University of Duhok (UOD)

College of Engineering

by
Dr. Jaafar A. Mohammed
Jaafar.brifkani@uod.ac
Chapter description

This chapter provides further discussion and

explanation related to site investigation.
Aware the importance to conduct site
investigation and the important things related to
site investigation phases.

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Introduction:
Site Investigation: It is (all the office, field and laboratory works) done in
order to (explore the subsurface of soil or rock conditions) at any given site
to (obtain the necessary information required in design and construction).
Subsoil exploration is the first step in the designing of a foundation system.
It consists essentially of boring, sampling and testing.
Usually, the suitable way of soil investigation for a given project
depends on the:
➢ Type and the importance of the structure,
➢ The nature of the subsoil involved,
➢ Type of equipment available,
➢ Ground water condition, and
➢ The cost allocated for the exploration .
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Geotechnical engineering

Geotechnical engineering is an application of civil

engineering to earthen materials (Soil, Rock and
Groundwater).
A unique combination of science and experience for
understanding the originality and variability of ground
conditions resulting from the forces of nature.
Determining the properties of unseen and variable materials
to provide a way to perform as expected at acceptable level of
risk and at an optional cost.
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 Branches of Geotechnical Engineering
1. Soil Mechanics
2. Rock Mechanics
3. Foundation Engineering
4. Environmental Engineering
5. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
6. Geological Engineering

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 Desk study

1. Conduct preliminary study of site.

2. Collecting of information regarding the structure.
3. Collection of all existing information/data for subsoil
condition e.g.: Development plans, construction plans, site
location maps, topographic maps, aerial photograph, geologic
maps, soil survey maps, existing soil exploration reports at
nearby site.

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Planning of Site Investigation:
Soil exploration stages for a given structure can be divided into four phases:
1. Compilation of the existing information regarding the structure:
This phase consists of gathering information such as the type of
structure to be constructed and its future use, the requirements of local
building codes and the column and load-bearing wall loads.

2. Collection of the existing information for the subsoil condition:

a) Geological survey maps,
b) County soil survey maps, and
c) Existing soil exploration reports prepared for the construction of
nearby structures.
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Planning of Site Investigation: (Cont'd)
3. Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site:
The type of vegetation at a site may indicate the type of subsoil. Open
cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil stratification.
Cracks in the walls of nearby structure(s) may indicate settlement from
the possible existence of soft clay layer or the presence of expansive
clay soils.

4. Detailed site investigation:

This phase consists of making several test boring at the site and
collecting disturbed and undisturbed soil samples from various depths
for visual observation and for laboratory tests.
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 Purposes of the Soil Exploration

1. To know the nature of each stratum and engineering

properties of the soil and rock, which may affect the
design and mode of construction of proposed structure
and foundation.
2. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for
visual identification and appropriate laboratory tests and
performing some field tests, if required.
3. Assessing any special construction problems with respect
to the existing structures nearby. To ensure its safety.
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Purposes of the Soil Exploration: (Cont'd)

4. To locate the level of the ground water table, its seasonal

variation, observing drainage conditions from and into the
site and methods of controlling it.
5. To achieve safe and economical design of foundations
(best type and depth of foundation) and temporary works.
6. Estimation of the probable settlement of the structure.
7. To find out the sources of construction material and
selection of sites for disposal of water or surplus material.

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Necessary Information's Required in Design and Construction
(i) For new structures:

➢ Selection of the type and depth of foundation.

➢ Determination of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
➢ Prediction of settlement of the selected foundation.
➢ Evaluation of the earth pressure against walls and abutments.
➢ Establishing of the ground water level.
➢ Suitability of soil and degree of compaction of fill material under
slabs on grade and earth works, and

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Necessary Information Required in Design and Construction: (Cont'd)

(ii) For existing structures:

➢ Investigation of the safety of the structure,

➢ Prediction of settlement, and
➢ Determination of best steps, if the structure is unsafe or will
suffer serious settlement and cracks.

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Methods of Site Investigation (Drilling)
Drilling or Boring: It is a procedure of advancing a hole into ground.
A- Direct Methods:
The direct method of soil exploration by
sinking a borehole to the required depth by
a method suitable for the site and to obtain
fully intact (undisturbed) samples of soils
from every stratum encountered or at
suitably selected depths. The samples
obtained are utilized to get necessary
information about the soil characteristics
by means of laboratory tests.
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Methods of Site Investigation (Drilling)
Drilling or Boring:
A- Direct Methods:

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A- Direct Methods: (Cont'd)

1- Trail pits:

A pit is dug either by hand or by a

backhoe. The engineer can
examine in detail the subsoil strata
and take disturbed or undisturbed
samples at the desired location.

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A- Direct Methods: (Cont'd)
1- Trail pits:
Advantages:
➢ Inexpensive (Cheap),
➢ Simple excavation using ordinary tools,
➢ Simple and reliable for stratification and types of soils, and

Disadvantages:
➢ Used for shallow depths of (4-5)m,
➢ Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly,
➢ Unsuitable in granular soils below water level, and
➢ Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.
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 Auger drillings
2.1 Hand and portable augers:
- Types: a) Iwan auger (diameter up to 200 mm)
b) helical auger (diameter 50 mm)
c) Short flight Auger
Advantages:
➢ Inexpensive (low cost),
➢ Simple to operate and maintain,
➢ Not dependent on terrain,

Disadvantages:
➢ Slow compared with other methods,
➢ Depth limited to about 6m,
➢ Labor intensive,
➢ Undisturbed samples can be taken only for soft clay deposit, and
➢ Cannot be used in rock, stiff clays, and dry sand soils.
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Hand Operated Augers

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Power (mechanical) Augers
Truck or tractor mounted type rig and equipped with continuous flight
augers that bore a hole 100 to 250 mm in diameter.

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Power (mechanical) Augers: (Cont'd)

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Power (mechanical) Augers: (Cont'd)

Advantages:
➢ Quick, used in clay, sand or silt soils.
➢ Used in uncased holes, therefore no need for using drilling mud.
➢ Undisturbed samples can be obtained quite easily, and
➢ Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.

Disadvantages:
➢ Depth limited to about 15m. At greater depth, drilling
becomes expansive, and
➢ Site must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
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Wash boring

➢ Water is pumped through a

string of hollow boring rods
and is released under
pressure through narrow
holes in a chisel attached to
the lower end of the rods.
➢ The soil is loosened and
broken up by the water jets
and the up and down
movement of the chisel. Water jet method. (Source: Raghunath, 2007)
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Wash boring: (Cont'd)
Advantages:
➢ The equipment can be made from local, low-cost materials, and
it is simple to use,
➢ Possible above and below the water table, and
➢ Suitable for most soils.

Disadvantages:
➢ Slow drilling through stiff clays, gravels, and Boulders,
➢ Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained,
➢ Water is required for pumping, and
➢ Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
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 Rotary Drilling:
➢ Continuous rock core by means of rotary diamond drill bit attached to core barrel
and drill rod.
➢ A drill-pipe and bit are rotated to cut the rock. Air, water, or drilling mud is
pumped down the drill-pipe to flush out the debris.

Truck mounted rotary drill rig with

hydraulic drive system
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Rotary Drilling: (Cont'd)
Advantages:
➢ Quick,
➢ Can drill any type of soil or rock, Common type for bed rock.
➢ Possible to drill to depths of over 40 meters,
➢ Operation is possible above and below the water table,
➢ Undisturbed soil samples or rock cores can easily be recovered, and
➢ Water and mud supports unstable formations.
Disadvantages:
➢ Expensive equipment,
➢ Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle,
➢ Water is required for pumping,
➢ Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level, and
➢ Rig requires careful operation and maintenance (additional time required for
setup and cleanup).
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B- Indirect Methods
1. Geophysical methods:
This method is used to exploring the subsurface preliminary
surveys in connection with many of the problems related in civil
engineering. These quick and relatively inexpensive methods
have been used to explore foundation conditions at proposed
sites for buildings, bridges, and large dams, to classify
excavation materials in highway grading operations, to
determine the depth of swampy materials, to investigate
proposed tunnel sites, to study potential and existing slide
conditions, and to locate and outline supplies of construction
materials such as sand, gravel, solid rock, and other special
geologic formations of engineering importance.
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B- Indirect Methods: (Cont'd)
Geophysical methods:
Of the several geophysical test methods used in the fields of
mining and oil exploration, only two have been found to be well
adapted to the shallow explorations usually associated with civil-
engineering works. These are the refraction-seismic and the earth-
resistivity methods of test. Geotechnical geophysics can be used
to select borehole locations and can provide reliable information
about the nature and variability of the subsurface between existing
boreholes. Lastly, geophysical surveys can enable engineers to
reduce the number of required boreholes.
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Geophysical methods: (Cont'd)

Sketch illustrating refraction seismic test. (after R. WOODWARD MOORE)

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Geophysical methods: (Cont'd)

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Geophysical methods: (Cont'd)
Seismic Refraction Survey

➢ useful in obtaining preliminary information about the thickness of

the layering of various soils and the depth to rock or hard soil at a
site.
➢ conducted by impacting the surface, and observing the first
arrival of the disturbance (stress waves) at several other points
from the shot point. The impact can be created by a hammer blow
or by a small explosive charge. The first arrival of disturbance
waves at various points can be recorded by geophones. The time
of the refracted sound arrival at each geophone is noted from a
continuous reader.
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Geophysical methods: (Cont'd)
a) Seismic Refraction Survey

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 Borings
A) Logs of borings and records of tests results:
At the beginning, a map giving specific locations of all borings should
be available. Each boring should be identified (by number), and its
location documented by measurement to permanent features.

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Borings: (Cont'd)

A) Logs of borings and records of tests results:

The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a
graphical form called the boring log. As a borehole is advanced
downward, the driller generally should record the following information
in a standard log:

1. Name and address of the drilling company,

2. Driller’s name,
3. Job description and number,
4. Number, type, and location of boring,
5. Date of boring.
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Borings: (Cont'd)
A) Logs of borings and records of tests results:

6. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud
losses, and so on,
7. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT,
8. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected, and
9. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the
actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and Rock quality
designation, RQD.
This information should never be left to memory, because doing so
often results in erroneous boring logs.

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 Borings: (Cont'd)
An example of Logs of borings and records of tests results:

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Borings: (Cont'd)
An example of Logs of borings and records
of tests results:

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Borings: (Cont'd)
Depending on the results of
the laboratory tests and the
field observations, the
actual subsoil profiles or
logs of borings can more
accurately be sketched. In
addition to, the actual
description of soil strata in
each borehole is
summarized within records
of tests results.
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