Quaid-I-Azam University

BS Mathematics
Subject:
Quantum Mechanics
Submitted to:
Dr Ayesha Bibi
Submitted by:
Asad Abbas(04142013056)
Topics:
Black Body Radiation
Photoelectric Effect
Quantized Particles
 “Black Body Radiation”
Definition:
The radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium with its
environment is called black-body radiation. The name "black body" is given
because it absorbs all colors of light. In contrast, a white body is one with a "rough
surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions."

Explanation:
In quantum mechanics, black body radiation is explained by considering that the
walls of a black body cavity contain atoms or molecules that can absorb and emit
electromagnetic radiation. According to Planck's theory, energy is quantized,
meaning it can only be exchanged in discrete packets called quanta. When these
atoms or molecules absorb energy from their surroundings, such as heat, they
transition to higher energy states. Subsequently, they can emit this energy as
photons in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The distribution of this radiation
across different wavelengths or frequencies is described by Planck's black body
radiation formula, which accurately predicts the observed spectrum of radiation
emitted by a black body at different temperatures.
 The Classical Theory of Radiation suggests that every Fourier mode of
equilibrium radiation in cavity with perfectly reflective walls would possess equal
energy according to the equipartitiontheorem, leading to infinite heat capacity and
an unrealistic spectrum known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, particularly
noticeable at shorter ultraviolet wavelengths. However, in quantum mechanics, the
quantization of energy modes resolves this issue by attenuating high-frequency
spectrum, aligning with experimental observations. Max Planck's law of blackbody
radiation, developed in 1901, introduced the concept of quantized energy and laid
the foundation for quantum electrodynamics, with subsequent advancements
leading to the understanding of photons and the development of quantum
probability distributions. Wien's displacement law determines the peak wavelength
of radiation, while the Stefan–Boltzmann law governs the total radiant heat energy
emitted from a surface, with its formula E = σT^4 indicating that radiant heat
energy increases with the fourth power of absolute temperature.
 “Photoelectric Effect”
Definition:
In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from solids, liquids or gases when
they absorb energy from light. Electrons emitted in this manner may be called
photoelectrons . In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated
with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily.
Explanation:
When light shines on a metal, electrons can be ejected from the surface of the
metal in a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. This process is also
often referred to as photoemission, and the electrons that are ejected from the metal
are called photoelectrons. In terms of their behavior and their properties,
photoelectrons are no different from other electrons. The prefix, photo-, simply
tells us that the electrons have been ejected from a metal surface by incident light.

(THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT )

(HOW LIGHT CAN KNOCK ELECTRONS OUT OF ATOMS)

The experimental results of the photoelectric effect are summarized as:

 The experimental results of the photoelectric effect are summarized as:
(1) When radiant energy shines on a metal surface, a current flows almost
instantaneously, even for a very weak incident beam.

(ii) For fixed frequency and retarding potential, the photocurrent is directly
proportional to the incident intensity, or more accurately the incident irradiance
(W/�� ) .

(iii) For constant frequency and irradiance, the photocurrent decreases with the
increase of the retarding potential V, and finally reaches zero when V= -��

(iv) For any given surface, the stopping potential �� depends on the frequency of
the light but is independent of irradiance.For each metal there is a threshold
frequency �� that must be exceeded for photoemission to occur; no electrons are
emitted from the metal unless v>�� , no matter how large incident irradiance.
The experimental correlation between the stopping potential �� and the frequency
of radiant energy can be represented by
e�� = hv-h�� = hv - ф
Planck’s constant:
Planck’s constant h is a fundamental physical constant defined in the realm of
quantum theory and is determined only by physical measurement and cannot be
calculated.
Moreover, Plank’s constant(h), is a fundamental universal constant
that defines the quantum nature of energy and relates the energy of a
photon to its frequency.
In the Internation System of Units (SI),the constant value is 6.62607015 ×
10−34 joule second.
“Quantized Particles”
Definition:
To be “quantized” means the particles in a bound state can only have discrete
values for properties such as energy or momentum.
 For example, an electron in an atom can only have very specific energy
levels. This is different from our world of macroscopic particles, where these
properties can be any value in a range.Moreover,
“In quantum mechanics, energy is exchanged and absorbed in specific amounts,
known as quanta. The Planck constant is a number that defines the amount of
energy in those quanta and expresses how small things can be. Learn more about
the Planck constant in this infographic.”

Explanation:
1) Wave-Particle Duality: Planck's constant is instrumental in understanding
the wave-particle duality of matter and radiation. It relates the energy of a photon
(a particle of light) to its frequency through the equation
E=hf, where
E is the energy of the photon, f is the frequency of its associated wave, and
h is Planck's constant. This equation suggests that energy comes in discrete packets
or quanta, rather than continuously.

2) Quantization of Energy: Planck's constant is also central to the

quantization of energy in quantum mechanics. It implies that energy levels in
atomic and subatomic systems are not continuous but rather discrete. For example,
in the context of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the energy levels of the
electron are quantized and given by
�� = - ��
��
Where �� is the Rydberg constant and n is the principal quantum number.
Planck's constant appears in the derivation of this equation and represents the
amount of energy associated with each quantum jump between energy levels.

3) Uncertainty Principle: Planck's constant is a fundamental component of

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to
simultaneously know both the precise position and momentum of a particle. The
uncertainty in position (Δx) and momentum (Δp) of a particle is related by
ΔxΔp ≥ � .
��

Overall, Planck's constant serves as a cornerstone of quantum mechanics,

encapsulating the fundamental discreteness and uncertainty inherent in the
behavior of particles at the quantum level. Its value, approximately
6.62607015×10−34 joule-seconds, is one of the most precisely known physical
constants.