Chapter-1

Definitions and properties of matrices.

Matrix: A system of any 𝑚𝑛 numbers arranged in a rectangular array of 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is
called a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛.
Row Matrix: The matrix containing one row is called row matrix.
Example: [2 4 1]
Column Matrix: The matrix containing one column is called column matrix.
1
Example: 2
5
Addition of matrices: If there be two 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices given by 𝐴 = [𝑎 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏 ], then the
matrix 𝐴 + 𝐵 is defined as the matrix each element of which is the sum of the corresponding
elements of 𝐴 and 𝐵𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎 + 𝑏 ].
Properties of matrix addition:
Property A1: Addition of matrices is commutative. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + [𝑎 ].
Property A2: Addition of matrices is associative.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 .
Property A3: Addition for matrices obeys the distributive law.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑏 =𝑘 𝑎 +𝑘 𝑏 .
Property A4: Existence of additive identity. If 𝐴 = [𝑎 ] be any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝑂 be the 𝑚 × 𝑛
null matrix then,𝐴 + 𝑂 = 𝑂 + 𝐴 = 𝐴. Here the null matrix 𝑂 is called additive identity.
Property A5: Existence of additive inverse. If 𝐴 = [𝑎 ] be any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, there exists another
𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐵 such that,𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 = 𝑂. Here the matrix 𝐵 is called additive inverse of the
matrix 𝐴 or the negative of 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎 ], then 𝐵 = − 𝑎 = −𝐴.
Property A6: Cancellation law. If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are three 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, such that if 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐶, then
𝐵 = 𝐶.
Multiplication of matrices: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 two matrices such that the number of columns in 𝐴 is equal
to the number of rows in 𝐵𝑖. 𝑒. if𝐴 = [𝑎 ] be 𝑚 × 𝑛matrix and 𝐵 = [𝑏 ] be 𝑛 × 𝑘matrix, then the
product of 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted by 𝐴𝐵 is defined as matrix [𝑐 ]of order 𝑚 × 𝑘where,

𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑏

1
Properties of matrix multiplication:
Property M1: Multiplication of matrices is associative. Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 ,𝐵 = 𝑏 , 𝐶 = [𝑐 ] be three
𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝑛 × 𝑝 and 𝑝 × 𝑙 matrices respectively, then (𝐴𝐵) ∙ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵𝐶).
Proof: Let 𝐴𝐵 = [𝑑 ] where,

𝑑 = 𝑎 𝑏

Then (𝐴𝐵) ∙ 𝐶 = [𝑑 ] × [𝑐 ] = [𝑒 ] where,

𝑒 = 𝑑 ∙𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑏 ∙𝑐

𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑖. 𝑟) 𝑡ℎ element of (𝐴𝐵) ∙ 𝐶 is

= 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

And let 𝐵𝐶 = [𝑔 ] where,

𝑔 = 𝑏 𝑐

Then 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵𝐶) = [𝑎 ] × 𝑔 = [ℎ ] where,

ℎ = 𝑎 ∙𝑔 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑐

𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑖. 𝑟) 𝑡ℎ element of 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵𝐶) is

= 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Hence we conclude that (𝐴𝐵) ∙ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∙ (𝐵𝐶) proved.

Property M2: Multiplication for matrices obeys the distributive law.
(a) Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 ,𝐵 = 𝑏 ,𝐶 = 𝑐 be three 𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝑛 × 𝑝 and 𝑛 × 𝑝 matrices respectively, then
𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶.
(b) Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 ,𝐵 = 𝑏 ,𝐶 = 𝑐 be three 𝑝 × 𝑚, 𝑛 × 𝑝 and 𝑛 × 𝑝 matrices respectively, then
(𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴.

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Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 whose elements 𝑎 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑗 is called an upper
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
⎡ 0 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 ⎤
⎢ … 𝑎 ⎥
triangular matrix. For example⎢ 0 0 𝑎 ⎥
⎢ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 ⋯ 𝑎 ⎦
Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 whose elements 𝑎 = 0 for 𝑖 < 𝑗 is called a lower
𝑎 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ 𝑎 𝑎 0 ⎤
⋯ 0
⎢ ⎥
triangular matrix. For example ⎢ 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 … 0 ⎥
⎢⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⎥
⎣𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 ⎦
Diagonal matrix: A square matrix which is both upper and lower triangular is called diagonal
𝑎 0 0 ⋯ 0
⎡ 0 𝑎 0 ⋯ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
matrix. For example ⎢ 0 0 𝑎 … 0 ⎥
⎢⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 ⋯ 𝑎 ⎦
Scalar matrix: If in a diagonal matrix all the diagonal elements are same is called scalar matrix. For
𝑎 0 0 0
example 0 𝑎 0 0
0 0 𝑎 0
0 0 0 𝑎
Commutative matrices: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called
commutative matrices. And if 𝐴𝐵 = −𝐵𝐴 then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called anti-commutative matrices.
Unit matrix or identity matrix: If in a scalar matrix all the diagonal elements are 1 then the matrix
1 0 0 0
is called unit matrix and is denoted by 𝐼 . For example 𝐼 = 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Property M3: Existence of multiplicative identity. If 𝐴 be any square matrix and 𝐼 be the identity
matrix then, 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴. Here the unit matrix 𝐼 is called multiplicative identity.
Transposed matrix: If 𝐴 = 𝑎 be a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 then the matrix 𝐵 = 𝑏 of order
𝑛 × 𝑚 such that 𝑏 = 𝑎 is called transposed matrix of 𝐴 and is denoted by 𝐴 or 𝐴 .
Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices: A square matrix 𝐴 is called symmetric provided 𝐴 = 𝐴
and skew- symmetric provided 𝐴 = −𝐴 .
Periodic matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called periodic if 𝐴 = 𝐴, where 𝑘 is positive integer called
period.
Idempotent matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called idempotent provided it satisfies the relation 𝐴 = 𝐴.

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Symmetric idempotent matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called symmetric idempotent if 𝐴 = 𝐴 and
𝐴 = 𝐴.
Theorem 1: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are idempotent then show that 𝐴𝐵 is idempotent if 𝐴 and 𝐵 commute.
Proof: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are idempotent then 𝐴 = 𝐴 and 𝐵 = 𝐵 (i)
and if 𝐴 and 𝐵 commute then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 (ii)
Now
(𝐴𝐵) = (𝐴𝐵) ∙ (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐴)𝐵 by associative law
= 𝐴(𝐴𝐵)𝐵 by (ii)
= (𝐴𝐴)(𝐵𝐵) by associative law
= 𝐴 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 by (i)
Hence 𝐴𝐵 is idempotent.
Theorem 2: If 𝐴 is an idempotent then the matrix 𝐵 = 𝐼 − 𝐴 is idempotent and 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂 = 𝐵𝐴.
Proof: If 𝐴 is idempotent then 𝐴 = 𝐴 (i)
Now
𝐵 = (𝐼 − 𝐴) = (𝐼 − 𝐴)(𝐼 − 𝐴) = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐴𝐼 + 𝐴
= 𝐼 − 𝐴 − 𝐴 + 𝐴 by (i)
=𝐼−𝐴=𝐵
Hence 𝐵 = 𝐼 − 𝐴 is idempotent.
Again 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴(𝐼 − 𝐴) = 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝑂
and 𝐵𝐴 = (𝐼 − 𝐴)𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 𝑂
Hence the theorem is proved.
Involutory matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called involutory provided it satisfies the relation 𝐴 = 𝐼.
Nipotent matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called nilpotent provided it satisfies the relation 𝐴 = 𝑂 and
𝐴 ≠ 𝑂.
Theorem 3: The transpose of the product of two matrices is the product in reverse order of their
transpose . 𝑒. (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴 .
Proof: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎 ] and 𝐵 = [𝑏 ] be two matrices of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and 𝑛 × 𝑝 respectively.
Let 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 = [𝑎 ] × 𝑏 = [𝑐 ], where 𝐶 is a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑝.
∴ The element in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴𝐵 is

𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑏

This is also the element in the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of (𝐴𝐵) (i)
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The elements in the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row of 𝐵 are 𝑏 , 𝑏 , 𝑏 , ⋯ 𝑏 and elements in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴′ are
𝑎 ,𝑎 ,𝑎 ,⋯ 𝑎 . Then the element in the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐵′𝐴′ is
∑ 𝑏 𝑎 =∑ 𝑎 𝑏 =𝑐 (ii)
Hence from (i) and (ii) we conclude that (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴 .
Complex conjugate of a matrix: The matrix obtained from any given matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 with
complex elements by replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is
1+𝑖 2 − 3𝑗
called the complex conjugate of 𝐴 and is denoted by 𝐴̅. For example if 𝐴 = then
2 3𝑖
1 − 𝑖 2 + 3𝑗
𝐴̅ =
2 −3𝑖
Transposed conjugate of a matrix: The transpose of conjugate of a matrix 𝐴𝑖. 𝑒. (𝐴̅) is defined as
transposed conjugate of a matrixand is denoted by 𝐴⊝ 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴⊝ = (𝐴̅) .
Theorem 4: For any matrix 𝐴, (𝐴⊝ )⊝ = 𝐴
Proof: Let 𝐴⊝ = 𝐵 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵 = (𝐴̅) then,
𝐵 = ((𝐴̅) ) = 𝐴̅
∴ (𝐵 ) = 𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵 ⊝ = 𝐴 ∴ (𝐴⊝ )⊝ = 𝐴 (proved).
Theorem 5: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
symmetric matrix.
Proof: Let 𝐴 be a square matrix, then we can write

𝐴 = 𝐴 + 𝐴 = (𝐴 + 𝐴 ) + (𝐴 − 𝐴 ) (i)

Now (𝐴 + 𝐴 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐴 ) = (𝐴′ + (𝐴 )′) = (𝐴 + 𝐴) = (𝐴 + 𝐴′)

Thus (𝐴 + 𝐴′) is a symmetric matrix.

Again (𝐴 − 𝐴 ) = (𝐴 − 𝐴 ) = (𝐴 − (𝐴 )′) = (𝐴 − 𝐴) = − (𝐴 − 𝐴′)

Thus (𝐴 − 𝐴′) is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Hence 𝐴 can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.

To prove it is unique, let 𝐴 = 𝐴 + 𝐴 (ii)
Where,𝐴 is symmetric and 𝐴 is skew-symmetric then,
𝐴 = 𝐴 (iii)
And,𝐴 = −𝐴 ′(iv)
𝐴′ = (𝐴 + 𝐴 )′ = 𝐴 ′ + 𝐴 ′

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𝐴′ = 𝐴 − 𝐴 (v)
Adding and subtracting (ii) and (v) we get
𝐴 + 𝐴 = 2𝐴 and 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 2𝐴

Or 𝐴 = (𝐴 + 𝐴 ) and 𝐴 = (𝐴 − 𝐴 )

Hence the representation is unique.

Hermitian and skew-hermitian matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is hermitian if 𝐴⊝ = 𝐴 and skew-
hermitian if 𝐴⊝ = −𝐴.
Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called orthogonal matrix if 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼.
Inverse of a matrix: if for a given square matrix 𝐴 there exists a matrix 𝐵 such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼
then, 𝐴 is called non-singular or invertible and 𝐵 is called inverse of 𝐴 and we write 𝐵 = 𝐴 .
Theorem 6: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-singular matrices of the same order then 𝐴𝐵 is also non-singular
and (𝐴𝐵) =𝐵 𝐴 .
Proof: 𝐴 and 𝐵 exist since 𝐴 and 𝐵 are non-singular.
∴ (𝐴𝐵)(𝐵 𝐴 ) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐵 )𝐴 = 𝐴𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 =𝐼
And (𝐵 𝐴 )(𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 (𝐴 𝐴)𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐵=𝐼
∴ (𝐴𝐵)(𝐵 𝐴 ) = (𝐵 𝐴 )(𝐴𝐵) = 𝐼𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵 𝐴 is the inverse of 𝐴𝐵
Therefore (𝐴𝐵) =𝐵 𝐴 .
1 2 3
Problem 1: Find the inverse of 𝐴 = 1 3 4
1 4 3
1 2 3
Solution: Here |𝐴| = 1 3 4 = 1(9 − 16) − 2(3 − 4) + 3(4 − 3) = −7 + 2 + 3 = −2
1 4 3
Also for matrix 𝐴 we have
3 4 1 4 1 3
𝐶 = = −7; 𝐶 = − = 1; 𝐶 = =1
4 3 1 3 1 4
2 3 1 3 1 2
𝐶 =− = 6; 𝐶 = = 0; 𝐶 = − = −2
4 3 1 3 1 4
2 3 1 3 1 2
𝐶 = = −1; 𝐶 = − = −1; 𝐶 = =1
3 4 1 4 1 3
−7 1 1
Cofactor matrix 𝐶 = 6 0 −2
−1 −1 1
−7 6 −1
Adj.A= 𝐶 = 1 0 −1
1 −2 1

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 7 1
⎡ −3 ⎤
Adj. A 1 −7 6 −1 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
1 1 ⎥
∴ 𝐴 = = 1 0 −1 = ⎢− 0
|𝐴| −2 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
1 −2 1
⎢ 1 1⎥
⎣− 2 1 − ⎦
2

Problem 2: Find the inverse of the following

1 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 2 4 3 3 1 3 3
matrices 2 4 5 , 0 5 0 ,2 5 ,
5 −1 0 −1 , 1 4 3
3 5 6 2 0 3 2 5 11 −4 −4 −3 1 3 4

Chapter-2
Rank and system of equations.

Minor: If any 𝑟rows and any 𝑟columns from an 𝑚 × 𝑛matrix 𝐴 are retained and remaining 𝑚 − 𝑟
and 𝑛 − 𝑟columns removed, then the determinant of the remaining 𝑟 × 𝑟sub matrix of 𝐴is called
minor of 𝐴 of order 𝑟.
Rank of a Matrix: If in an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴, at least one of its 𝑟 × 𝑟 minors is different from zero
while all the minors of order 𝑟 + 1 are zero, then 𝑟is defined as the rank of the matrix 𝐴.
1 2 3
Problem 1: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 5 8
4 10 18
Solution: The determinant of minor of order 3 formed by 𝐴
1 2 3 1 0 0 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 2𝐶
= 2 5 8 = 2 1 2,
𝐶 = 𝐶 − 3𝐶
4 10 18 4 2 6
1 2
= = 6−4= 2≠0
2 6
The matrix 𝐴 does not possesses any minor of order 4.
Thus the rank of matrix 𝐴 is 3.
1 2 3
Problem 2: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 3 1
−2 −3 −1
Solution: The determinant of minor of order 3 formed by 𝐴
1 2 3 1 2 3
= 2 3 1 = 2 3 1 ,𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅
−2 −3 −1 0 0 0
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=0
Now aminors of order2
1 2
= −1 ≠ 0
2 3
Thus the rank of given matrix 𝐴 is 2.
1 2 31
Problem 3: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 4 6 2
1 2 3 2
Solution: The determinant of a minor of order 3
1 2 3
= 2 4 6 =0
1 2 3
In a similar way we prove that all the minor of order 3 are zero.
Now minors of order 2 are
1 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1
= 0, = 0, = 0, = 0, = 3 ≠ 0,etc.
2 4 4 6 6 2 2 2 3 2
Since there exists a minor of order 2 is not zero while all 3 order minors are zero, the rank of given
matrix 𝐴 is 2.
1 −3 2
Problem 4: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 3 −9 6
−2 6 −4
Solution: The determinant of a minor of order 3
1 −3 2
= 3 −9 6 = 1(36 − 36) + 3(−12 + 12) + 2(18 − 18) = 0
−2 6 −4
Now minors of order 2 are
1 −3 1 2 −3 2
=0, = 0, =0
3 −9 3 6 −9 6
In a similar way we prove that all the minor of order 2 are zero.
Since there exists a minor of order 1 is not zero while all 2 order minors are zero, the rank of given
matrix 𝐴 is 1.
1 6 8 1 3 2
Problem 5: Find the rank of the matrices 2 5 3 , 2 2 3
7 9 4 1 5 4
Normal form of a matrix: Every non-zero matrix 𝐴 of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 can be reduced by application of
elementary row and column operations into equivalent matrix of one of the following forms
𝐼 𝑂 𝐼
𝑖) 𝑖𝑖) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) [𝐼 𝑂] 𝑖𝑣) [𝐼 ] where 𝐼 is 𝑟 × 𝑟 identity matrix and 𝑂 is null matrix of any
𝑂 𝑂 𝑂
order. These four forms are called normal or canonical form.
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 1 2 3
Problem 6: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 3 4
4 5 6
1 2 3
Solution: 𝐴 = 2 3 4
4 5 6
1 1 1 𝐶 =𝐶 −𝐶
~ 2 1 1 ,
𝐶 =𝐶 −𝐶
4 1 1
0 1 0 𝐶 =𝐶 −𝐶
~ 1 1 0 ,
𝐶 =𝐶 −𝐶
3 1 0
0 1 0 𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑅
~ 1 0 0 ,
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑅
2 0 0
0 1 0
~ 1 0 0 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
0 0 0
1 0 0
~ 0 1 0 , Interchanging 𝑅 and 𝑅
0 0 0
𝐼 𝑂
~
𝑂 𝑂
Hence the rank of 𝐴 is 2.
1 2 3
Problem 7: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 4 6
3 6 9
1 2 3
Solution: 𝐴 = 2 4 6
3 6 9
1 2 3 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
~ 0 0 0 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
0 0 0
1 0 0 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 2𝐶
~ 0 0 0 ,
𝐶 = 𝐶 − 3𝐶
0 0 0
𝐼 𝑂
~
𝑂 𝑂
Hence the rank of 𝐴 is 1.
1 2 3
Problem 8: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 4 5 6
2 1 2
1 2 3
Solution: 𝐴 = 4 5 6
2 1 2
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 1 0 0 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 2𝐶
~ 4 −3 −6 ,
𝐶 = 𝐶 − 3𝐶
2 −3 −4
1 0 0 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 4𝑅
~ 0 −3 −6 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
0 −3 −4
1 0 0
~ 0 0 −2 ,𝑅 = 𝑅 − 𝑅
0 −3 −4
1
1 0 0 𝐶 =− 𝐶
~ 0 0 3
1 ,
1
0 1 2 𝐶 =− 𝐶
2
1 0 0
~ 0 0 1 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
0 1 0
1 0 0
~ 0 1 0 , Interchanging 𝐶 and 𝐶
0 0 1
~[𝐼 ]
Hence the rank of 𝐴 is 3.
1 1 2 −3
Problem 9: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 4 1 0 2
0 3 0 1
0 1 0 2
1 1 2 −3
Solution: 𝐴 = 4 1 0 2
0 3 0 1
0 1 0 2
1 0 2 0
𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶
~ 4 5 0 14 ,
0 3 0 4 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 3𝐶
0 1 0 2
1 0 1 0 1
𝐶 = 𝐶
~ 4 5 0 7 , 2
0 3 0 2 1
0 1 0 1 𝐶 = 2𝐶
0 0 1 0
𝐶 =𝐶 −𝐶
~ 4 5 0 2 ,
0 3 0 −1 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 𝐶
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1
~ 1 5 0 2 ,𝐶 = 𝐶
0 3 0 −1 4
0 1 0 0
10
 0 0 1 0
~ 1 0 0 0 , 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 5𝐶
0 3 0 −1 𝐶 = 𝐶 − 2𝐶
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
~ 1 0 0 0 , 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 3𝐶
0 0 0 1 𝐶 = −𝐶
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
~ 0 1 0 0 , rearranging
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
~[𝐼 ]
Hence the rank of 𝐴 is 4.
Problem 10: Find the rank of the matrix
−2 −1 −3 −1
𝑖) 1 2 3 −1 ~ 𝐼 𝑂
1 0 1 1 𝑂 𝑂
0 1 1 −1
1 −1 2 −1
𝑖𝑖) 4 2 −1 2 ~[𝐼 𝑂]
2 2 −2 0
Echelon form of a matrix: If in a matrix,
i) all the non-zero rows, if any precede the zero rows,
ii) the number of zero preceding the first non-zero element in a row is less than the number of such
zero in the succeeding row,
iii) the first non-zero element in a row is unity, then it is in the echelon form. For example
1 −1 −3 −1
0 1 3 −1
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0
1 3 4 5
Problem 11: Find the rank of the matrix 𝐴 = 3 9 12 9
−1 −3 −4 −3
1 3 4 5
Solution: 𝐴 = 3 9 12 9
−1 −3 −4 −3
1 3 4 5 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
~ 0 0 0 −6 ,
𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅
0 0 0 2
1 3 4 5 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 3𝑅
~ 0 0 00 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 /2
0 0 01

11
 1 3 45
~ 0 0 0 1 Interchanging 𝑅 and 𝑅
0 0 00
This is the echelon form and the number of non-zero rows is 2.
Hence the rank is 2.
Problem 11: Find the rank of the matrices of problems 5 and 10 by reducing echelon form.
Matrix form of system of equations: Consider a system of equations
𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 ⋯𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 ⋯𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 ⋯𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯ ⋯
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 ⋯𝑎 𝑥 =𝑘
The matrix form of the given system is
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ = ⋯
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘
Or 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐾 where
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥
𝐴= ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑋 = ⋯ and 𝐾 = 𝑘⋯
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑘
Solution of system of equation: we know the matrix form of system
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐾
Or𝐴 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐾
Or𝐼𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐾
Or𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐾
Problem 12: Solved by matrix method of the system
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 6, 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 10, 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 12
Solution: We can write the system in matrix form as
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐾
Or
1 2 3 𝑥 6
1 3 4 𝑦 = 10
1 4 3 𝑧 12
Now,

12
 7 1
⎡ −3 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 ⎥
1 1 ⎥
𝐴 = ⎢− 0
⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 1⎥
−
⎣ 2 1 −
2⎦
7 1
⎡ −3 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 ⎥
1 1 ⎥ 6 −3
𝐴 𝐾 = ⎢− 0 ∙ 10 = 3
⎢ 2 2 ⎥ 12 1
⎢ 1 1⎥
⎣− 2 1 − 2 ⎦
−3
Or 𝑋 = 3
1
𝑥 −3
𝑦 = 3
𝑧 1
Thus the required solution is 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 3, 𝑧 = 1
Problem 13: Solved by matrix method of the system
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14, 3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11
Solution: The system in matrix form is
1 2 3 𝑥 14
3 1 2 𝑦 = 11
2 3 1 𝑧 11
1 2 3 𝑥 14 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
⇒ 0 −5 −7 𝑦 = −31 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
0 −1 −5 𝑧 −17
1 2 3 𝑥 14
⇒ 0 −5 −7 𝑦 = −31 , 𝑅 = 5𝑅 − 𝑅
0 0 −18 𝑧 −54
1 2 3 𝑥 14
⇒ 0 −5 −7 𝑦 = −31 , 𝑅 = −𝑅 /18
0 0 1 𝑧 3
1 2 0 𝑥 5 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
⇒ 0 −5 0 𝑦 = −10 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 + 7𝑅
0 0 1 𝑧 3
1 2 0 𝑥 5
⇒ 0 1 0 𝑦 = 2 , 𝑅 = −𝑅 /5
0 0 1 𝑧 3
1 0 0 𝑥 1
⇒ 0 1 0 𝑦 = 2 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
0 0 1 𝑧 3

13
Thus the required solution is 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧 = 3
Problem 14: Solved by matrix method of the system
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 7, 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 1
Solution: The system in matrix form is
1 2 3 𝑥 4
2 3 8 𝑦 = 7
1 −1 9 𝑧 1
1 2 3 𝑥 4 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
⇒ 0 −1 2 𝑦 = −1 ,
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑅
0 −3 6 𝑧 −3
1 2 3 𝑥 4
⇒ 0 −1 2 𝑦 = −1 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
0 0 0 𝑧 0
1 0 7 𝑥 2
⇒ 0 −1 2 𝑦 = −1 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 +2𝑅
0 0 0 𝑧 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 7𝑧 = 2, −𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 − 7𝑧, 𝑦 = 2𝑧 + 1
If we take any finite value of 𝑧 we get the infinite number of solutions.
If 𝑧 = 1 then 𝑥 = −5, 𝑦 = 3 etc.
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
Augmented matrix: The Coefficient matrix 𝐴 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ augmented by the matrix
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
𝑘
𝐾 = 𝑘⋯ is called augmented matrix of 𝐴 and is written as 𝐴∗ or [𝐴, 𝐾]
𝑘
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑘
∴ 𝐴∗ = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑘
Problem 15: Apply rank test to examine if the following system of equations is consistent and if
consistent then find the complete solution.
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 6, 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 9, 5𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 13.
Solution: The given system in matrix form can be written as
1 1 4 𝑥 6
3 2 −2 𝑦 = 9
5 1 2 𝑧 13
The augmented matrix is

14
 1 1 4 6
𝐴∗ = 3 2 −2 9
5 1 2 13
1 1 4 6 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
~ 0 −1 −14 −9 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 5𝑅
0 −4 −18−17
1 1 4 6
~ 0 −1 −14−9 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 4𝑅
0 0 38 19
1 1 4 6 𝑅 = −𝑅
~ 0 1 14 9 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 /38
0 0 1 1/2
This is the reduced echelon form of 𝐴∗ having 3 non-zero rows and hence rank is 3.
Also the rank of 𝐴 is 3.
Thus we observe that 𝐴 and 𝐴∗ has the same rank and so the given equations are consistent.
The matrix equation is
1 1 4 𝑥 6
0 1 14 𝑦 = 9
0 0 1 𝑧 1/2
1
⇒𝑧= , 𝑦 + 14𝑧 = 9, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 6
2
1
⇒ 𝑧 = , 𝑦 = 2, 𝑥 = 2
2
Thus the required solution is (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2, 2,

Problem 16: Investigate for what values of 𝜆, 𝜇 the simultaneous equations

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 8, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 13, 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇
have i) no solution ii) a unique solution and iii) infinitely many solutions.
Solution: The given system in matrix form can be written as
1 2 1 𝑥 8
2 1 3 𝑦 = 13
3 4 −𝜆 𝑧 𝜇
The augmented matrix is
1 2 1 8
∗
𝐴 = 2 1 3 13
3 4 −𝜆 𝜇
1 2 1 8
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 2𝑅
~ 0 −3 1 −3 ,
𝑅 = 𝑅 − 3𝑅
0 −2 −𝜆 − 3𝜇 − 24

15
 1 2 1 8
~ 0 1 −1/3 1 , 𝑅 = −𝑅 /3
0 −2 −𝜆 − 3𝜇 − 24
1 2 1 8
~ 0 1 −1/3 1 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 2𝑅
0 0 −𝜆 − 11/3𝜇 − 22
Case I Since there are three unknown quantities𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧so for unique solution the augmented matrix
𝐴∗ and the coefficient matrix 𝐴 mast have the same rank 3. It is possible if −𝜆 − 11/3 ≠ 0 and

𝜇 − 22 ≠ 0𝑖. 𝑒. for 𝜆 ≠ − , 𝜇 ≠ 22 the given equation has a unique solution.

Case IIIf −𝜆 − = 0 and 𝜇 − 22 ≠ 0𝑖. 𝑒. for 𝜆 = − , 𝜇 ≠ 22 then the rank of augmented

matrix 𝐴∗ is 3 but the rank of coefficient matrix 𝐴is 2. In this case the rank of 𝐴∗ and the rank of 𝐴
are not same so there is no solution.

Case IIIIf −𝜆 − = 0 and 𝜇 − 22 = 0𝑖. 𝑒. for 𝜆 = − , 𝜇 = 22 then the augmented matrix 𝐴∗

and the coefficient matrix 𝐴 have the same rank 2 but less than number of unknowns 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. In this
case the equations have infinite number of solutions.

Chapter-3
Characteristic equation and Cayely Hamilton theorem.
Characteristic matrix of 𝑨: The matrix 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 is called the characteristic matrix of 𝐴.
Characteristic polynomial of 𝑨: The determinant |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| is called the characteristic polynomial of
𝐴.
Characteristic equation of 𝑨: The equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of 𝐴
and its root are called the characteristic roots or latent roots or eigenvalues.

1 2 3
Problem 1: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix 0 2 3
0 0 2
1 2 3 1 0 0 1−𝜆 2 3
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 2 3 − 𝜆 0 1 0 = 0 2−𝜆 3
0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2−𝜆
= (1 − 𝜆){(2 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) − 0} = (1 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆)
The characteristic equation is (1 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) = 0
Thus the required eigenvalues are 1, 2, 2.

16
 8 −6 2
Problem 2: Find the eigenvalues of the matrix −6 7 −4
2 −4 3
8 −6 2 1 0 0 8−𝜆 −6 2
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = −6 7 −4 − 𝜆 0 1 0 = −6 7−𝜆 −4
2 −4 3 0 0 1 2 −4 3−𝜆
= (8 − 𝜆){(7 − 𝜆)(3 − 𝜆) − 16} + 6{−6(3 − 𝜆) + 8} + 2{24 − 2(7 − 𝜆)}
= (8 − 𝜆)(5 − 10𝜆 + 𝜆 ) + 6(−10 + 6𝜆) + 2(10 + 2𝜆)
= 40 − 80𝜆 + 8𝜆 − 5𝜆 + 10𝜆 − 𝜆 − 60 + 36𝜆 + 20 + 4𝜆
= −45𝜆 + 18𝜆 − 𝜆
The characteristic equation is
−45𝜆 + 18𝜆 − 𝜆 = 0
⇒ 𝜆 − 18𝜆 + 45𝜆 = 0
⇒ 𝜆(𝜆 − 18𝜆 + 45) = 0
⇒ 𝜆(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 − 15) = 0
Thus the required eigenvalues are 0, 3, 15.
Cayely Hamilton theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
1 2 1
Problem 3: Show that the matrix 𝐴 = −1 0 3 satisfies Cayley Hamilton theorem.
2 −1 1
1−𝜆 2 1
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = −1 −𝜆 3
2 −1 1 − 𝜆
= (1 − 𝜆){−𝜆(1 − 𝜆) + 3} − 2{−1(1 − 𝜆) − 6} + 1{1 + 2𝜆}
= (1 − 𝜆){−𝜆 + 𝜆 + 3} − 2{−1 + 𝜆 − 6} + 1{1 + 2𝜆}
= −𝜆 + 𝜆 + 3 + 𝜆 − 𝜆 − 3𝜆 + 2 − 2𝜆 + 12 + 1 + 2𝜆
= −𝜆 + 2𝜆 − 4𝜆 + 18
The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is
𝜆 − 2𝜆 + 4𝜆 − 18 = 0
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 8
Now, 𝐴 = −1 0 3 −1 0 3 = 5 −5 2
2 −1 1 2 −1 1 5 3 0
1 1 8 1 2 1 16 −6 12
𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐴 = 5 −5 2 −1 0 3 = 14 8 −8
5 3 0 2 −1 1 2 10 14
16 −6 12 1 1 8 1 2 1 1 0 0
∴ 𝐴 − 2𝐴 + 4𝐴 − 18𝐼 = 14 8 −8 − 2 5 −5 2 + 4 −1 0 3 − 18 0 1 0
2 10 14 5 3 0 2 −1 1 0 0 1

17
 16 −6 12 2 2 16 4 8 4 18 0 0
= 14 8 −8 − 10 −10 4 + −4 0 12 − 0 18 0
2 10 14 10 6 0 8 −4 4 0 0 18
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 =𝑂
0 0 0
Hence the given matrix 𝐴 satisfies its characteristic equation.
0 0 1
Problem 4: VerifyCayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix 𝐴 = 3 1 0 hence compute 𝐴 .
−2 1 4
0−𝜆 0 1
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 3 1−𝜆 0
−2 1 4−𝜆
= −𝜆{(1 − 𝜆)(4 − 𝜆) − 0} + 1{3 + 2(1 − 𝜆)}
= −𝜆{4 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆 } + 5 − 2𝜆}
= −4𝜆 + 5𝜆 − 𝜆 + 5 − 2𝜆
= −𝜆 + 5𝜆 − 6𝜆 + 5
The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is
𝜆 − 5𝜆 + 6𝜆 − 5 = 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 −2 1 4
Now, 𝐴 = 3 1 0 3 1 0 = 3 1 3
−2 1 4 −2 1 4 −5 5 14
−2 1 4 0 0 1 −5 5 14
𝐴 =𝐴 𝐴= 3 1 3 3 1 0 = −3 4 15
−5 5 14 −2 1 4 −13 19 51
−5 5 14 −2 1 4 0 0 1 1 0 0
∴ 𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 6𝐴 − 5𝐼 = −3 4 15 − 5 3 1 3 + 6 3 1 0 −5 0 1 0
−13 19 51 −5 5 14 −2 1 4 0 0 1
−5 5 14 −10 5 20 0 0 6 5 0 0
= −3 4 15 − 15 5 15 + 18 6 0 − 0 5 0
−13 19 51 −25 25 70 −12 6 24 0 0 5
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 =𝑂
0 0 0
Hence the given matrix 𝐴 satisfies its characteristic equation.
Again 𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 6𝐴 − 5𝐼 = 𝑂
Or 5𝐼 = 𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 6𝐴
Multiplying both sides by 𝐴 , we get
5𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐴. 𝐴 − 5𝐴 𝐴𝐴 + 6𝐴 𝐴

18
 1 1 −2 1 4 0 0 1 1 0 0
𝐴 = (𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 6𝐼) = 3 1 3 −5 3 1 0 +6 0 1 0
5 5
−5 5 14 −2 1 4 0 0 1
1 4 1 −1
= −12 2 3
5
5 0 0
Problem 5: Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrices
1 2 0 1 3 7
𝑖) 2 −1 0 , 𝑖𝑖) 4 2 3 hence compute 𝐴 .
0 0 −1 1 2 1

Problem 5: Determine the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix
2 2 1
𝐴= 1 3 1
1 2 2
2−𝜆 2 1
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 1 3−𝜆 1
1 2 2−𝜆
= (2 − 𝜆){(3 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) − 2} − 2{(2 − 𝜆) − 1} + 1{2 − (3 − 𝜆)}
= (2 − 𝜆){6 − 5𝜆 + 𝜆 − 2} − 2{1 − 𝜆} + {−1 + 𝜆}
= −𝜆 + 7𝜆 − 11𝜆 + 5
= −(𝜆 − 1) (𝜆 − 5)
The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is
(𝜆 − 1) (𝜆 − 5) = 0
Thus the eigenvalues are 1, 1, and 5.
Now the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 𝑂 for the matrix𝐴 is
2−𝜆 2 1 𝑥 0
1 3−𝜆 1 𝑥 = 0 (i)
1 2 2−𝜆 𝑥 0
Putting 𝜆 = 1 in (i) we get
1 2 1 𝑥 0
1 2 1 𝑥 = 0
1 2 1 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvectoris given by the equation
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 1cannot be found.
Putting 𝜆 = 5 in (i) we get

19
−3 2 1 𝑥 0
1 −2 1 𝑥 = 0
1 2 −3 𝑥 0
−2 0 2 𝑥 0 𝑅 →𝑅 +𝑅
⇒ 1 −2 1 𝑥 = 0 ,
𝑅 →𝑅 −𝑅
0 4 −4 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equations
⇒ −2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0, 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 0
Solving these we get 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 5 may take as (1, 1, 1)
Problem 6: Determine the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix
3 1 1
𝐴= 1 5 1
1 1 3
3−𝜆 1 1
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 1 5−𝜆 1
1 1 3−𝜆
= (3 − 𝜆){(5 − 𝜆)(3 − 𝜆) − 1} − {(3 − 𝜆) − 1} + 1{1 − (5 − 𝜆)}
= (3 − 𝜆){15 − 8𝜆 + 𝜆 − 1} − {2 − 𝜆} + {−4 + 𝜆}
= (3 − 𝜆){14 − 8𝜆 + 𝜆 } − 2{3 − 𝜆}
= (3 − 𝜆){14 − 8𝜆 + 𝜆 − 2}
= (3 − 𝜆){𝜆 − 8𝜆 + 12}
= (3 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 6)(𝜆 − 2)
The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is
(3 − 𝜆)(𝜆 − 6)(𝜆 − 2) = 0
Thus the eigenvalues are 2, 3, and 6.
Now the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 𝑂 for the matrix 𝐴 is
3−𝜆 1 1 𝑥 0
1 5−𝜆 1 𝑥 = 0 (i)
1 1 3−𝜆 𝑥 0
Putting 𝜆 = 2 in (i) we get
1 1 1 𝑥 0
1 3 1 𝑥 = 0
1 1 1 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equation
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
These gives = =

20
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 2 may take as (-1, 0, 1)
Putting 𝜆 = 3 in (i) we get
0 1 1 𝑥 0
1 2 1 𝑥 = 0
1 1 0 𝑥 0
0 1 1 𝑥 0
⇒ 1 1 0 𝑥 = 0 ,𝑅 → 𝑅 − 𝑅
1 1 0 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equations
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
Solving these we get 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 1
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 3 may take as (1, -1, 1)
Putting 𝜆 = 6 in (i) we get
−3 1 1 𝑥 0
1 −1 1 𝑥 = 0
1 1 −3 𝑥 0
−2 0 2 𝑥 0 𝑅 →𝑅 +𝑅
⇒ 1 −1 1 𝑥 = 0 ,
𝑅 →𝑅 +𝑅
2 0 −2 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equations
⇒ −2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
Solving these we get 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 3 may take as (1, 2, 1)
Problem 7: Determine the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix
−2 2 −3
𝐴= 2 1 −6
−1 −2 0
−2 − 𝜆 2 −3
Solution: |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 2 1−𝜆 −6
−1 −2 −𝜆
= (−2 − 𝜆){−𝜆(1 − 𝜆) − 12} − 2{(−2𝜆) − 6} − 3{−4 + (1 − 𝜆)}
= (−2 − 𝜆){−𝜆 + 𝜆 − 12} + 4𝜆 + 12 + 9 + 3𝜆
= {2𝜆 − 2𝜆 + 24 + 𝜆 − 𝜆 + 12𝜆} + 7𝜆 + 21
= −𝜆 − 𝜆 + 21𝜆 + 45
= −(𝜆 − 5){𝜆 − 8𝜆 + 12}
= −(𝜆 − 5)(𝜆 + 3)(𝜆 + 3)
The characteristic equation of 𝐴 is
(𝜆 − 5)(𝜆 + 3)(𝜆 + 3) = 0
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Thus the eigenvalues are 5, and -3.
Now the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 𝑂 for the matrix 𝐴 is
−2 − 𝜆 2 −3 𝑥 0
2 1 − 𝜆 −6 𝑥 = 0 (i)
−1 −2 −𝜆 𝑥 0
Putting 𝜆 = 5 in (i) we get
−7 2 −3 𝑥 0
2 −4 −6 𝑥 = 0
−1 −2 −5 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equation
−7𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 0, 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑥 = 0, −𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 = 0
These gives = =

The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = 5 may take as (1, 2, -1)

Putting 𝜆 = −3 in (i) we get
1 2 −3 𝑥 0
2 4 −6 𝑥 = 0
−1 −2 3 𝑥 0
1 2 −3 𝑥 0 𝑅 → 𝑅 − 2𝑅
⇒ 0 0 0 𝑥 = 0 ,
𝑅 →𝑅 +𝑅
0 0 0 𝑥 0
The corresponding eigenvector is given by the equation
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 0
The eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆 = −3cannot be found.

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