad-ul-Mulk in 1759 due to feud for power. Note: Shah Jahan Ill was placed on the Mughal throne in December 1759 and was later deposed by Maratha chiefs ‘THE REIGN OF SHAH ALAM/ALI GAUHAR. (1759-1806 AD) Shah Alam Il, born as Gauhar, was the son of Alamgir Il. Shah Alam ll, ascended the throne 1759. He spent the initial years as an Emperor wandering from place to place far away from his capital. He was 2 man of some ability and ample courage. But the Empire was by now beyond redemption. Some of the major events took place during his reign are: + The Third battle of Panipat(1761) and the Battle cof Buxar(1764) took place during his reign. * An Afghan, Gulam Qader, blinded Shah Alam in 1788. * The British, not yet strong enough to claim sovereignty on their own, kept Shah Alam as a Puppet till his death in 1805. Mughal Empire cease to exist in practice as an all-india Empire As a result of the invasions of Nadir Shah and Abdali and the internal feuds of the Mughal nobility, the Mughal Empire had by 1761 ceased to exist in practice as an all-India Empire. It remained merely as the Kingdom of Delhi. The descendants of the Mughals no longer participated actively in the struggle for the Empire of India but the various Contenders for power found it politically useful to hide behind their name. tn 1764, Shah Alam II joined Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadhin declaring War upon the English East India Company (Battle "of Buxar). Shah Alam Il was defeated by the British atthe Battle of Buxar. He lived for several years at Allahabad as a pensioner of the East India Company. He left the British shelter in 1772 and returned to Delhi under the protective arm of the Marathas. The British occupied Delhi in 1803 and from that year til 1857, the Mughal Emperors merely served 5 a political front for the English. THE REIGN OF AKBAR II (1806-1837 AD) ‘Akbar Il, the second son of Shah Alam Il, ascended the throne in 1806, Asa Mughal emperor, he had little de facto power due to the increasing British influence in India through the East India Company. + Hesent Raja Ram Mohan Royasanambassador to Britain and gave him the title of Raja, + During his regime, in 1835, the East India Company discontinued calling itself subject of the Mughal Emperor and issuing coins in his name. + Akbar Il is credited with starting the Hindu- Muslim unity festival Pho! Walon Ki Sai. + His grave lies next to the dargah of 13th- century Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki at Mehrauli THE REIGN OFBAHADUR SHAH II/ZAFAR (1837-1857 AD) Bahadur Shah Zafar, the son of emperor Akbar Il, ascended the Mughal throne in 1837 at the age of 62. He was the last Mughal emperor and was ‘a mere pensioner of the East India Company . He was declared as the leader of the 1857 revolt by ‘the rebels. On 27 January 1858, in Red Fort, the trial of Bahadur Shah Zafar began on the charges of rebellion, treason and murder. The 83 years old Zafar was convicted and exiled to Rangoon wher he lived till his death in 1862, Thus, the Mughal empire had formally ceased to exist. REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE Themighty Mughal Empire established by’ flourished for more than a century, but di (© study 1 Publicationsthe later half of seventeenth century elements of stress and strain were visible in the structure of the Mughal empire. It was no longer strong and effective and by the middle of the eighteenth century the empire was left only in the name. THEORIES AND VIEWS ABOUT THE DECLINE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE Sir Jadunath Sarkar criticized the reign of Aurangzeb for the decline of the Mughal Empire. ‘Aurangzeb’s religious and Deccan policies ‘contributed to the empire's decline. + Religious Policy: + He alienated Rajputs from the structure of the Mughal Empire. His failure to respect the sensitivities of his non-Muslim subjects/sentiments on numerous occasions. His policy resulted in the destruction of many temples and the reimposition of jzya, This alienated the Hindus and strengthened the hands of those who were opposed to the Mughal Empire for political or other reasons. ROLE OF AURANGZEB Role Of ea Coen aes Cian er; eer eee Role of Aurangzeb + Deccan Policy: * The attempt to extend the Muy government's control over Golcon Bijapur, and Karnataka strained the Mi administration to its breaking point, It also exposed Mughal communicatig lines to Maratha raids, making it diffi for Mughal nobility in the area to col their dues from the jagirs entrusted them and forcing them to enter into secr pacts with the Marathas. Agrarian Crisis As per Dr. Irfan Habib agrarian crisis witnessec during the later half of the 17th century ws responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire, ‘The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was motivated the policy of containing the growing influence the Marathas, the rebellious attitude of the Shi kingdoms of Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur an controlling the rebellious activities of his son Akt who had taken refuge in the Deccan. Aurang came to the Deccan in 1682 and remained inthe Deccan till his death in 1707. Burden of land revenue: Shahjahan chang the rate of land revenue from one-third produce to 50% of produce. Ijaradari system: During the reign ‘Aurangzeb, the scientific Ain-i- Dahsala syste was replaced with ijaradari system which | peasants at the mercy of intermediaries. Droughts: Many parts of India faced dr during 1660's which affected the health Indian agriculture. Faujdari powers: Faujdari powers given jagirdars further deteriorated the agra conditions because they misused fauld powers to exploit peasants. Jagirdari Crisis According to Sathischandra, the Mughal Em was doomed by the Jagirdari crisis. Osta a basDecline of the Mughal Empire Jagirdari Crisis: Jagirdari Crisis was a financial scenario in which there was a scarcity of lands or jagirs. During the last'years of Aurangzeb’s reign, the number of jagirdars appointed had risen to such a great number that there was a serious shortage of paibagi land (land earmarked to be given as jagirs). This reduced the expense of administration, and the imperial crown was unable to fund wars or ‘maintain the nobility’s quality of living, Real revenue collection was substantially lower than anticipated, lowering the predicted income of the jagirdars. The crisis resulted in an ugly rivalry for control of the fertile jagir. The crisis worsened as agricultural revenue felland the number of contestants seeking apiece of the surplus increased. Jagirdari system: The Jagirdari system was a vital aspect of the mansabdari system that emerged under Akbar and underwent adjustments during his successors’ reigns. During Akbar's reign, the country was divided into two parts: * Khalisa: Revenue went to the imperial treasury. * Jagir: Revenue was given to Jagirdars in place of a cash stipend. The Mansabdars who were not paid in cash were awarded a jagir or landed estate in lieu of salary. They were called Jagirdars. They were required to collect the revenue from the particular jagir of which one part would go to the state and the other two parts would cover his personal expenses and the maintenance allowances for his soldiers and horses Lack of Scientific and Technological Advancements According to M. Athar Ali, when Europe was witnessing scientific and technological revolution the Mughal empire was facing scientific and technological stagnation which affected their economy as well as military strength. * Incompetent Indian Industries: There was no industrial revolution in India and the industries were based on medieval technology which could not compete with the modern machines of Europe. 9 * Advanced European Weapons: Weapons used by Europeans were far more advanced when compared with India. * Technological Backwardness: The technological backwardness of the Mughal Empire also affected the empire economically and the economic crisis affected the strength of every other organ of state. Monetary Crisis Shireen Moosvi held the monetary crisis responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire. * Large number of coins were issued by the Mughal empire during the 18th century due to the availability of a huge stock of silver accumulated with the state. + Issuing Siver coins on a large scale resulted in the increase of liquidity. The inflation increased enormously which weakened the foundations of the Mughal Empire. Other Factors Weak Successors: Aurangzeb’s successors were weak and unable to hold the administration effectively. The majority of them were puppets in the hands of wealthy nobles. The succession war that affected Delhi from 1707 to 1719 gradually weakened the empire. Nobles’ Influence: The majority of the later Mughals were used as pawns by powerful nobility. Following Aurangzeb’s death, the nobles assumed great authority, and the path of politics and governmental activity was led by their own interests. The Tussle Between the Factions: The four aristocratic factions of the Mughal court were Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, and Indian-born Muslims. These factions were constantly fighting for more ower, jagits, and high posts, which eventually contributed to the empire's demise. several autonomous states reduced tax resources, and the ongoing battles further impoverished tl ‘© study Publeatons ‘The Weakening of Tax Base: The formation of10. treasury, Furthermore, Nadir Shah's and Ahmad Shah Abdali’ foreign invasions were costly to the royal budget. Problems in Economics and Administration: Over time, the number of amirs and their ranks, cor mansabs, had grown dramatically, and little territory was lft to be distributed among them as jagirs. Aurangzeb attempted to alleviate the acute shortage of jagirs or bejagiri by demonstrating increased revenue from recorded jagis. However, this was 2 short-sighted sol because the amirs attempted to recover the reported revenue from their jagirs by putting pressure on the peasantry, resulting in conflict between the amirs and the peasants. Then there ‘were the battles, the lavish lives of the emperors andamirs, and the loss of khalisa land, all of which ‘weighed heavily on the state, and as 2 result, the state's expenditure far outweighed its revenue These economic and administrative problems ‘worsened after Aurangzeb’s death. Ineffective Army: After losing several wars, the ‘Mughal army became increasingly ineffective and unmotivated. The Mughal army lacked national character It was composed of racial elements and religious groups such as Turks, Afghans, Rajputs and Hindustanis, which had an internal struggle. The great nobles or oficers of the empire began to convert the assignment which they held for maintaining troops, into their hereditary possessions. The Mughals’ disregard the naval power which cost them losses in trade and affected their expansion, Rise of Regional Aspirations: Under Aurangzeb’s rule, regional groups such as the Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas revolted. They challenged the authority of the Mughal state in order to establish their own kingdoms; they were unsuccessful, but they had an impact on the future course of political events in their respective regions. Their constant for political dominance against the later Mughal severely harmed the empire. Rise of Regional States: The states that ar ‘as a result of the fall of the Mughal Empire can| classified into three types: + Successor States: These Were M provinces that became states after secedi from the empire. Though they did not challer the Mughal ruler’s sovereignty, the installa of essentially independent and hereditary power by their governors demonstrated the rise of autonomous polity in these provinces, ‘Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad are just af examples. + Independent Kingdoms: The Independent Kingdoms arose primarily as a result of the destabilization of Mughal sovereignty over the provinces. ‘+ New States: The New States arose due to rebels against the Mughal empire, such as the Maratha, Sikh, and Jat states. Foreign Invasions: The Final Nail in the Coffin The empire had grown too large for a central ‘administration to control when the emperors wer weak and inept. The arrival of British and o' European colonial powers in India was the fi nail in the coffin of the Mughal empire's chant of survival. The collapse of the Mughal Empire Wat influenced by social, economic, political, at institutional factors. The British government stripped the East India Company ofits monopols authority by 1813 (Completely in 1833), ant company began to operate on the govern behalf. In 1857, the British colonial adminl exiled the last monarch, Bahadur Shall, and control of the Indian subcontinent. ‘D study TA PBONS2» EMERGENCE OF REGIONAL STATES2 fe have explained in the previous chapter WW: and how the Mughal Empire collapsed during the first half ofthe 18th century. Subsequent to the decline of the Mughal Empire, a significant development of the 18 century was the ‘emergence of independent and semi-independent regional states such as Bengal, Avadh, Hyderabad, Mysore and the Maratha Kingdom. Let us discuss these independent states in detail The regional states of the eighteenth century can be divided into three overlapping groups: Successor States: These states were carved out of the old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. They were founded by the respective Mughal provincial governors. Although extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their formal ties with the Mughal emperor, 2, Rebel States: These states were setup by rebels against the Mughals such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats. These rebel states had seized their independence from the Mughals after a Jong-drawn armed struggle 3. Independent states: These states had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals These states were neither the result ofa breakaway from the Mughal Empire ‘nor rebellion against the Mughal Empire. These states arose primarily as a result of the destabilization of Mughal (imperial ) control over the provinces, These included Rajput states, Mysore and Kerala, SUCCESSOR STATES cance a eee at Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh were the three successor states of the Mughal Empire. They were successor states as they were founded by Mughal provincial governors who never formally severed their links with the central administration (Mughal), but virtually exercised autonomy in matters of execution of power at the local level HYDERABAD post-Aurangzeb era. He assisted Mughal Emp Mohammed Shah in deposing the Sayyids brot (Viceroy) of the Deccan. ‘Actual independence of the Hyderabad kin Before the Nizam, Mubariz Khan was the Mugha governor of Deccan. In 1723 the nizam de around Hyderabad. The actual independence of the Hyderabad kingdom may be dated from 1740 when finaly the nizam left north India to settle there permanently. From 1720 to 1722, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asal Jah | consolidated his hold over the Deccan b suppressing all opposition to his viceroyalty and organizing the administration on efficient line From 1722 to 1724 he was the wazir of the Mughs Empire. As a Wazir, he wanted to reform the Mughe administration but Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah frustrated Nizam’s attempts of reforming the administration. So Nizam decided to go back to the Deccan where he could safely maintain hi supremacy. In Deccan, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah 1 le the foundation of Hyderabad. He never open! declared his independence from the Central Government (Mughal Administration) i.e. f continued to declare allegiance to the Mughal emperor. Coins were still minted in the name @ the Mughal emperor. Mughal emperor's nat also figured in the khutba or the Friday prayet However in practice he acted like an independet Tuler. He waged wars, concluded peace, conferre titles, and gave jagirs and offices without referem to Mughal administration, He followed a tole Policy towards the Hindus. For example, a Hind Puran Chand, was his Dewan.