INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE ENGINEERING

• A bridge is a construction made for carrying the road traffic or other moving loads in order
to pass through an obstacle or other constructions. The required passage may be for
pedestrians, a road, a railway, a canal, a pipeline, etc. Obstacle can be rivers, valley, sea
channels, and other constructions, such as bridges themselves, buildings, railways or
roads.
• Bridge Engineering is a field of engineering (particularly a significant branch of structural
engineering) dealing with the surveying, plan, design, analysis, construction,
management, and maintenance of bridges that support or resist loads.
BRIDGE DESIGNATIONS
• If it carries road traffic or railway traffic or a pipe line over a channel or a valley: Bridge
• If it carries the traffic or pipe over a communication system like roads or railways: Fly-
over/Over-Bridge
• Bridge (several small spans) constructed over a busy locality, a valley, dry or wetland, or forming
a flyover to carry the vehicular traffic: Viaduct
BRIDGE COMPONENTS
A. Superstructure o Represents the portion of a bridge above the bearings.
o The part of a bridge supported by the bearings, including deck, girder, truss, etc.
o The deck directly carries traffic, while other portions of the superstructure bear the loads
passing over it and transmit them to the substructures.
B. Bearings o A component of a bridge transmitting the loads received from the deck on to
the substructure and to allow controlled movement due to temperature variation or
seismic activity and reduce the stress involved. o Boundary between the superstructure
and the substructure
C. Substructure o The portion of the bridge below the bearing, sed for supporting the bridge
superstructure and transmits all those loads to ground. o It includes abutments, piers,
wing walls, or retaining walls, and foundation structures like columns and piles, drilled
shafts that made of wood, masonry, stone, concrete, and steel.
BRIDGE LENGTH, SPAN LENGTH, BRIDGE WIDTH and BRIDGE CLEARANCE
• Span Length / Clear Span – distance between centers of two bearings at supports
• Total Bridge Length – the distance between the end of wing walls at either abutments or
the deck lane length for bridges without using abutments
• Deck Width – the sum of the carriageway width, sidewalk width, shoulder width, and the
individual elements required to make up the desired bridge cross section.
• The total bridge width not only includes the deck width but also the width of the bridge
accessories such as parapet.
• Bridge Clearance – there are two types of bridge clearance, including clearance of bridge
span and clearance above bridge floor.
• Clearance of bridge span – generally measured from the water surface (or ground, if there
is no water) to the undersurface of the bridge.
• Clearance above bridge floor – space limit for carriageway and sidewalk, which is generally
specified in the bridge design specification to ensure the traffic safety above the bridge.

Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1

 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF BRIDGE

BRIDGE CLASSIFICATION
I. Materials of Construction
Bridges can be identified by the materials from which their superstructures are built,
namely, steel, concrete, timber, stone, aluminum, and advanced composite materials. This is
not suggested that only one kind of material is used exclusively to build these bridges.
Frequently, a combination of materials is used in bridge building.
II. Span Length

Culverts L ≤ 20ft (~6m)

Short Span Bridges 20ft < L ≤ 125ft (approximately from 6 to 38m)
Medium Span Bridges 125ft < L ≤ 400ft (approximately from 38 to
125m)
Long Span Bridges L > 400ft (125m ~)

III. Position- Moveable Bridges

1. Bascule Bridges – a kind of widely used moveable bridge whose main girders can
be lifted together with deck about the hinge located at the end of the span.
• A bascule bridge (also referred to as a drawbridge or a lifting bridge) is a
moveable bridge with a counterweight that continuously balances a span, or
leaf, throughout its upward swing to provide clearance for boat traffic. It may be
single- or double-leafed.
2. Swing Bridges - the girders together with the deck can be swung about the vertical
support ring at the pier in the middle (or abutment at the end), to allow the traffic to
cross.
• A swing bridge (or swing span bridge) is a movable bridge that has as its primary
structural support a vertical locating pin and support ring, usually at or near to
its center of gravity, about which the swing span (turning span) can then pivot
horizontally as shown in the animated illustration to the right. Small swing
bridges as found over canals may be pivoted only at one end, opening as would
a gate, but require substantial underground structure to support the pivot.
3. Lift Bridges – gantries are provided at the piers at either end of the span. Both girder
and the floor systems are lifted by a hydraulic arrangement to the extent required for
free passage of the ship.

Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1

 • A vertical-lift bridge or just lift bridge is a type of movable bridge in which a span
rises vertically while remaining parallel with the deck.

IV. Interspan Relation Bridges

1. Simply Supported Bridges – for this type of bridge, the load carrying member is
simply supported at both ends. They are statically determinate structures and suitable
to be constructed at bridge foundations that uneven settlements are likely to happen.
In general, the bridge is divided into several individual spans with relatively short span
length.
2. Continuous Bridges – These are statically indeterminate structures, whose spans
are continuous over three or more supports. And this have been used extensively in
bridge structures due to the benefits of higher span-to-depth ratio, higher stiffness
ratios, reduced deflections, less expansion joints and less vibrations.
In continuous bridges, the positive bending moment is much smaller than that
in simply supported span due to the absence of the negative bending at the
intermediate piers; thus they generally need smaller sections and have considerable
saving compared to simply supported bridge construction.
3. Cantilever Bridges – It is a bridge whose main structures are cantilevers, which are
used to build girder bridges and truss bridges. A cantilever bridge has advantages in
both simply supported and continuous bridges, like they are suitable for foundation
with uneven settlement; they can be built without falseworks but has larger span
capacity. Cantilever bridges were not only built as girder bridges but also widely used
in truss bridges.
V. Deck Location

1. Deck Bridges – the bridge where deck is placed on the top of the main structure
2. Through Bridge – the bridge where the deck is located on the bottom of the main structure
3. Half- through Bridge – the bridge where the deck is located on the middle of the main
structure

VI. Geometric Shape

1. Straight Bridges – it is the bridge axis that follows a straight line. The bridges should
be constructed in straight to avoid the extra forces such as torsions and to simplify the
bridge design, analysis and construction.
2. Skewed Bridges – these are often used in highway design when the geometry cannot
accommodate straight bridges. These are generally not preferred and sparingly
chosen due to the difficulties in the design.
3. Curved Bridges – this is more difficult in both design and construction. Most highway
and railway bridges follow a straight alignment, while some bridges need to be
designed as partly or wholly curved in plan for different purposes. For road bridges,
like interconnected urban vehicular overpass, curvature is usually required for the
convenience in spatial arrangement.

VII. Usage

1. Highway Bridge - is a structure that carries a highway over an obstruction. Structures

remain functional as long as their load-carrying capacity exceeds the demands
required of them.
2. Pedestrian Bridge - A footbridge (also a pedestrian bridge, pedestrian overpass, or
pedestrian overcrossing) is a bridge designed solely for pedestrians.
3. Railway Bridge - A railroad bridge is a structure constructed for the exclusive purpose
of carrying railroad traffic across an obstruction. Since the construction of the first
Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1
 modern railway bridge in the 1820s, railway bridge engineering has evolved
extensively.
4. Airport Runway Bridge – is built as runways for airplanes, and its width mainly
depends on the wingspan of the aircraft, which varies widely.
5. Aqueduct Bridge – is a bridge constructed for carrying water, like a viaduct that
connects points of same height.
6. Pipeline Bridges – are designed for carrying the fluids such as water, oil, and gas
when it is not possible to run the pipeline on a conventional bridge or under the river.
7. Conveyor Bridges – is designed as an automatic unit for the removal of overburden
and for dumping it onto the inner spoil banks of open cut mines.
8. Combined Bridges – designed for two or more functions.

9. Temporary Bridges – are used in natural disasters (also named as emergency

bridges) and in the war (military bridges) that can be easily assembled and then taken
apart in the war are also used in practice.

VIII. Structural Form

1. Arch Bridges – a bridge shaped as an upward convex curved arch to sustain the
vertical loads. A simple arch bridge works by transferring its weight and other loads
partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the strong abutments at either side.
Arch types of bridges use one or more arches as the main structural component,
with the arches positioned beneath the deck. This method dates back many thousands
of years, with stone and brick being the most commonly used materials. However, in
modern times you will see arch bridges constructed from concrete.

A bridge’s load is the weight of the bridge itself (called the dead load), combined
with the weight of whatever it carries (the live load). An arch bridge uses the forces of
load and gravity, which otherwise might send a bridge tumbling downward, to hold it
up instead.

An arch bridge works by conveying the downward pressure of gravity inward to the
center of the structure — toward a central stone called the keystone — rather than
straight down. This principle is called compression, and it enables the arch below to
support the surface, or deck, above it.

Examples of Arch Bridges

• New River Gorge Bridge, Fayette County, West Virginia, USA.

• Rialto Bridge, Venice, Italy.
• Stari Most Bridge, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

2. Beam Bridges – also referred to as Girder Bridges. The most common, inexpensive,
and simplest structural forms supported between abutments or piers. In its most basic
Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1
 form, a beam bridge is just supported at each end by piers (or abutments), such as a
log across a creek.

In beam bridges, the force of compression pushes the load inward onto piers at the
middle of the bridge. Simultaneously, the pulling or stretching force of tension pulls the load
outward toward the abutments at both ends of the bridge.

Examples of Beam Bridges

• Donghai Bridge: connects Pudong New area in Shanghai to Yangsang Deep

Water Port in Zhejiang. 20.2 miles in length from one end to the other!
• Manchac Swamp Bridge, Louisiana, USA.
• Dhola Sadiya Bridge, over the Lohit River in India.

3. Cantilever Bridge – This type uses a pillar anchored vertically into the ground to
support a horizontal deck extending out from one or both sides across the span. The
load often is supported from both above and below. A diving board or platform is a
good example of cantilever construction. A cantilever bridge is built using pillars
securely anchored to the ground. The structure is then constructed outwards from
each pillar with the horizontal beam often supported using diagonal bracing.

The world’s longest cantilever span belongs to the Quebec Bridge in Canada,
which was built in 1919 and extends 1,800 feet. It surpassed the length of the Forth
Bridge in Scotland, which was completed in 1890.

Cantilever bridges are often supported with trusses. A bridge truss takes the load off
the deck and transfers it to the supporting piers and abutments, helping the cantilevers
withstand tension in the upper supports and compression in the lower ones.

Examples of Cantilever Bridges

• Forth Bridge, Scotland, UK.

• Quebec Bridge, Quebec, Canada.

Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1

 • Minato Bridge, Osaka, Japan.

4. Truss Bridge – is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units, and a

bridge whose load- bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. This are one of the
oldest types of modern bridges. In order to simplify the calculation, trusses are
generally assumed as pinned connection between adjacent truss members.

The trusses are constructed vertically and horizontally which absorb tension and
compression. The end result is a structure and decking area capable of withstanding
relatively strong winds. The truss design is reasonably inexpensive and has been
around for a long time. In the early days during the 19th century, most were built of
wood, before later shifting to iron and steel.

A truss bridge distributes its load across a series of small sections fitted together.
Formed by structural beams for smaller bridges or box girders for larger ones, bridge
trusses are typically bound together by welded or riveted joints in a series of triangles.

Examples of Truss Bridges • Tokyo Gate Bridge,

Kōtō City, Japan.

• Astoria-Megler Bridge, Columbia River, USA.

• Quebec Bridge, Canada.

5. Suspension Bridge – a continuous girder suspended by suspension cables, which

pass through the main towers with the aid of a special structure known as a saddle,
and end on big anchorages that hold them. The main forces in a suspension bridge
are tension in the cables and compression in the towers.

Suspension bridges also can be affected by torsion, a twisting force often caused
by environmental factors like wind, which can create dangerous movement. If the
Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1
 surface of a bridge twists enough while travelers are on it, they can be thrown off. And
while torsion creates stress on a vertical plane, shear imparts a similar effect
horizontally. It happens when environmental forces put pressure in opposite directions
on a single, fastened part of a bridge, breaking it like a stick between two hands.

Examples of Suspension Bridges

• 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, Turkey.

• Humber Bridge, England, UK.
• Golden Gate Bridge Suspension Bridge, San Francisco, US.

6. Cable-Stayed Bridges - a structure with several points in each span between the
towers supported upward in a slanting direction with inclined cables and consists of
main towers, cable stays and main girders.
The cable-stayed bridge dates back to the 16th century and remains a popular
design for spans greater than those of cantilever bridges – but shorter than the longest
suspension bridges. This design uses deck cables connected to one or more vertical
columns, towers, or pylons which can be connected in either a fan or harp
configuration. Although the deck relies on the cables for support, this method should
not be confused with the suspension bridge that uses vertical cables between the deck
and the main support cable. The most common build materials used in cable-stayed
bridges are steel or concrete pylons, post-tensioned concrete box girders, and steel
rope.

Examples of Cable-Stayed Bridges

• Millau Bridge, Occitanie, France.

• Queensferry Bridge, Scotland, UK.
• Jiaxing-Shaoxing Sea Bridge (Jiashao Bridge), China.

Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1

MATERIALS USED ON BRIDGES

• Wood — A popular material for trusses and trestles in the 1800s, wood was also used
for covered bridges. Its use gave way to more durable options that weren’t susceptible to
warping, splintering, and termites.
• Stone — A low-maintenance and durable option often used for arched bridges, stone was
often used for bridge-building in the Roman era.
• Concrete and steel — In more modern times, a combination of concrete and steel is
most often used for freeway overpasses, etc.
• Advanced materials — Construction materials are evolving to respond to specific
environmental conditions and cut down on maintenance. These include fiber-reinforced
plastics, high-performance concrete, and composite materials.

Engr. Marjorie A. Manalo - Catapang, RCE, RMP, MPA, ME-1

FORCES THAT INFLUENCE DIFFERENT BRIDGE DESIGNS

Bridge designs are based on more than aesthetics. In addition to the topographical and logistical
conditions where a bridge will be built, there are also natural forces to consider. Some of the
forces of nature that act upon bridges are:

• Gravity — The downward pull is a bigger deal with bridges than buildings. Unlike a
home or a skyscraper, most of what’s under a bridge is empty space.
• Load — The weight of the bridge itself is combined with the weight of whatever it
carries. The longer a bridge is, and the more people, cars, and other things it carries,
the heavier its load.
• Compression — The pushing or squeezing force that creates inward movement
toward the center, compression is what helps keep arched bridges standing. But with
too much compression, a bridge can buckle.
• Tension — In the opposite direction, tension is the pulling or stretching force that
creates outward movement away from the center. Tension in vertical cables is what
sustains suspension bridges. But with too much tension, a bridge can snap.
• Torsion — This twisting force, often caused by environmental forces like wind, can
cause dangerous movement in structures like suspension bridges. If the surface of a
bridge twists enough while travelers are on it, they can be thrown off.
• Shear — While torsion creates stress on a vertical plane, shear is a force that imparts
a similar effect, but on a horizontal plane. It happens when environmental forces put
pressure in opposite directions on a single fastened part of a bridge.
• Vibration/ resonance — When wind or movement across a bridge matches its natural
frequency of vibration, it can cause a phenomenon called resonance. If vibrations are
extreme enough, they can disrupt crossings and cause a collapse.

SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPES

The selection of the proper type of bridge is determined based on the results of
topographic survey, geological survey, traffic survey, geotechnical survey, hydro technical
survey, seismic survey and meteorological survey, as well as the cost, environmental
impact and esthetics.
Selection of the bridge superstructures is closely related to the use of construction
materials. Based on the materials used for superstructure construction, the modern
bridges can be roughly divided into concrete bridges and steel bridges with different
structural forms.
The bridge foundation is another factor that may affect the selection of the bridge
superstructures. When unyielding foundation is attainable for building the intermediate
piers, then continuous girders supported by independent piers and multispans rigid
frames will be good options.

BRIDGE PLANNING AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

The bridge structures are important components in highway, railway, and urban roads
and play important roles in economy, politics, culture, as well as national defense. Especially for
medium span and larger span bridges, they are generally served as “lifeline” engineering due
to their vital functions in the transportation network. Therefore, the bridge structures should be
carefully planned and designed before the construction. The bridge design process, bridge
design philosophy will be discussed in this chapter.
 In bridge design survey, planning, and design, the structural safety, serviceability,
economic efficiency constructability, feasibility in structural maintenance, environmental impact,
etc., should be considered to propose an appropriate bridge location and suitable structural
type.

BRIDGE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Two thousand years ago, in “De Arhitectura,” Marcus Vitruvius Pillo proclaimed:
“structures shall be safe, functional and beautiful”. Until today, we still cannot escape from the
three goals but only modify this slightly to: “A bridge must be safe, functional, economical and
beautiful!”
According to JRA's explanation, the fitness for the purpose of use of a bridge encompasses its
ability to function as intended, ensuring safe and comfortable usage for users. Bridge safety
involves adequate load-carrying capacity for dead loads, live loads, seismic loads, etc.,
occurring during the bridge's service stage.

Durability implies that the bridge's performance does not significantly deteriorate with age
in terms of safety and serviceability. Constructability must ensure that the proposed bridge
design can be realized using available technology and guarantee structural safety during
construction and service stages, as well as durability.

Reliability and ease of maintenance require that repair and service work can be easily
performed when damage or deterioration occurs. Planning suitable maintenance methods in
the design stage is essential for scheduled inspections during the in-service stage.
Environmental compatibility necessitates considering the impact of bridge construction on the
local environment, including marine life, wildlife, riverbanks, flora and fauna, and archeological
sites.

Finally, economic efficiency requires minimizing the life cycle cost of the bridge, which
encompasses initial cost, maintenance and inspection cost, future rehabilitation costs, and
removal cost over a given study period.

BRIDGE SURVEY

Bridge surveying is important because it can provide information for the whole bridge design
process. Though reconnaissance surveys are generally made at all possible bridge sites and
provide information for bridge location and bridge type selection, a detailed survey is performed
at the best suite to get information for the bridge design and construction planning.
Bridge surveying as a whole comprises of more specific types of surveys to

o traffic survey is the first to be conducted to predict the amount of traffic at various
stages during the service life of the bridge and can gauge the necessity of a new
bridge
o topographic and geologic surveys are performed to determine a topographic and
geologic map, respectively, which helps determine bridge specifications such as
location, structural type, total length, and span-length ratio
o geotechnical and hydrotechnical surveys encompass soil experiments and
underground water level, investigate the cross-section of rivers, tide and water level,
and flow of navigation ships to provide information for the design and construction of
the bridge foundation
o seismic surveys look into seismographic and earthquake disaster records o
meteorological surveys investigate records on wind speed, air temperature, rainfall,
and snowfall
BRIDGE PLANNING AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN

In bridge planning, selecting the appropriate location and structural type is crucial, taking
into account factors such as route alignment, topography, geology, meteorology, and any objects
to be crossed. Geometric design encompasses various aspects including graphic, horizontal,
vertical design, as well as design of cross sections, intersections, and other details. The
objectives of geometric design are to optimize serviceability, structural safety, cost-
effectiveness, and aesthetic appeal while minimizing environmental impacts.

1. Horizontal Layout

The process of determining bridge location begins with considering the alignment
of the main road, with smaller bridges and culverts typically following this direction.
Factors such as hydrology and road curves influence the design, often resulting in curved
or skew bridges. Medium to large bridges should ideally align with the main route,
requiring comprehensive assessment of both road and bridge needs. Selection criteria
include stable water flow and geological conditions. Design specifications dictate details
such as horizontal curve radius, super elevation, easement curve, and speed-change
lane setup to ensure safety and functionality

2. Longitudinal Elevation

The bridge horizontal (or longitudinal) design includes the total span length, the
number of spans, the bridge elevation and longitudinal slope, the burial depth of the
foundation, etc.

a. Total Length o The total length of a bridge is typically determined based on

hydrological conditions. It must accommodate the design flood discharge
and allow passage for drift ice, vessels, rafts, and other objects in the water.

b. Number of Spans
o In long bridges, the total length is typically divided into multiple spans.
The number of spans impacts not only the aesthetic appearance and
construction challenges but also significantly influences the overall
bridge cost. Larger span lengths result in fewer spans, reducing
foundation costs but increasing superstructure expenses. Conversely,
more spans with shorter lengths decrease superstructure costs but
raise substructure expenses.

3. Transverse Cross Section

The cross-section of a bridge is primarily determined by its width and structural

type. Bridge width is based on traffic demand, typically matching the width of the road
it serves. The clearance limit above the deck is determined by the bridge's
significance and the design speed of the highway it connects to.

BRIDGE DESIGN METHODS

1. Allowable Stress Design

• It is also referred to as the service load design or working stress design (WSD).
• The basic conception of this method is that the maximum stress in a structural
member is always smaller than a certain allowable stress in bridge working or
service conditions.
 • The allowable stress of a material determined according to its nominal strength
over the safety factor. Therefore, the design equation of the ASD method can
be expressed as:

2. Load Factor Design

• To overcome the drawbacks of the ASD design method, the ultimate load
design method was developed in reinforced concrete design, which was
modified as the Load Factor Method Design (LFD).
• This method introduces different load factors (γi) and a strength reduction
factor (ϕ). The LFD design equation generally can be expressed as follows:

• Where:
γi is a load factor
ϕ is the strength reduction factor Qi is the load
effect
Rn is the nominal resistance

3. Load and Resistance Factor Design

• Limit State Design (LSD), also known as Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) in the United States, is the prevailing design concept for bridge design
worldwide. LRFD/LSD evaluates both failure and serviceability conditions,
considering uncertainties in loads and material resistances through the use of
load factors and resistance factors. Approved by AASHTO in 1994, LRFD is
incorporated into the LRFD Highway Bridge Design Specifications.

• The basis of LRFD methodology lies in this equation, where ηi represents the
load modifier, γi is the load factor ϕ is the resistance factor, Qi signifies load
effect, and Rn denotes nominal resistance. This approach addresses various
limit states, including strength, serviceability, fatigue and fracture, and extreme
events.

EARTHQUAKE AND WIND RESISTANT DESIGNS

I. Earthquake Resistant Design

a. Need to consider near-field ground motions in earthquake – resistant design
• An active fault may quake every 1000 years. The 50-year chance is about 5%.
Despite the low probability, this type of strong earthquake could occur in any
location, and their capacity for devastation should not be neglected.
b. Ground motion in earthquake – resistant design
• Two types of earthquake motions should be considered in assessing the
aseismic capacity of bridges. The first type is likely to strike a bridge once or
twice during its service life. The second type is very unlikely to strike a bridge
during the structure’s life time, but when it does, it is extremely strong.
• The concepts behind these two types of motion have been incorporated into
the existing earthquake-resistant design of some structures, these two types
of the ground motions are called “Level I earthquake motions” and “Level II
 earthquake motions” o Level I Earthquake Motions – the level in which
structures are not damaged when these motions strike
o Level II Earthquake Motions – the level in which an ultimate capacity of
earthquake resistance of a structure is assessed in plastic deformation
range.
c. Level II Earthquake Motions
• Level II earthquake motions generated by active inland faults are determined
based on identification of active faults that threaten an area and assumptions
of source mechanism, through comprehensive examination.
d. How Level II earthquake motions are expressed
• Level II earthquake motions are basically used for earthquake resistant
design based on damage control concepts.
• The motion features should be summarized, such as in the response spectrum
or the time history waveforms.
• To determine level II earthquake motions in the solid rock layer, it is important
to study the three-dimensional structures of the rock structures, gather more
data on the surface features and soil conditions, and do more research and
development.
e. Required aseismic capacity and earthquake resistant design of superstructures
• Structures, ideally, experience no damage during Level I earthquakes. Their
response to this level of seismic activity should remain within the elastic range,
ensuring no permanent deformation.
• Key structures needing quick repair after quakes can withstand damage but
must limit deformation to be easily fixed. Others can suffer damage but never
fully collapse.
• Advanced technologies like seismic isolation and active control are proposed.
For shorter structures, isolation boosts flexibility and energy absorption, while
active control with dampers targets longer structures.

II. Wind Resistant Design

a. General
• In the first half of the 19th century, suspension bridges occasionally collapsed
under the wind loads because girders tended to have insufficient rigidity.
• In the beginning of the 20th century, stiffening girders with less rigidity
reappeared as the deflection theory was applied to long span suspension
bridges.
• The Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed 4 months after its completion in 1940
under a wind velocity of only 19 m/s. The deck of the bridge was stiffened with
I-girders formed built-up plates. I-girders had low rigidity and aerodynamic
stability was very inferior as shown in recent windresistant design.

b. Analysis
• Gust response analysis is an analytical method to ascertain the forced vibration
of the structure by wind gusts. The results are used to calculate structural
deformations and stress in addition to those caused by mean wind.
• Divergence, one type of static instability, is analyzed by using finite
displacement analysis to examine the relationship between wind force and
deformation.
• Flutter is the most critical phenomenon in considering the dynamic stability of
suspension bridges because of the possibility of collapse.
c. Design Standard
 d. Wind Tunnel Testing
1. Two- Dimensional Test of Rigid Model with Spring Support
▪ The aerodynamic characteristics of a specific mode can be
studied. The scale of the model is generally higher than 1/100 of
the prototype.
2. Three-Dimensional Global Model Test
▪ Test used to examine the coupling effects of different modes.

e. Countermeasures against vibration

1. Increase structural damping
▪ Damping, a countermeasure based on structural mechanics, is
effective in decreasing the amplitude of vortex-induced
oscillations which are often observed during the construction of
the main towers.
2. Increase rigidity
▪ One way to increase rigidity is to increase the girder height. This
is an effective measure for suppressing flutter.
3. Aerodynamics mechanics
▪ It may also be necessary to adopt aerodynamic
countermeasures, such as providing openings in the deck, and
supplementals for stabilization in the stiffening girder.

BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Bridge design specifications, or design standard (code) is established to ensure bridge safety
in terms of stiffness, strength, and stability of the whole bridge or each bridge component.

1. Bridge Specifications in the United States

• The first national design specification for highway bridges in the United States
was published by the American Association of State Highway Officials
(AASHO) in 1927.
• Probability based load and resistance factor design (LRFD) philosophy was
first approved in 1994 in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.

2. Bridge Specifications in Japan

• The “Specifications for Highway Bridges” is the most basic highway bridge
design code in Japan. It applies to the bridges with the span length <200m.
 These specifications have been revised for several times, and the latest
version was updated in 2012.

3. Bridge Specifications in United Kingdom

• BS 5400 is a British Standard code for the design and construction of highway,
railway and pedestrian bridges made of steel, concrete and composite
materials
• In Mar. 2010, the British structural design standards including British bridge
code of BS 5400 was withdrawn and suspended by the Eurocodes.

4. Bridge Specifications in EU
• Eurocodes are the suites of European Standards developed by the European
Committee for the structural design of civil engineering structures within the
European Union.
• The Eurocodes that applicable to bridge structures include:
Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design
Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance Eurocode 9:
Design of aluminum structures

5. Bridge Specifications in China

• Two series of bridge specifications are used in China, including design
specifications for highway bridges and design specifications for railway
bridges. Six parts are included in the design specifications for highway bridges
in 1989. In the specifications, both load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
theory for reinforced prestressed concrete members and ASD theory for steel
and timber members are adopted.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DESIGN DRAWINGS

A. Structural Design
A structural design process involves designing a functional building structure
under any worst load it may experience. It is a methodical investigation of the
stability, strength and rigidity of structures. The basic objective in structural analysis
and design is to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without
failure during its intended life.
Structural design for a modern bridge involves a combination of engineering
principles, innovative materials, and advanced technologies to create a safe,
durable, and efficient structure.

In a bridge design, some factors need to be taken into consideration include:

(a)Probability of Structural Failure o This factor relates to the likelihood of
structural members of the bridge experiencing failure, either locally (in
specific sections) or entirely (resulting in a collapse of the entire bridge).
o A number of factors, including the materials utilized, the surrounding
environment, load capacity, and possible stress areas, need to be taken
into account by engineers.
 (b)Inspection of Facilities o These inspections are essential for monitoring the
condition of the bridge, identifying any signs of wear, damage, or
deterioration, and ensuring it continues to meet safety standards.
(c) Maintenance Methods o Maintenance methods are strategies and
procedures employed to preserve the functionality, safety, and longevity of
bridge members.

B. Design Drawings
Design drawing refers to papers and other materials prepared for providing
reference information. For example, the state of construction and other issues pertaining
to manufacturing and construction for structural analysis, building bridges, and
maintenance during the service phase. Since different temporary members are frequently
erected during the construction of highway bridges, ignorance of this information may
result in improper reactions during inspection and maintenance procedures.

The minimum information that should be provided in a design drawing specified

by Japan Road Association (JRA):

Route Name and Bridge Location: This information provides the context for the
specific location of the bridge within the road network. It helps identify the bridge's
position along the route, aiding in navigation and maintenance planning Bridge Name:
The name of the bridge serves as an identifier, allowing stakeholders to refer to the
structure by a unique designation. This is particularly important for communication and
documentation purposes.

Responsible Engineer: This indicates the individual or team responsible for the
design of the bridge. It ensures accountability and facilitates communication between
stakeholders involved in the project.

Date of Design: The date of design signifies when the design work was
completed. It helps track the timeline of the project and provides a reference point for
subsequent revisions or updates.

Major Design Conditions: This section outlines key parameters and

considerations that influenced the design process. Each subcategory (A-H) provides
specific details essential for understanding the design rationale and requirements:

(A) Bridge Classification: Describes the type or category of the bridge

based on factors such as span length, structural configuration, and intended use.

(B) Design Outline: Provides an overview of the design approach,

including structural form, materials, and construction methods.

(C) Load Condition: Specifies the anticipated loads and loading

scenarios the bridge is designed to withstand, such as traffic loads, environmental
loads, and seismic forces.

(D) Topographical, Geological, and Ground Conditions: Describes

the geological and ground conditions at the bridge site, including soil types,
groundwater levels, and geological hazards.

(E) Material Condition: Details the properties and specifications of

materials used in the bridge construction, such as concrete, steel, or composite
materials.
 (F) Manufacturing and Construction Conditions: Outlines specific
requirements and procedures for fabricating and erecting the bridge structure,
including quality control measures and construction techniques.

(G) Maintenance Conditions: Provides guidelines and

recommendations for ongoing maintenance and inspection activities to ensure the
bridge's long-term durability and safety.

(H) Other Relevant Matters: Includes any additional information or

considerations deemed relevant to the design, construction, or maintenance of the
bridge.

BRIDGE ESTHETIC DESIGN

A good bridge design should satisfy both functionality and esthetics. Visual design
elements of bridges are line (one-dimensional), shape (two-dimensional), form (three-
dimensional), color and texture. The appropriate arrangement of the visual design
elements leads to the order, proportion, rhythm, harmony, balance, contrast, scale,
illusion, unity, etc.
From the historical view point of esthetic bridge design, the requirements for an esthetic
bridge design are:
- Selection of the most artistic form in consideration of economy
- Expressiveness
- Symmetry
- Simplicity and Continuity
- Harmony and contrast
- Scale and Proportion
- Order and Balance
- Conformity with environment
- Proper combination of materials

TYPES OF LOADINGS

1. Dead Load
• The dead load is nothing but the self-weight of the bridge elements that
includes deck slab, wearing coat, railings, parapet, stiffeners and other utilities.
• It is the first design load to be calculated in the design of bridge.
2. Live Load
• The bridge’s live load is the load that moves along its whole length
• The moving loads are vehicles, pedestrians etc. but it is difficult to select one
vehicle or a group of vehicles to design a safe bridge.
3. Impact Loads
• Due to sudden loads which are caused when the vehicle is moving on the
bridge
• When the wheel is in movement, the live load will change periodically from one
wheel to another which results the impact load on bridge.
4. Wind Loads
• Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design
• For short span bridges, wind load can be negligible
• For medium span bridges, wind load should be considered for substructure
design
• For long span bridges, wind load is considered in the design of superstructure.
5. Longitudinal Forces
• Caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on the bridge
 • When the vehicle stops suddenly or accelerates suddenly, it induces
longitudinal forces on the bridge structure especially on the substructure
• 20% of live load should be considered as longitudinal force on the bridges
6. Centrifugal Forces
• If bridge is to be built on horizontal curves, then the movement of vehicle along
curves will cause centrifugal force on the super structure.
7. Buoyancy Effect
• It is considered for substructures of large bridges submerged under deep water
bodies
• If the depth of submergence is less it can be negligible
8. Effect of Water Current
• The water current induces horizontal forces on submerged portion.
• The forces caused by water currents are maximum at the top of water level
and zero at the bottom water level or at the bed level.
9. Thermal Stresses
• Caused due to temperature that induces stresses in bearings and deck joints.
• To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main
reinforcement should be provided
• Expansion joints are also provided
10. Seismic Loads
• In seismic zone or earthquake zone, earthquake loads must be considered.
They induce both vertical and horizontal forces during earthquake.
• The amount of forces exerted is mainly depends on the self-weight of the
structure. If weight of structure is more, larger forces will be exerted.
11. Deformation and Horizontal Effects
• Deformation stresses occur due to change in material properties either
internally or externally. The change may be creep, shrinkage of concrete, etc.
• Similarly horizontal forces will develop due to temperature changes, braking of
vehicles, earthquake etc. Hence, these are also be considered as design loads
in bridge design.
12. Erection Stresses
• Erection stress are induced by the construction equipment during the bridge
construction.
• These can be resisted by providing suitable supports for the members

LOADS AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Bridge structures are designed to carry traffic during their service lives. Bridge Loads are
actions in the form of forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure or its
components. The load acting on the bridge structures are generally divided into two categories:
1.) those acting on the superstructure and 2.) those acting on the substructure.
The major load components of highway bridges are dead load, live load (static and dynamic),
environmental loads (temperature, wind and earthquake) and other loads (collision, emergency
braking).

A. DEAD LOADS

1. Dead Loads on Bridge Superstructures

• Dead loads on highway bridge superstructures include the following:

o Weight of all structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)
o Weight of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
 • The deck may be of reinforced concrete, steel grid or wood; while the girders
may be different properties reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel or
wood. However, the dead load of components can be determined from their
section properties depending on the unit weight of their materials.
• The unit weight of reinforcement amount is generally taken as (0.005 kip/ft3)
plus the unit weight of plain concrete which generally equals (0.145 kip/ft 3). So,
in absence of more precise information, take the unit weight of reinforced
concrete (ϒc) sections equal to (0.150 kip/ft3).

2. Dead Load on Deck Slab

• The deck slab has to support its own dead weight plus the live load. The dead
weight of deck slab depends on its thickness which is related to the span length
in the slab bridges type. Whereas in the case of typical slab-girder in beam
bridges type, the deck slab thickness depends on the girder spacing.
• The deck slab almost includes integral wearing surface which is nonstructural
layer with typical thickness of (0.5in). Thus, the total or overall thickness of the
deck slab which should be used for dead load calculations is greater than its
structural thickness; while the strength calculations are relating just to the
structural thickness.

3. Dead Load on Girders

• A bridge girder has to support its own dead weight as well as the dead weight of
the tributary area of the deck slab it supports. Also, the girder has to support
the dead weight of some essential items that might not be obvious to the junior
engineers. A typical designed girder should support, in minimum, dead load
from following items: o Tributary area of the deck slab including the wearing
surface o Future wearing surface layer o Girder own weight including the
haunch o Traffic barriers including parapet and railing
o Permanent or stay-in-place (SIP) deck forms to support concrete slab
during construction
o Diaphragms and as applicable cross frames
o Intermediate and bearing stiffeners if built-up steel girders are used
o Construction Loads
o
** COMPUTATIONS

B. LIVE LOADS

1. Live Loads on Bridge Superstructures

• The live loads on highway bridges are represented by vehicular loading on the
roadways of bridges. The first serious effort to quantify highway live loads was
made in USA 1913, where the continuous work led to the first design live loads
based on 10- and 15- ton trucks, followed in 1924 by a 20-ton truck.
• These trucks are known as H10, H15 and H20 trucks respectively, the letter
(H) refers to highway and the (number) refers to total truck weight in tons.
Accordingly, the effect of these live loads is determined from the largest of the
followings: o Truck Loading o Equivalent Loading
• Truck Loading o Firstly, the highway truck loading was quantified based on
twoaxle truck (H) and then semitrailer truck (HS) was adopted for heavy-loaded
bridge. In 1944, configurations of trucks were designated in AASHTO
specifications with adding the year by two digits (44) the truck nomenclature.
o The 20-ton is the standard loading value used for design truck, the
difference in percentage and total load (gross vehicle load) of truck are
tabulated below where:
W : total weight of (H) trucks and combined weight on the first two
axles of (HS) truck
GVW: gross vehicle weight which is the total truck weight
 • Equivalent Loading o It is the combined load consists of lane load which is
uniformly distributed load is used a time with specific concentrated load for
moment and another time with different concentrated load for shear as
shown.

o The standard specifications stipulate those moments, shears and any

other forces are required to be determined separately as caused by
the truck and the equivalent loading. Thus, the larger of the two values
shall be used for design.

2. Vehicular Live Load

• The vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures

is defined by AASHTO specifications, designated as HL-93 where HL means
highway loading and 93 refers to year of officially approved (1993), shall
consist of a combination. o Design Truck: it is the HS20-44 truck as defined
previously. To produce extreme force effects, the rare axles spacing shall be
varied between 14 and 30 ft.
o Design Tandem: the design tandem shall consist of a pair of axles of 25-
kip load and spaced 4 ft apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be
taken as 6ft. o Design Lane Load: Uniformly distributed load of 0.64 kip/ft
 in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load is assumed
to be uniformly distributed over a width of 10ft.
• The tandem load, also known as the alternate military loading, is specified to
stimulate military loading and typically governs design of spans approximately
shorter than 40ft.

a) Maximum Moment and Shear for Moving Load

To find the maximum bending moment of moving load (MMO) as truck (MTR) or tandem
(MTa), follow that:
• Find the distance (X) between the resultant ® of moving load and its nearest
axle load.
• Then, neglect (R) and assume its nearest axle load lies at point (o) of distance
(0.5X) from the center of the span.
• Determine the positions of the other front and rear axles of the moving load on
the span.
• Compute the supports reactions, then make a cut at point (o) to find the
moment therein.
The maximum shear force (VTr) or (VTa) can be computed instantaneously on a
support when the entire moving load is inside the span and its rear axle is closest
to that support. • If L ≥ 40.27 ft → MMo = MTr
• If L ≥ 26 ft → VMo = VTr

b) Approximate Maximum Moment for Moving Load

The maximum bending moment can be approximately calculated with acceptable results
by positing the larger load from near axles to the resultant on the center line of the simple
beam.
c) Dynamic Load Allowance
It is clear that when a moving vehicle across a bridge at a specified sped, stresses are
produced greater than ones when the vehicle remains static on the bridge. The static
effects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and braking forces on
superstructure and other bridge portions above the ground level shall be increased by
the percentage specified by AASHTO for dynamic load allowance (DLA).
The (DLA) factor (IM) to be applied to the static load shall be taken as : (1
+ IM). In contrast, the (IM) shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to design
lane load.

d) Multiple Presence of Live Load

The multiple presence factor (m) is needed to investigate the position of vehicular Live
Load, thereby, the design lane width (12ft) is greater than the truck width (10ft). So, the
m factor is depending on number of loaded lanes (NL) on the roadway of the bridge.
The m factor to be applied to the vehicular live load shall be taken as: m
(QMO + IM).
Possible future changes in the physical or functional clear roadway width of the bridge
should be considered during determination of lanes. Roadway widths (10 – 12 ft) shall
have two design lanes, each equal to one-half the roadway width.
Thus, NL is:
• 10 ≤ w ≤ 20ft NL = 1
• 20 ≤ w ≤ 24ft NL = 2
• W > 12FT NL = INT (W/12) w = W – 2(We)
where: w : the clear roadway width
W : overall bridge width
We : distance between the inside face of the curb and the edge of
the deck
** COMPUTATIONS

C. LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION FACTORS

Live load distribution factor (DF) is used because the moving load (truck or tandem)
cannot be concentrated on one exterior or interior girder. Thereby, presence of deck slab
leads to distribute the live load into all supporting girders because the deck slab acts as
a wide plate. The girder under the wheel line is subjected to a main fraction of load while
the rest of fraction is participated by the adjacent girders.

The (DF) values of moment differ from that used for shear. Also, the values of interior
girder are different from that of exterior girder. In general, there are values for one (single)
loaded lane and two or more (multiple) loaded lanes. The (DFs) are expressed as:
• DFmi: for bending moment in the interior girders g mi
• DFvi: for shear in the interior girders gvi
• DFme: for bending moments in the exterior girders gme
• DFve: for shear in the exterior girders gve
So, the greater value governs in each interior and exterior girder. However, in case of
precast prestress concrete girders, the greatest among the four values in governing.
MLL+IM = [MMO(1 + IM) + MLn] DFm
VLL+I = [VMO (1 + IM) + VLn] DFv

1. AASHTO LRFD Tables

The (DF) values can be determined from AASHTO LRFD Tables where equations are
already adopted and multiple presence factor is included (m=1) but with local stipulations.
Other cases, lever rule method is applicable where (m) value is required. Ng: number of
girders
L: length of span (ft) S: spacing of
girders (ft) hd: thickness of deck slab
(in)
Kg: longitudinal stiffness parameter (in4)
e : transforming factor
de: distance from exterior girder center to the inside edge of curb or barrier (ft)

The longitudinal stiffness parameter (Kg) shall be taken as” Kg

= n (Ig + Ag * eg2) n = Eg / Ed
where: Eg : modulus of elasticity of girder material (ksi)
Ed: modulus of elasticity of deck material (ksi)
Ag : area of girder (in2)
Ig : moment of inertia of the basic girder (in4)
Eg: distance between the centers of gravity of the basic girder and deck (i
2. Lever Rule
The lever rule is an analytical tool similar to determining the reaction at the supports of
a simple beam with or without a loaded overhang. This method assuming there is hinge
at the interior support. Thus the (DF) of the exterior girder is the reaction (Re). The axle
load (P) is assumed to equal one-unit weight and the presence factor (m) almost single
lane loaded.
Re = X * R/S
R = 1 → Re = X/S
DF = m Re
→ gme1 = gve1 = 1.2 (Re)

3. Special Approach for Exterior Girders

A special analysis for determination of the (DFs) for the exterior girder depending on
assuming that the entire cross section rotates as a rigid body about the longitudinal
centerline of the bridge. The reaction (R) on the exterior girder is calculated in terms of
number of lanes loaded simultaneously but with increments of one lane a time and the
presence factor (m) is taken into account. The value of (R) are given by:

where: NL : number of loaded lanes

Ng : number of beams/ girders supporting the deck
xe : eccentricity of the exterior girder from the center of gravity of the
pattern of girders
e : eccentricity of design truck or lane load from the center of gravity
of the pattern of girders
 x : horizontal distance from the center of gravity of pattern of girders
to each girder

4. Distribution Factors for Fatigue Limit State

Distribution factor for fatigue (DFf) are required for checking the effects of fatigue on
bridge girder, the fatigue load is placed in a single lane.
AASHTO specification stated that multiple presence factors (m) are not to be used for
the fatigue load limit check because this load is calculated for only one design truck.
Thus, (DFf) are obtained from bending moment and shear force for one lane loaded with
dividing on (1.2) which is the (m) for one lane loaded and embedded in those
expressions.

5. Distribution Factors for Deflection Limit State

Distribution factors for deflection ( ) are required to control deformation of beams
and girders supporting a deck. This factor is calculated as one value for all those
structures.

6. Span Length for Distribution Factor

The effective length used for calculation of live load distribution factor is alike the length
used to calculate the force itself and as tabulated below.

** COMPUTATIONS
D. WIND LOAD

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around structures. In the bridge
design, the wind load is defined as the wind pressure on the bridge. Wind load
magnitudes vary with the peak wind speed, type of terrain etc. For large span bridges,
especially the cable-stayed bridge and suspension bridge, wind load is an important
design load and often play a critical role that affects the strength, stiffness, and stability
of the bridges. The significant role of wind loads is more highlighted after it caused
damages to a number of bridge structures, some even collapsed completely, e.g.,
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940).

The design wind load for static design used in Japan is given by the following
formula (JRA, 2012):

where ρ is the air density and generally taken as 1.23 kg/m3, Ud denotes the design wind
load (40 m/s), Cd stands for the drag coefficient, and G is the gust factor.

E. TEMPERATURE

The change in temperature will cause the deformation of the bridge. A determinate
structure will expand or contract, but the strains generated by the change in temperature
will not cause stress in its structural members. In an indeterminate structure, however,
the stress caused by temperature changes may be comparable to that caused by live
load due to the traffic (Catbas, 2008).

In general, two types of temperature including uniform change and gradient

change occur in the bridge structure. The year-round temperature change will result in
uniform change, resulting in the bridge length change along the axis direction. When
such deformation is constrained, the temperature induced forces (or thermal forces) will
occur. On the other hand, the gradient change in temperature is mainly due to the solar
radiation and the surrounding air. This will cause the nonlinear temperature change along
the height direction, and results in stress on the section and further secondary forces if
constrained.

F. SEISMIC LOAD

Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which

means application of a seismic oscillation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces
of a structure either with the ground or with adjacent structures. Seismic loading depends,
primarily on seismic hazard, geotechnical parameters of the site, and structure’s natural
frequency etc. There are horizontal and vertical components of earthquake ground
motions, but the horizontal component of earthquake ground motion is the main cause
of bridge damages. Therefore, only horizontal earthquake ground motion is considered
in the bridge design and analysis.

G. SNOW AND ICE

In some places of the world, snow and ice are significant for considerable period
and this should be considered in the bridge design. This is especially for large span
bridges, such as cable-stayed bridges or suspension bridges, on which the snow is hard
to be removed completely. In Japan, there are two cases in which SW should be
considered: (1) vehicles can move freely on sufficiently compressed snow, or (2) vehicles
cannot move freely due to the heavy snow coverage. For the first case, the SW with
 thickness of 150 mm is generally assumed and the load is taken as 1 kN/m2. While, for
the second case, the SW is determined according to the following equation:

where SW is the snow load (kN/m2), P is the mean weight of the snow (kN/m3),
and Zs denotes the design snow coverage depth (m). Although the weight of snow varies
between regions and seasons, the design SW of 3.5 kN/m2 may be generally used.

H. CONSTRUCTION LOAD

Temporary forces occur during the bridge construction stage due to the
deadweight of the equipment or plant are called construction load. Construction load is
dependent on the construction method and is different in each construction stage.
Unconsidered construction load may cause the buckling or even collapse of the bridge
superstructure, or severe damage of the substructure such as piers or foundations.

I. CREEP AND SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

Creep and shrinkage are two physical properties of concrete. For concrete bridge
and steel-concrete composite bridge, the creep and SH of concrete shall be considered
in the design.
Creep in concrete is the tendency of concrete material to deform under the
influence of mechanical stresses. In ordinary bridge structures, the sustained load
induced stress is generally less than 40% of the compressive strength of the concrete. If
it is the case, the creep strain of the concrete can be taken by using
the following equation:

in which εcc, σc, Ec, and φ are the creep strain, stress due to sustained
load, Young’s modulus, and creep coefficient, respectively.

There are two types of concrete shrinkage, including the shrinkage when the
moisture in the concrete dissipates to the outside to dry and the shrinkage due to
moisture consumption in the concrete by cement hydration (self-shrinkage). Both of these
shrinkages should be considered in the bridge design.

J. IMPACT LOADS

 Definition and Nature of Impact Loads

Impact Loads:
• Impact loads refer to the sudden dynamic forces acting on a bridge
structure due to moving vehicles or other external factors. Unlike static
loads, which are steady and predictable, impact loads are transient and can
cause vibrations and additional stresses.
• These loads are primarily caused by vehicle collisions, which induce
sudden forces on the bridge elements. When a vehicle strikes a bridge pier
or parapet, it generates an impact load.
• Impact loads are also associated with other dynamic events, such as trains
passing over railway bridges or wind gusts affecting the structure.
 Characteristics of Impact Loads:
• Vertical Vibration: Moving vehicles mainly cause vertical vibrations in the
bridge. Unlike earthquake loads, which can induce vibrations in multiple
directions (longitudinal, transverse, and vertical), impact loads primarily
affect the vertical direction.
• Magnitude Variation: The magnitude of the impact factor depends on
several factors:
- Bridge Span: Longer spans experience greater impact forces.
- Bridge Stiffness: More flexible bridges tend to absorb more impact
energy.
- Surface Roughness: The condition of the road surface affects impact
loads.
- Vehicle Characteristics: Moving speed and vehicle isolation systems
play a role.

 Types of Impact Loads

Impact loads can originate from various sources, and their nature often depends on
the specific circumstances and environment.

1. Dynamic Impact Load

A dynamic impact load happens when a moving object makes contact with a
stationary component or structure. When two objects collide, these result in impact
loads that cause high-intensity forces and swift changes in momentum. An instance
includes a vehicle in motion colliding with a barrier.

2. Free-Fall Impact Load

A free-fall impact load occurs when an object falls from a height and strikes
a surface, transmitting kinetic energy upon contact. The sudden impact generates
strong forces and vibrations that are crucial considerations in the design of the
receiving structure. An example is a load released from a crane.

3. Blast Impact Load

A blast impact load results from the sudden release of energy during an
explosion. The explosion creates a shockwave that applies intense pressure and
induces substantial dynamic effects on structures nearby. Instances include
explosions from industrial blasts, terrorist activities, or military operations.

4. Machinery Impact Load

Machinery impact load occurs when machinery that rotates or moves back
and forth exerts abrupt forces or shocks on the structure it is supported by.
Instances include machines like hammers, crushers, or presses that can produce
significant impact loads while in use, leading to vibrations and dynamic stresses.

 Methods for Impact Load Analysis

The analysis of structures under impact loads is crucial for designing

structures that can withstand dynamic events such as explosions, or accidental
collisions, or transient loadings. Here are some common methods used for impact
load analysis:

1. Dynamic Finite Element Analysis

This encompasses a variety of advanced simulation methods used to model
real-world scenarios and forecast the impact of transient loads on the performance
 of diverse materials. This analysis considers the changing forces, speeds, and
accelerations as the system reacts to external forces or stimuli.

2. Pseudo-Static Analysis
Rather than simulating the structure's dynamic behavior over time, pseudo-
static analysis simplifies the issue by treating dynamic loads as if they were
equivalent static loads applied to the structure. This simplification enables engineers
to utilize conventional static analysis techniques to assess the structural response
and design the structure accordingly.

3. Shock Spectrum Analysis

A mathematical tool used to study the response of a structure to a dynamic
load or impulse. It can be used to predict the response of structures to a wide variety
of shock-loading conditions, including explosions, impacts, and earthquakes. This is
essentially a plot of the maximum acceleration or velocity of the structure as a
function of frequency.

4. Energy Dissipation Analysis

This examines how structures absorb and release energy when subjected to
impact events. For these energy-absorbing structures to endure substantial impact
loads, their deformation and failure must encompass significant changes in strain-
hardening effects, strain-rate effects, and interactions between deformation modes
like bending and stretching.

5. Dynamic Load Allowance

Load factor design considerations are taken into account. Apply dynamic load
factors to static loads to account for the dynamic effects of impact loads. This method
is often used in combination with traditional static load analysis.

 Impact Load Effects and Responses

1. Barge Impact on Bridge Piers:

○ Accidental impact loads can arise from various sources, including vehicles,
winds, and passing vessels. Among these, vessel collisions pose a significant
risk to bridges.
○ When a barge collides with a bridge pier, it can lead to bridge closure,
inspection, and repair, causing casualties and financial losses.
○ Researchers have studied the impact load and structural response of bridge
piers subjected to barge collisions. They propose empirical equations and
simplified impact models for design practice.
○ Numerical simulations are used to investigate the effects of barge impact
energy, pier dimensions, and geometry. A validated model helps predict barge
impact forces and bridge pier responses.

2. Dynamic Allowance and Impact Factor:

○ In bridge engineering, dynamic loads from moving vehicles are considered
impact loads due to their relatively short duration.
○ The impact factor depends on factors such as bridge span, stiffness, surface
roughness, vehicle speed, and isolation systems.
 3. Load Patterns and Moving-Load Analysis:
○ Engineers use load patterns to analyze dynamic effects on bridges. For
example, step-by-step moving-load analysis involves defining vehicles, layout
lines, and lanes to predict live loads

K. COMBINATIONS OF LOADS FOR BRIDGE DESIGN

 Load Combinations

- Load combinations in bridge design refer to the process of considering various

potential loading scenarios that a bridge structure might encounter during its service
life.

- A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure

- These combinations are calculated based on different types of loads such as dead
loads, live loads, environmental loads, and other factors that can affect the
structural integrity of the bridge.
- Load combinations refer to the different sets of loads that are applied
simultaneously or in specific sequences to evaluate the structural integrity and
safety of a building or structure.

- Load combinations in bridge design refer to the simultaneous or sequential

application of various types of loads on a bridge structure to assess its stability,
safety, and performance under different scenarios.

- Load combinations are developed to achieve uniform reliability of all structural

components of all types of materials

 Importance of Load Combinations

- Safety Assurance. Load combinations ensure that structures meet safety standards
and regulatory requirements, reducing the risk of structural failure and protecting
occupants and assets.

- Legal Compliance. Design codes and regulations require the consideration of

various load combinations to ensure bridges meet safety standards.

- Optimized Design. By considering different load combinations, engineers can

optimize the design of structures to be both efficient and cost-effective while meeting
performance criteria.

- Realistic Assessment. Load combinations allow engineers to simulate real-world

conditions and account for uncertainties in loading scenarios, resulting in more
reliable Structural designs.

 Load Factors

- They set load factors based on average load and its variability (measured by the
coefficient of variation) to ensure all parts of the load have the same chance of being
exceeded. The individual load factors don't matter on their own; what's important is
how they compare to each other, which reflects the relative uncertainty of each load
component.
- Load factors are applied to different load types to account for uncertainties,
variations, and safety margins in design.

- Factors are determined based on statistical analysis, historical data, and engineering
judgment.

- Load factors ensure that the bridge can withstand loads that may exceed design
assumptions, providing an additional level of safety.

 Load Factor and Load Combinations (LRDF Approach)

The total factored force effect, Q, shall be taken as:

For loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:

For loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:

where:
ηi = load modifier
Qi = force effect from loads γi = load factor ηD =
load modifier relating to Ductility ηR = load
modifier relating to Redundancy
ηl = load modifier relating to Operational Importance

The background for the load factors specified herein, and the resistance factors
specified in other Sections of these Specifications is developed in Nowak (1992).
Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the
applicable combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the
load combinations specified in DGCS 2015 Table 10.31 with the corresponding limit
states.
 Limit States
Limit states are described as "a condition beyond which the bridge or component
ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed" in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. Bridges developed in accordance with the LRFD Specifications'
limit-states concept must satisfy the "specified limit."

Load Modifiers
● Load modifiers are factors that influence the magnitude or distribution of loads
within a system.
 ● Understanding load modifiers is crucial for designing robust and efficient
engineering structures.

AASHTO has introduced in its design specifications with load modifier ηI, the
product of three “safety factors”: operational importance ηI, redundancy ηR, and ductility
ηD, or (ηi = ηI x ηR x ηD).

Load Factor
● In order to ensure that each factored component of load has an equal chance of
being exceeded, the load factors were determined using the load statistics (mean
and coefficient of variation). The magnitudes of the individual load factors are
meaningless on their own. The relative uncertainty of the load component is
shown by their respective magnitudes in relation to each other. For instance, the
live-load load factor of 1.75 in the Strength I load combination implies that the live
load is more unpredictable than the component dead load, which has a maximum
load factor of just 1.25. It indicates the safety margin and reliability of a structure.
Higher load factor implies greater safety.

 Strength Limit State Load Combinations

The load factors for the Strength load combinations indicate the uncertainty of the
corresponding loads and are calibrated using structural reliability theory. Uncertainty is
indicated by larger load factors and less by smaller load factors. As covered in the following
sections, the importance of the Strength limit state load combinations can be made
simpler.

● Strength I
This load combination represents normal vehicular use of the bridge in
its 75-year design life. During this live-load event, the effect of wind is considered to be
negligible.

● Strength II
This load combination represents an owner-specified permit load model. This live-
load event will have less uncertainty than random traffic and, thus, a lower live-load
load factor. If the owner does not specify a permit load for design purposes, this load
combination need not be considered. During this live load event, the effect of wind is
considered to be negligible.

● Strength III
This load combination is applicable to bridge structures exposed to winds in excess
of 90 km/h. During this severe wind event, it is unlikely that any significant live load
would cross the bridge.

● Strength IV
This load combination represents an extra safeguard for bridge superstructures
where the unfactored dead load exceeds seven times the unfactored live load. This load
combination need not be considered for any component except a superstructure
component, and never where the unfactored dead-load force effect is less than seven
times the unfactored live-load force effect. This load combination typically governs only
for longer spans, approximately greater than approximately 60 meters in length. Thus,
this load combination will be necessary only in relatively rare cases.
 ● Strength V
This load combination represents the simultaneous occurrence of normal vehicular
use of the bridge within a 90 km/h wind event, with load factors of 1.35 and 0.40
respectively.

 Typical Strength Design Practice

For components not traditionally governed by wind force effects, the
Strengths III and V Load Combinations should not govern. Unless Strengths II and
IV as previously described are needed, for a typical multi-girder highway overpass
the Strength I Load Combination will generally be the only combination requiring
design calculations.

 Service Limit State Load Combinations

Unlike the Strength limit state load combinations, the Service limit state load
combinations are, for the most part, material specific.

 Service I
This load combination is applicable to normal operational use of the
bridge, with a 90 km/h wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Service
I is also related to defection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate,
and thermoplastic pipe, to control crack width in reinforced concrete structures,
and for transverse analysis relating to tension in concrete segmental girders. This
load combination is also used while investigating slope stability.

 Service II
This load combination is applied for controlling permanent deformations
of compact steel sections and the “slip” of slip-critical (i.e., friction-type) bolted
steel connections due to vehicular live load.

 Service III
This load combination is applicable to the longitudinal analysis of tensile
stresses in prestressed concrete superstructure components. The objective of
Service III is to control cracking and to principal tension in the webs of segmental
concrete girders under vehicular traffic loads.

 Service IV
This load combination is only applicable for tensile stresses in prestressed
concrete columns, with the intent to control cracking.

 Extreme Event Limit State Load Combinations

The Extreme-Event limit states differ from the Strength limit states because
the event for which the bridge and its components are designed has a greater return
period than the 75-year design life of the bridge (or a much lower frequency of
occurrence than the loads of the strength limit state load combinations). The
following applies:

 Extreme Event I
This load combination is applied to earthquakes. The factor for live load
(γEQ) shall be determined on a project-specific basis.
  Extreme Event II
This load combination is applied to various types of collisions, as well as
check floods and certain hydraulic events with a reduced live load other than that
which is part of the vehicular collision load, CT. These collisions are typically from a
vessel, vehicle or ice impacting the bridge’s substructure.

 Fatigue & Fracture Limit State Load Combinations

The Fatigue and Fracture limit states differ from any of the other combinations
previously described because the focus is centered around a member subjected to
countless repetitions (referred to as cycles) of a
“normal” live load in an average climate, rather than a “worst-case” live load or during
an extreme weather event. The Fatigue limit state applies restrictions to the stress
range encountered in a member subject to an anticipated number of stress range
cycles, while the Fracture limit state provides a set of material toughness
requirements based on the AASHTO Materials Specifications. These load
combinations is also related to repetitive gravitational vehicular live load and
dynamic responses under a single design truck having the axle spacing specified in
DGCS 2015 Article 10.8 (Dynamic Load Allowance).

 Fatigue I
Fatigue and fracture load combination related to infinite load-induced fatigue life.

 Fatigue II
This fatigue and fracture load combination is related to finite load-induced fatigue life.

Miscellaneous Notes and Guidelines, DGCS 2015

AASHTO Bridge Design Specification (9th ed.) article 3.4 reinforces the traditional
method of selecting load combinations to obtain realistic extreme effects and is intended to
clarify the issue of the variability of permanent loads and their effects. As has always been the
case, the Owner or Designer may determine that not all of the loads in a given load
combination apply to the situation under investigation. It is recognized herein that the actual
magnitude of permanent loads may also be less than the nominal value. This becomes
important where the permanent load reduces the effects of transient loads

The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For
each load combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.

In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum
value shall be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the
load factor that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from DGCS 2015
Table 10.3-2. Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a
component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also
be investigated.

The larger of the two values provided for load factors of TU, shall be used for
deformations and the smaller values for all other effects. For simplified analysis of concrete
substructures in the strength limit state, a value of 0.50 for TU may be used when calculating
force effects, but shall be taken in conjunction with the gross moment of inertia in the columns
or piers. For steel substructures, a value of 1.00 shall be used.

The load factor for temperature gradient, TG, should be considered on a project-specific
basis. In lieu of project-specific information to the contrary, it may be taken as:
● 0.00 At the strength and extreme event limit states
● 1.00 at the service limit state when live load is not considered
● 0.50 at the service limit state when live load is considered

**COMPUTATIONS
Case 1: Bridge is classified as a typical concrete bridge, non-ductile and conventional level of
redundancy
DC = 200.00 kN IM = 10.00 kN LL = 100.00 kN
DW = 5.60 kN WA = 4.00 kN FR = 10.00 kN

BRIDGE DECK SYSTEMS

Bridge deck system pertains to the combination of structural elements that assemble
the surface or roadway of a bridge. It includes all the components that work together to
support traffic loads, transfer forces to the supporting substructure, and provide a functional
and safe surface for vehicles, pedestrians, or other forms of transportation.

A bridge deck (or road bed) is the roadway, or the pedestrian walkway, surface of a
bridge. The deck may be of either cast-in-situ or precast concrete, wood which in turn may be
covered with asphalt concrete or other pavement. The concrete deck may be an integral part of
the bridge structure (e.g., T-section beam structure), or it may be supported with I-beams or
steel girders, as so-called composite bridges. The deck may also be of other materials, such as
wood or open steel grating.

Sometimes the deck system is called a floor system, such as for a bridge deck that
installed in a through truss. A suspended bridge deck will be suspended from the main structural
elements on a suspension or arch bridge. On some bridges, such as a tied arch or a cable
stayed, the deck is a primary structural element, carrying tension or compression to support the
span. But for girder beams, the bridge deck system is not the load carrying system. Despite this,
they are important for the bridge serviceability, safety as well as the aesthetics. Thus, deck
system deserves special attention in all bridge design and construction.

The deck system varies with different bridge types and bridge superstructure construction
methods, and particular attention of this chapter will be given to the bridge accessories with
special emphasis on pavement, drainage system and waterproofing system, expansion joint,
sidewalk, lamps post, handrail, and guardrail.

A. BRIDGE DECK TYPES

Bridge decks are the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be
bridged. The choice of bridge deck type depends on factors such as span length, traffic loads,
environmental conditions, and cost considerations. The following are several types of bridge
decks in terms of materials used employing pros and cons on construction and functionality
of the bridge.

1. Concrete Deck
a. Cast-in-Place (CIP) Concrete Deck: This involves pouring concrete on- site
into forms that shape the bridge deck.
■ Its main advantages are acceptable skid resistance, the easier field-
adjustment of the roadway profile during concrete placement to provide
a smooth riding surface, commonly available materials and contractors
to do the work.
■ Its disadvantages include excessive differential shrinkage with the
supporting girders and slow construction, and the tendency of the deck
rebar to corrode due to deicing salts.
b. Precast Concrete Deck: Concrete panels are precast off-site and then
transported and assembled on the bridge.
■ The full-depth precast panels have the advantages of significant reduction
of shrinkage effects and fast construction speed and have been used for
deck replacement with high traffic volumes.
■ It is cost-competitive with CIP decks for new structures and deck
replacement. However, the SIP panel system suffers reflective cracking
over the panel-to-panel joints.

2. Steel Deck
a. Orthotropic Steel Deck: Consists of a steel plate with stiffeners, suitable for
large-span bridges.
■ Orthotropic steel deck bridges are a specialty solution because of their
high deck-cost for long span bridges. This becomes an economic
alternative when the following issues are important: lower gross
superstructure weight, thinner or shallower sections, larger- piece
erection, cold weather construction and seismic toughness.
b. Corrugated Steel Deck: Corrugated steel sheets are used, often filled with
concrete to create a composite deck
3. Wooden Deck
a. Timber Deck: Traditional material for smaller bridges, but less common due to
maintenance challenges and susceptibility to decay.

LAYOUT OF THE DECK SURFACE

The layout of the bridge deck surface should be determined according to the deck
width, the design speed, and the hierarchy of roads. In general, there are following three
types:
 ● Undivided Carriageway
 Undivided carriageway denotes that the traffic load located at the same surface,
also uplink and downlink, was not divided. As the motor vehicles and nonmotor
vehicles on the same road surface, the traffic can only be in the middle or low
speed, it can easily have traffic jams on the bridge.

● Divided Carriageway

 A divided carriageway, also known as a divided highway or dual carriageway in

some regions, is a road with a physical barrier or median separating the lanes of
traffic traveling in opposite directions. The carriageway can be divided using the
median strip, or sometimes the uplink and downlink at two bridges.

● Double-Decked Bridges

 bridges that have a two-level deck system.

 generally used for different means of transportation, which are useful for
improving the traffic capacity and traffic control.
 can be used for reducing the bridge deck width and making full use of the
clearance.

B. BRIDGE PAVEMENT

The pavement is the important portion of the bridge deck that vehicles come in direct
touch with, and a structurally sound, smooth riding, and long-lasting pavement is very
important for bridge users. The bridge pavement is used for protecting the slab deck from the
impact due to traffic load, rain-water, and other meteorological conditions, and providing
durable and comfortable traffic conditions. A rough pavement is uncomfortable to the drivers,
and a quality pavement should be designed and constructed according to appreciate design
specifications for the pavement.

Bridge pavement refers to the surface or road covering on a bridge deck that allows
vehicles or pedestrians to travel across the bridge. The pavement on a bridge must be
designed to withstand the unique challenges presented by bridge structures, including heavy
loads, expansion and contraction due to temperature changes, exposure to the elements,
and potential vibrations from traffic. Bridge pavement materials can vary depending on
factors such as the type of bridge, its location, the volume and type of traffic it carries, and
budget constraints. Common materials used for bridge pavement include:

1. Asphalt: Asphalt is a popular choice for bridge pavement due to its flexibility, durability,
and relatively low cost. It can accommodate slight movements in the bridge structure and
provides a smooth surface for vehicles to travel on. Asphalt pavement typically consists of
multiple layers, including a base course and a wearing course, to ensure strength and
longevity.

2. Concrete: Concrete pavement is another common option for bridge surfaces,

especially for longer-span bridges or those carrying heavy traffic loads. Concrete offers
excellent strength and durability and can withstand the weight of heavy vehicles. Concrete
bridge pavement may be constructed using precast concrete panels or poured-in-place
concrete, depending on the project requirements.

3. Composite Materials: Some bridge pavements utilize composite materials, which

combine elements of both asphalt and concrete. These materials may offer advantages such
as enhanced durability, reduced maintenance requirements, and improved skid resistance.
4. Specialized Surfaces: In certain cases, specialized surface treatments or coatings may
be applied to bridge pavements to enhance performance characteristics such as skid
resistance, waterproofing, or noise reduction. These treatments may include epoxy overlays,
high-friction surface treatments, or rubberized asphalt overlays.

The selection of bridge pavement materials and design considerations is crucial to

ensure the long-term performance and safety of the bridge structure. Factors such as climate,
traffic volume, maintenance requirements, and cost must be carefully evaluated during the
pavement design process. Additionally, proper construction techniques and quality control
measures are essential to ensure the integrity and functionality of the bridge pavement over
its service life.

Functions and Requirement of Bridge Pavement

The main functions of bridge pavement include:

1. Prevent the vehicle tie or the caterpillar track directly wear the bridge deck. 2.
protect the bridge deck and main girder from water erosion
3. dispersion of the concentrated truck load.

Bridge pavement quality is important for the survivability and durability of the
bridge structures. Nonetheless, bridge deck pavements must meet a large number of
requirements related to strength, wear-resisting, crack- resisting, antiskid, and good
integral with bridge deck. The bridge pavement shall have adequate resistance to
permanent deformation, vehicle sliding without cracking, etc. It also must protect and
seal the underlying supporting structure as this determines the durability of bridge
superstructure. The pavement should also be able to absorb traffic loads and transfer
them to the deck and supporting structures but remain even within allowable
deformation and provide good antiskid conditions for vehicles. Besides, they must
protect the bridge structure from surface water.

C. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Typically, the bridge deck, walkways, railings, gutters, scuppers/inlets, and open or
closed pipes make up the drainage system for the bridge deck. The drainage system's
primary function is to remove runoff water from the deck's upper surface before it
accumulates in the gutter or lanes. A well-thought-out drainage system ought to require less
maintenance.

Benefits of Well-designed Drainage System

● Removing the water from the surface of bridge in an effective and efficient method,
reducing the relevant risks of hydroplaning and protects the public safety.
● The repair/maintenance costs throughout the expected service life of bridge will be
reduced.
● Efficient drainage helps the bridge to reach its designed service life by preserving its
structural integrity.
● Water may compromise the aesthetics of a bridge by staining so a well designed
drainage system prevents this.
● Decreased erosion on bridge end slopes.

Types of Drainage System

● Open Drainage System

The open system for deck drainage is a vertical or horizontal through the bridge curb
or the bridge deck at curb line. The horizontal drainage slots are often made as a part
 of the bridge barrier curb construction and are arranged at close distances based on
the small slot size.

● Closed Drainage System

Compared to the open deck drainage systems, the closed one consists normally of
scuppers/inlets made at the deck surface; however, with a closed piping which
transmits the runoff from the scuppers down to a drainage inlet point at the ground
level.

Closed systems are equipped with proper preset locations for maintenance
works making them suitable for application where there are environmentalrelated
concerns; for example, erosion and/or flooding.

Scupper - A bridge scupper is a vertical opening made within the bridge deck to
allow water drainage from the deck. A scupper can also be horizontal hole in the curb
since it performs the same function for drainage.

Trough - In case the joints of a deck are open, a trough comes to use under this
open deck to transfer the water/debris away from the bridge components. Old troughs
used to be made of steel the experienced corrosion and requires frequents repairs.
Nowadays, troughs are made of elastomeric sheets that are easy to clean and maintain.

D. WATERPROOFING SYSTEM
Bridge decks are vulnerable, subject to attack by water and chloride that can lead to
deterioration and issues with longevity and durability of the bridge decks. The installation of
an effective waterproofing membrane is therefore an essential part of bridge deck system in
addition to the drainage system. It represents the protecting wall against the water and
aggressive chemicals that would corrode the steel reinforcing bar and the concrete in
concrete decks. For steel decks, the asphalt pavement on the top of the main girder or the
longitudinal stiffener is vulnerable to cracks, where the waterproofing is also indispensable.

For bridge decks, several waterproofing systems are available, such as sheet systems,
liquid systems, and mastic asphalt system.

Type of waterproofing in bridge deck:

1. Sheet System
Sheet system waterproofing is a method commonly used in construction and
infrastructure projects, including bridge decks, to provide a protective barrier
against water infiltration. Sheet systems consist of preformed waterproofing
membranes made from materials such as bitumen, PVC, TPO, EPDM, or other
synthetics. These membranes come in rolls or sheets of various thicknesses and
sizes.

2. Liquid System
Liquid system waterproofing is another commonly used method for
waterproofing bridge decks and other structures. Unlike sheet system
waterproofing, which involves preformed membranes, liquid system waterproofing
uses liquid-applied materials that are spread or sprayed onto the bridge deck
surface to form a continuous protective barrier.

3. Mastic Asphalt System

Mastic asphalt system waterproofing is a traditional method used for
 waterproofing bridge decks and other structures. Mastic asphalt, a mixture of graded
aggregates and bitumen, is applied hot and then allowed to cool and harden, forming
a durable and waterproof layer.

E. BRIDGE EXPANSION JOINTS

Functions of Expansion Joint

Bridge expansion joints are designed to adjust its length accommodating movement
or deformation by external loads, shrinkage, or temperature variations, and allow for
continuous traffic between bridge structures and interconnecting structures (another bridge
or abutment).

The expansion joints can also be used for reducing internal forces in extreme
conditions and allow enough vertical movement for bearing replacement. Steel expansion
joints are most commonly used, though rubber joints are also often used to provide a smooth
transition for modern bridge construction, or continuous girders.

It was suggested that expansion joints fall into three broad categories depending upon the
amount of movement accommodated (Malla and Shaw, 2003)
1. Small movement joints capable of accommodating movement up to about 45 mm.
2. Medium movement joints capable of accommodating total motion ranges between about
45 mm and about 130 mm.
3. Large movement joints include systems accommodating total motion ranges in excess of
about 130 mm.

Expansion joints should be installed as late as possible in bridge constructions to

allow for shrinkage, creep, and settlement movements to have taken place. Similar to other
semipermanent members, the expansion joints should be designed so as to be easily
replaced or reset in the service stage.

Dynamic Behavior of Bridge Expansion Joints

If a bridge is subjected to a dynamic moving load, the response varies with the time.
The role of expansion joints is to carry loads and provide safety to the traffic over the gap
between a bridge and an abutment or between two bridges. In design phases, expansion
joints are required to have movement capacity, bearing capacity for static and dynamic
loading, water-tightness, low noise emission, and traffic safety.

The role of expansion joints is to carry loads and provide safety to the traffic over the
gap between a bridge and an abutment or between two bridges. A further requirement is a
low noise level especially in densely populated area. Therefore, expansion joints should be
robust and suitable for static and dynamic actions. Movements of expansion joints depend
largely on the size of the bridges and the arrangement of the bearings.

In design phases, expansion joints are required to have:

● movement capacity
● bearing capacity for static and dynamic loading,
● water-tightness
● low noise emission
● traffic safety
F. UNSEATING PREVENTION SYSTEM

In case of larger displacement during an earthquake, to prevent bridge collapse,

the Bridge Collapse Prevention Device connects the bridge superstructure with bridge
piers, abutment, or adjacent girders by pre-stressed concrete cables.

An unseating prevention system consists of the seating length, unseating

prevention structures, and constructions to prevent excessive displacement in the
transverse direction to the bridge axis. It must be selected according to the bridge type,
bearing type, and ground conditions.

The Unseating Prevention System is a safety mechanism for bridge collapses

brought on by strong earthquakes, over and beyond the requirements of seismic design
regulations. The system includes bridge restrainers of the cable type, whose purpose is
to keep superstructures from becoming longer than substructures' seat lengths.

Unseating prevention devices, or UPDs, are employed to guard against the

superstructure collapsing from piers as a result of a support loss capacity and to
prevent a significant displacement between the superstructure and substructure.

 Seating Length

The seating length is the distance between the end of the girder and the end
of the abutment where it is placed. Figures 1(a) and (b), The seating length of bridge
girders on piers and girders at abutments should be sufficiently enough to prevent
the girder from losing its seat due to a significant relative movement between the
superstructure and the substructure.

The Seating length of a girder at its support shall be determined according

to the following equations:

1. SER = uR + uG (m) 2. SEM = 0.7 + 0.005l (m) 3. uG = εGL (m)

where SER = required seating length, uG = relative displacement of the

ground caused by seismic ground strain, uR = maximum relative
displacement between the superstructure and the substructure
crown due to Level 2
Earthquake Ground Motion,
SEM = minimum seating length,
εG = seismic ground strain (0.0025, 0.00375, and 0.005 for ground
types I, II, and III),
L = distance between two substructures for determining the seating
length,
l = span length

A girder's seating length at its support must not be smaller than the value
obtained from Eq. 1. If the length is less than what is calculated from Eq. 2., the
design seating length shall not be less than the value from the latter equation.

 Unseating Prevention Structure

The ultimate strength of an unseating prevention structure shall not be less

than the design seismic force determined by eq,

HF = 1.5 Rd
 The design allowance length of the unseating prevention structure shall
be taken as large as possible with a maximum value determined by eq.

SF = cFSE (m)

where:

HF - the design seismic force of the unseating prevention structure (kN)

Rd - the dead load reaction (kN)
SF - the maximum design allowance length of unseating prevention structure (m),
cF - the design displacement coefficient of unseating prevention structure,
with the standard value of 0.75.

G. GUARD RAILINGS
A guard rail is a stationary system designed to keep people or vehicles from falling off
the bridge. It may be a handrail for pedestrians, a heavier guard for vehicles, or a common
railing for both. It serves as a crucial safety feature by providing a physical barrier that helps
to contain vehicles within the bridge boundaries and protect pedestrians & cyclists from
potential hazards. In general, the railings can be made of concrete, steel, or alumi-num.

The guard railings are located prominently and are thus open to the critical eye of the
public. It is important that they not only keep traffic within boundaries but also add to the
aesthetic appeal of the whole bridge (Toma, et al., 2005).

 Common Features of Bridge Railings

Bridge railings are essential components of bridges that provide safety and
protection for vehicles and pedestrians. While specific designs may vary, there are some
common features that can be found in many bridge railings. Here are a few of these
common features:
● Handrail: The upper part of the railing that provides a handhold for pedestrians and
serves as a visual guide for drivers.
● Baluster or Post: Vertical supports that connect the handrail to the bridge deck. They
provide structural support and help to distribute the impact forces.
● Midrail: A horizontal member located between the handrail and the bridge deck. It
provides additional protection and prevents smaller vehicles or objects from passing
through the railing.
● Toeboard: A low barrier at the bottom of the railing that prevents debris or small objects
from falling off the bridge.
● Reflectors or Markings: Reflective materials or markings may be added to the railing
to enhance visibility, especially during nighttime or low-light conditions.
  Different Types of Bridge Railing

There are several types of bridge railings commonly used in bridge construction.
The specific type of railing chosen for a bridge depends on various factors such as the
location, bridge design, traffic volume, and aesthetic preferences. Here are some
common types of bridge railings:
1. Concrete Bridge Railing

Concrete bridge railing refers to a type of bridge railing system that is constructed
primarily using reinforced concrete. Concrete is a commonly used material for bridge
railings due to its strength, durability, and ability to withstand impact forces. As a local
resource, concrete is one of the most common materials to choose for bridge construction.
A concrete railing attaches to the bridge’s deck slab and creates a powerful vehicular
barrier. These sturdy railings are ideal for high traffic roadways or areas where run-off
road accidents are frequent. Concrete railings are a great idea for urban locations or for
bridges that receive heavy truckloads.
There are several types of concrete bridge railings, including:

➢ Concrete Barrier Railings

Concrete barrier railings are made of reinforced concrete and are often used
on bridges with high traffic volumes. They provide excellent durability and can
withstand significant impact forces. Concrete barrier railings are typically precast and
installed in sections along the bridge.

➢ Concrete Parapet
Concrete parapets are solid concrete walls or barriers installed along the sides
of a bridge. They provide a high level of containment and are commonly used on
bridges with high traffic volumes or where there is a risk of vehicle rollovers. Concrete
parapets can be designed in various shapes and sizes to meet specific safety
requirements.

➢ Concrete Balustrade
A concrete balustrade is a decorative railing system made of concrete. It is
commonly used on bridges with architectural considerations or historical significance.
Concrete balustrades can be designed with intricate patterns and details to enhance
the aesthetics of the bridge.
➢ Precast Concrete Railings
Precast concrete railings are pre manufactured sections of concrete railing that
are installed on the bridge. They offer a cost-effective and efficient solution for bridge
railings. Precast concrete railings can be designed to meet specific safety standards
and can be customized to various shapes and sizes.
2. Steel Bridge Railing

Steel bridge railing refers to a specific type of bridge railing system that is
constructed primarily using steel materials. Steel railings come in a wide range of cross-
sections and designs. The most common steel bridge railing is the tubular rail system.
This railing can be built alone or integrated into a concrete curb or low barrier wall, thus
providing flexibility to various building projects. The combination of the railing system’s
beams and posts provide the strength necessary to make this a sturdy barrier. Ornamental
or architectural steel railings are commonly used for pedestrian and low- vehicular traffic.
There are different types of steel bridge railings, including:

➢ Box Beam Guardrail

Box beam guardrails are made of rectangular steel beams supported by posts.
They offer a higher level of containment and are often used on bridges with higher
 traffic volumes. Box beam guardrails are effective in preventing vehicles from crossing
over into opposing traffic lanes.

➢ Cable Railing
Cable railings are made of steel cables tensioned between posts. They provide
a modern and aesthetically pleasing appearance and are commonly used on
pedestrian bridges or bridges with architectural considerations. Cable railings offer
visibility and can be designed to meet specific load requirements.

➢ Steel Tube Railing

Steel tube railings consist of steel tubes or pipes connected to vertical posts.
They are versatile and can be customized to various designs. Steel tube railings are
commonly used on bridges where aesthetics and visibility are important.

3. W-Beam Bridge Railing

W-beam bridge railings refer to a specific type of bridge railing system that utilizes W-
shaped steel beams as the primary structural element. W-beam railings are commonly
used on bridges and highways to provide containment and redirect vehicles in the event
of an impact.
For smaller bridges or roads with less traffic consider the W-Beam railing. This railing
system attaches to steel posts or truss girders and is typically 27 inches from the top of
the bridge to the pavement. The W-Beam is a simple steel railing system but it can be
doubled to maximize its strength.
4. Thrie Beam Bridge Railings

Thrie beam railings are similar to W-beam railings but have an additional corrugation
or wave pattern on the top surface. This wave pattern enhances the rigidity and strength
of the railing, making it more effective in containing and redirecting vehicles.

H. OTHER ACCESSORIES
There are many other accessories necessary for the overall function of a bridge, such
as lamp posts, noise barriers, emergency telephone, nameplate, and they shall be installed
accordingly as required. However, the construction of those accessories shall affect little on
the main bridge structure and shall follow appropriate design codes.