CHAPTER II:

THE 19TH CENTURY PHILIPPINES AS RIZAL’S CONTEXT

OVERVIEW:

Nineteenth century is commonly depicted as the birth of modern life. As well as

the birth of nation-states around the globe. The century was also a period of massive
changes in Europe, Spain, and colonizer, had waned both in its colonies and in the
world.

Discussion on the 19th century Philippines as Rizal’s context are hereby divided
into three (3) aspects: the economic, social, and political. Under these main headings
are major historical events or issues, which characterized the country during that era.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the discussion, you should able to:

1. Appraise the link between individual and society;

2. Analyze the various social, political, economic, and cultural changes that
occurred in the nineteenth century.
3. Understand Jose Rizal in the context of his times.

LEARNING CONTENTS:

A. The World and the Philippines of Rizal’s Time

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Before the Spanish Occupation our forefathers have already trading with the Chinese,
Japanese, the inhabitants of Siam, the Indians, Cambodian and with the natives of
Borneo, and Mollucas. When the Spaniards arrived the Spanish government carried on
the existing trade relationships with this country for a period.

ECONOMIC CONTEXT

At least four historical elements basically compose the economic context of the era in
which Jose Rizal was born: (a) the end of the Galleon Trade, (b) the opening of the
Suez Canal, (c) the rise of the export of the crop economy. and (d) the established
monopolies in the Philippines.

End of Galleon Trade

The Galleon Trade was a ship trade that took place between Manila and
Acapulco, Mexico from 1565 to 1815. The Spanish government closed the ports of
Manila to all countries except Mexico, which gave birth to this trade. The trade served
as the central income generating business for Spanish colonists in the Philippines. The
mango de Manila, tamarind and rice, the carabao, cockfighting, Chinese tea and
textiles, fireworks display, and tuba making went to Mexico through this trans-Pacific
trade.

On the other hand, numerous and valuable flora and fauna were brought into the
Philippines through the return voyage of this trade. Other consequences of this 250-
year trade were intercultural exchanges between Asia (especially Philippines), Spanish
America, and onward to Europe and Africa.The Galleon Trade was a ship trade that
took place between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico from 1565 to 1815. The Spanish
government closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico, which gave birth
to this trade. The trade served as the central income generating business for Spanish
colonists in the Philippines. The mango de Manila, tamarind and rice, the carabao,
cockfighting, Chinese tea and textiles, fireworks display, and tuba making went to
Mexico through this trans-Pacific trade. On the other hand, numerous and valuable flora
and fauna were brought into the Philippines through the return voyage of this trade.

Other consequences of this 250-year trade were intercultural exchanges

between Asia (especially Philippines), Spanish America, and onward to Europe and
Africa.The Manila Galleon trade facilitated the introduction of modern, liberal ideas into
the Philippines, which eventually inspired the movement for independence from Spain.
The trade ended on September 14, 1815 due to Mexico's war of independence. Prior to
this, the Philippines was governed by Spain from Mexico and administered directly from
Madrid. The opening of the Suez Canal and invention of steam ships reduced travel
time from Spain to the country to 40 days, making it more convenient for Spain to
govern directly.

Opening of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal is an artificial waterway in Egypt that connects the

Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by
the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869 under the leadership of French
diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, and officially opened on November 17, 1869. The
canal significantly reduced travel time between Europe and the Philippines, shortening a
journey that previously took over three months to only 32 to 40 days.

The opening of the Suez Canal had a huge impact on commercial enterprises,
particularly between Europe and East Asia. It also played a significant role in enabling
the growth of nationalistic desires among Filipino ilustrados, including Jose Rizal. The
canal expedited not only the importation of commercial products but also books,
magazines, and newspapers with liberal ideas from America and Europe, which
ultimately influenced the minds of Rizal and other Filipino reformists.

The availability of the Suez Canal encouraged ilustrados like Rizal to pursue
education abroad in European academic institutions where they learned scientific and
liberal ideas. Their social interactions with liberals in the West influenced their thoughts
on nationhood, politics, and government. Additionally, reduced travel time stimulated
more Spaniards and Europeans with liberal ideas to come to the Philippines and
interact with local reformists.
Rise of the Export of Crop Economy

In the Philippines, the rise of an export crop economy occurred in the 19th
century, after the end of the Galleon Trade. This new economy involved producing
crops such as sugar, Manila hemp, and coffee for foreign markets while importing
goods from European factories.

The expanding Chinese population found opportunities in this new industry by

moving to provinces that produced these export crops. North European and North
American merchants played a significant role in developing this industry by providing
capital, organization, and access to foreign markets and sources of imports. However,
their operations were mainly based in port cities like Manila. There was a need for
agents who could distribute imports in the interior and buy up goods for export. This role
was mainly taken on by the Chinese.

Monopolies

During the post-galleon era, monopoly contracting was a significant source of

wealth. After 1850, foreigners were allowed to participate in government monopoly
contracts for revenue collection in the Philippines. The Chinese took advantage of this
opportunity and dominated monopoly contracting for the rest of the 19th century. The
opium monopoly was particularly profitable, with most contracts held by the Chinese.
Monopolies on some products had already been established before 1850, controlled by
the colonial government. These included spirituous liquors, betel nut, tobacco, and
explosives. The tobacco monopoly was controversial and oppressive to locals.
Governor General Jose Basco established it in 1782 to increase government revenue
since the annual subsidy from Mexico was no longer sufficient to maintain the colony.

The tobacco monopoly required specific provinces to plant only tobacco and sell
their produce at a pre-designated price to the government, leaving little or no profit for
local farmers. Nobody was allowed to keep even a few tobacco leaves for personal use,
forcing them to buy from the government. Fines and physical punishments were
sanctioned for anyone who transgressed any decrees under this system. The colonial
government exported tobacco to other countries and cigarette factories in Manila,
positively raising revenues but causing food shortages as basic crops like rice were
neglected.

The tobacco monopoly lasted for exactly 100 years until it was abolished in 1882
due to a century of hardship and social injustice caused by it. Filipinos sought freedom
from colonial bondage as a result of this oppression.

The Social Background

Concerning the social picture of the 19th century Philippines, at least three
topics are needed to be discussed: (a) education, (b) the rise of Chinese Mestizo, (c)
the rise of the inquilinos.

Educational

With the coming of Spanish colonizers, the European system of education was
somewhat introduced to the archipelago. Schools were established and run by Catholic
missionaries.
During the Spanish colonial period, parochial schools were established by
missionaries to teach native children reading, writing, arithmetic, and some vocational
and practical arts subjects. Latin was also taught instead of Spanish. Corporal
punishment was used to ensure discipline. Colleges were later established for boys and
girls, with separate schools for each gender. Subjects taught included history, Latin,
geography, mathematics, and philosophy. University education was initially only
available to Spaniards and those with Spanish blood (mestizos), but eventually opened
up to native Filipinos in the 19th century. The church controlled the curriculum of these
institutions.
In 1863, a royal decree called for the establishment of a public school system in
the Philippines which was administered by the government during the last half of the
19th century. Universities became open to natives but limited their accommodations to
wealthy Indio families. The emergence of educated natives led to the creation of a new
social class known as Ilustrados who aimed to be on equal footing with Spaniards
despite being deemed inferior by them.
 With faster and more affordable travel to Europe via the Suez Canal, many locals
pursued higher education in Madrid and Barcelona where nationalism and reform
bloomed in a liberal atmosphere. The Ilustrados led the Philippine independence
movement using Spanish as their key means of communication. José Rizal was one of
the most prominent Ilustrados who inspired freedom and independence through his
novels written in Spanish.

Rise of Chinese Mestizo

In the 19th century, changes in Europe began to affect Spain and the Philippines.
The abolition of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon monopoly allowed foreign merchants to
trade with Manila without restriction by the mid-1830s. This led to an increase in
demand for Philippine sugar and hemp, resulting in a growth of exports to European
countries. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 further increased exports.
The development of commercial agriculture in the Philippines created a new
class of landowners, including Chinese-Filipino mestizos who owned haciendas
producing sugar, coffee, and hemp. These families played a vital role in the country's
economics and politics during the 19th century and continue to do so today.

Rise of the Inquilinos

The term "inquilino" in modern Spanish means "tenant," and in the 19th century
Philippines, it referred to a qualified system of tenancy where individuals had the right to
use land in exchange for rent. The elimination of the Galleon Trade and the opening of
the Suez Canal led to more intensive rice cultivation and production of crops like sugar
cane and tobacco, causing many estates to adopt the inquilino system.
Estate management was typically granted to an administrator who collected rent
from inquilinos, organized harvest deliveries, and remitted income from sales and rents
to estate owners. Some inquilinos acted as overlords, making irrational demands from
farm workers.
Inquilinos paid a fixed rent determined by the size and quality of land being
worked on. As missionary congregations expanded their land ownership, more
farmlands were leased to inquilinos, allowing them to sub-lease parcels of their land to
sharecroppers or kasamas. This system became profitable enough that some inquilinos
acquired lands of their own or entered other commercial ventures. Some even ceased
farming altogether and delegated the job entirely to their sub-tenants.
THE POLITICAL LANSCAPE
The so-called political influences affecting the 19th century-Philippines largely impacted
the locals, particularly Jose Rizal. Under these political influences, worthy of mention
are (a) Liberalism, (b) the impact of the Bourbon reforms, and (c) the Cadiz constitution.

LIBERALISM
Liberalism is a worldview founded on ideas of freedom and equality. It includes a
wide range of political philosophies that consider individual liberty to be the most
significant political goal, and underscore individual rights and equality of opportunity.
Liberals normally believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being
abused by others though they are also aware that government itself can pose a threat to
liberty.
The French revolution (1789-1799) started a political revolution in Europe and
consequently in some other parts of the globe, "Having 'Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity"
as its battle cry, thig revolution became a period of fundamental change in the political
history of France as the French governmental structure changed from absolute
monarchy (with feudal privileges for the rich and clergy) into a more liberal government
system founded on the principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.
As an eventual repercussion of the French Revolution, Spain later experienced a
stormy century of political disturbances, which included "numerous changed in
parliaments and constitutions, the Peninsular War, the loss Of Spanish America, and
the struggle between liberals and conservatives" (Vallano, n.d.). The liberals in Spain
considered the Catholic Church as an enemy of reforms. They thus pursued curbing its
influence in political life and education. In the 19th century, this movement against the
Catholic Church, called anti-clericalism, had gained some strength. Radical
modifications in government form were also introduced by liberals in Spain.
The Impact of the Bourbon Reforms
The Bourbon Reforms were a century-long effort by Spanish Bourbon Kings to
reform and modify the Spanish empire. The policies aimed to curtail contraband
commerce, reclaim control over transatlantic trade, restrict the church's power, reform
state finances, and found tighter administrative and political control within the empire.
However, the effectiveness of these policies was questionable due to their lack of
ideological coherence and diverse aims of Madrid policymakers.

The reform process was also complex, with different policies promoted for
provinces in its diverse empire. As a consequence, there were very different impacts of
reform in the diverse Spanish empire, having deep consequences of colonial policy
innovations in some areas while in others like the Philippines, Chile, and New Granada
had a much more limited impact. Nonetheless, it gave people an idea that colonization
could be done without much intervention from the Catholic Church.

The Cadiz Constitution

In March 1812, during the Napoleonic occupation of Spain, a liberal constitution

was established in Cådiz. The Cadiz Constitution recognized national sovereignty as
coming from the people and not from the king, making it the first constitution in Europe
to do so. Unlike the French constitution, which only applied to French-speaking citizens
of France, the Cadiz Constitution had a universal character that included everyone from
overseas, such as the Italian Kingdoms and even the Philippines. The British Navy
protected Cådiz during this time, allowing around 300 deputies from Spain, Spanish
America, and the Philippines to promulgate this constitution.

The Cadiz Constitution established principles such as universal male suffrage,

constitutional monarchy, freedom of the press, land reform and free enterprise. It also
granted representation to all Spanish colonies as provinces in the Spanish Cortes
through deputies chosen by their respective capital cities. The principles of this
milestone constitution had an impact on many other European constitutions and on
American states after independence.
 The first delegates from the Philippines who took their oath of office in Madrid
were Pedro Perez de Tagle and Jose Manuel Coretto. The Cadiz Constitution was
formally implemented in Manila soon after its establishment in Cådiz.

Governor General Manuel Gonzales Aguilar called for an election of Manila

officials, resulting in the selection of Don Ventura de los Reyes as the deputy. Don
Ventura de los Reyes was a wealthy merchant and member of the Royal Corps of
Artillery of Manila, born to poor Ilocano parents. He participated in the Ilocos revolt led
by Diego Silang in 1762 and later engaged in the vegetable and indigo business. He
was one of the delegates who signed the Constitution, but it was only after a year that
those in Manila knew about its decrees.

The Cadiz Constitution attempted to establish a constitutional monarchy, but

King Fernando VII declared it invalid and restored absolutism in May 1814. Despite this,
Cådiz was a significant period in the political history of the Spanish-speaking world. The
constitution embodied a crucial creed for locals in the Philippines: exemption of natives
from paying tributes and rendering public services based on its equality clause.

The liberal constitution vested sovereignty in people, recognized equality among

all men and individual liberty of citizens, and granted suffrage rights. It was influential for
freedom-loving people in 19th century Philippines.

B. Understanding Rizal in the Context of the 19th Century Philippines

SEEING RIZAL’S LIFE IN HIS SOCIETY

The principle that an individual's life is seen in their society and vice versa is
widely accepted in social sciences. Rizal's society in 19th century Philippines is
discussed as a preliminary study of his life and works. Rizal possessed a quality of mind
called the "sociological imagination" which allowed him to use valuable information
about his society to think about what was happening in the world and within himself.

This quality of mind enables individuals to view their inner life career in terms of
larger historical forces, understand their own experiences by locating themselves in
history, and recognize the responses available to them by becoming aware of all
individuals who share the same situation as themselves.

People who lack this quality of mind are unlikely to know how to respond
effectively to a world where people's lives around the globe are interconnected, and one
society's problems are part of larger global problems. On the other hand, those who
possess the sociological imagination can grasp history in the context of realities they
face and the connections between them. Rizal had this quality, he knew his place in the
greater scheme of things, understood societal forces shaping his life, and was able to
respond in ways that benefitted others.

government on the local level.

They were responsible for
education
and health measures. These
missionaries emphasized the
teachings of the Catholic
religion starting from the
primary level
to the tertiary level of
education. Obsolete teaching
methods were
practiced. They had a
limited curriculum. The
students in
the primary level were
taught the Christian
Doctrines, the
reading of Spanish books
and a little of the natives
language.
Science and Mathematics
were not very much taught
to
the students even in
the universities. Aside from
the
Christian Doctrines taught,
Latin was also taught to
the
students instead of Spanish.
There were poor classroom
facilities.
There was an absence of
teaching materials.
Primary education was
neglected
The absence of academic
freedom in Spain s educational
system
was extended to the
schools that Spaniards
established in the
Philippines. Learning in every
level was largely by rote.
Students
memorized and repeated the
contents of book which
they
did not understand. In most
cases, knowledge was measured
in the
ability of the students to
memorize, largely hampering
intellectual
progress. There was an
evident prejudice against
Filipinos in the
schools of higher learning. In
entirety, education during the
Spanish
regime was privileged only
to Spanish students. The
supposed
Philippine education was only a
means to remain in the
Philippines
as colonizers. For this reason,
the Filipinos became followers
to the
Spaniards in their own
country. Even auspicious
Filipinos became
cronies, to the extent that even
their lifestyles were patterned
from
the Spaniards. Friars have
control over the system.
The friars
controlled the educational
system during the Spanish
times. They
owned different schools,
ranging from the primary
level to the
tertiary levels of education.
The missionaries took
charge in
teaching, controlling and
maintaining the rules and
regulations
imposed to the students