25.4, Sand Testing In order to meet the required level of accuracy and surface finish of castings the moulding sands should be of proper quality, Proper quality of the moulding sand results in sound castings that will deerease the cost per unit and increase the production. Periodic tests are necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand. The prop- erties of the moulding sand depend upon shape, size, composition and distribution of sand grain, There are standard tests to be used which are given in relevant Indian Standards and that of other foundry societies. Tests are conducted on a sample of standard sand. The moulding sand should be prepared exactly as is done in the shop on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a closed container to safeguard its moisture content. BLS. has recommended the following tests: 1, Fineness test or Sand grain size test. 2. Permeability test 3. Strength test. 4. Moisture content test. 5. Clay content test 6, Mould hardness test. 1. Fineness test. This test determines the size of grains and the distribution of grains of different sizes in the moulding sand. This testis performed on completely dry and clay free sand, Procedure, To carry out this test the dried clay-free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of a sieve shaker which contains a series of sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes. The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 16 minutes. After this shaking operation, the sieves are taken apart and the sand left over on each of the sieve is carefully weighed. Each weight is converted to a percentage basis, Each percentage is multiplied by a weighting factor and these are added to get the sum of products. Then the grain fineness number (GFN) is expressed as: oes Sum of products (2 Mifi) "Sum of percentages of sand retained on each sieveand pan (Ef) (M, = Multiplying factor for i sieve ; /, = Amount of sand retained on jy, sieve) Aceording to AFS (American’s Foundrymen’s Society), the various sieve mesh numbers and the corresponding multiplying (weightage) factors are as follows : : Sieve number: 6 12 20 30 40 50% 70 100 140 200 270 Pan Weightage factor : 3 5 10 2 30 4 50 70 100 140 200 300Example. A typical example is given in the table on next page ; this type of sand is normally ‘used in malleable and grey iron foundries for castings which weigh more than 20 kg. ‘CASTING PROCESSES = 61 Mx f, Mxe] 7485 im oa 1129 1197.60 2400 489.02 980 249.50 500 2500.85 fy2. Permeability its ability ee - Permeabi 3 2? How through it. Te i : sand) is the measur re of, re. Te : nm long) is placed in : » @ test specimen of ir “ (QO glem®) to pass thre inet tube. Time taken for nna find G08 mm dia x60 “3 0% sa propertieg snc it takes beh through the specimen i Specimen is noted. Then, the er ity : tt Pressure of 980 Pa SV He + Pis given as ; Ri PXAXT wre, V = Volume of air = 2000 em? (21) leight of the sand spe ie en = 60.8 mmr = P= Air pressure = 19 ea 8 mmr= 5.08 em A= Cross-sectional area of sand specimen = 5 x (6.08)? = 20.268 om? t= Time in minutes for complete air to pass through. Substituting the above standard values into the expression, we get, _2000%508 501.28 px20.268xt pl © This permeability number is a relative number. It does not necessarily tell the perme- ability of a would made with the same sand which depends on the compactness of the sand. © The permeability test is conducted for two types of sands : — Green permeability is the permeability of the green sand, — Dry permeability is the permeability of the moulding sand, dried at 105 to 110°C to remove the moisture completely.Example 2.1. A cupola of 80 cm diameter has melting ratio of 8 : ( Air required for complete combustion. (i) Air required to melt 600 kg of iron at this ratio. (ii) The coke required to melt 600 kg of iron if melting ratio is 10: 1 and 8: 1, () Air required to melt 600 kg of iron if the melting ratio is 10: 1. Assume the weight of regular charge of coke as 35 keg. Solution. 1. Calculate : © Air required for complete combustion : With a melting ratio of 8 : 1, 35 kg of coke will melt 35 x 8 = 280 kg of iron. Since coke is 88 percent carbon, 35 kg of coke contains 35x 88 109 = 30-8 kg of carbon, Now, eo, co, 12 32, ; 44 S u 1 ; zy Sgt ‘oxygen is required ie., Toburn 1 kg of carbon 3 kg (i.c., 2.67 kg) of oxyger a : : an Further since air contains about 23.2% of oxygen by weight, the weight of air ne ei e produce 2.67 kg of oxygen is 0232 = 11.5 kg of ai a i n= AS a If air weighs 1.28 kg/m’, the volume of air required for every one kg of carbor 128 ir = 8.98 m® of air. i ; re Faas eas of air required for complete combustion = 30.8 8.98 = 276.58 m’. (Ans) (i Air required to melt 600 kg of iron (at 8 : 1 melting ratio) : Air required to melt 600 kg of iron at melting ratio of 8 : 1 = 276.58 7) (i) Coke required to melt 600 kg of iron: 600 = 592.5 m*. (Ans.) 600 = Sh = 60 kga Coke required to melt 600 kg of iron at 10: 1 and 8: 1 melting ratio = [> = 60 kg = 75 kg respectively. (Ans.) (iv) Air required to melt 600 kg of iron at 10: 1 melting ratio : Air required to melt 600 kg of iron at 10: 1 melting ratio _ 592.5, 75 x 60= 474m’, (Ans.)Example 2.2. A cupola charge weighs and is m i otto ExAmaple 2.2. A cupola ch ahs 1000 ke and is made up of the constituents of the Constituents Shares | Gazhon [Sign [| Aangancse | Sulphur | —Phoanhoroua Pisin 2 13 ae 200 | or e016 Petron 2 » as 20 aes fore on wan ‘ 2 os aoe O20 wen ete) | a5 28 2 aes a. axe an ray tte carbon pick-up ax 0.25%, sulphur pick-up as 0.05% silicon lose an 10% and manganese Tova ( Work out the final iron anatosie for cupola melting. Gd If the desired analyate requires silicon of 24 a the toneop de desired ana requ 0f 2.4%, adiuat the charge and calculate the final prope Solution. ( Final iron analysis for cupola melting + Ginatituents | Chargemase | Carbon | Silicon] ~ Mangiaiewe | Sulphur] Piow a) ee es | ee ee eer Rigid 1505 | -naicgnae | aameaves|uar ase | aie ange nae a = Sc eae =e Chase a 26 oor omens | ars] Grange in ( } os +010 | rom 0254] _oonie 0.000 Goseactast| aor tose = tiaseyat|ectacnes ne Final son analyaioy re oor | area Ans) (G9 Desired silicon content = 2.4% Calculated silicon content = 2.286% Additional silicon required = 2.4 ~ 2.286 = 0.114% or, Silicon required for 1000 kg of charge = S274 1000 = 1.14 kg In order to have net additional silicon of 1.14 kg, total silicon required to be added 14+ TZ. x 1.14 (10% silicon loss) = 1.254 ke. Silicon can be increased by adding ferro-silicon. Ferrosilicon contains 50% silicon. If 1 kg of ferrosilicon is added, 0.5 kg of silicon goes into the charge, but at the same time to keep the total charge as 1000 kg, one kg of foundry returns may be reduced. Since 1 kg of foundry return (gates, risers ete.) contain 2.5% i.e., 0.025 kg of silicon this means addition of 1 kg of ferrosilicon and in turn reduction of 1 kg of foundry returns will increase silicon content by 0.500 ~ 0.025 = 0.475 kg, 1254 ‘Thus to compensate 1.254 kg of silicon, 5-77= = 2.64 ke of ferrosilicon will be added and the foundry returns will be reduced by the same amount. Hence, the final proportions of the charge constituents are : © Pig iron 1 150 kg © Pig iron 2 200 kg © New serap 300 ke © Returns ‘ © Ferrosilicon ‘Total 1000 kg (Ans.)ions, determine the dimensions of @ Example 2.3. Assuming uniform cooling in all directic .¢ solidification shrinkage for the 190 mm cube casting after it cools down to room temperature. Th ‘cast metal is 5% and the solid contraction is 7.5%. Solution. Given : Side of the cube = 90 mm Solidification shrinkage = 5% Solid contraction = 7.5% Dimension of each side of the cube after cooling = Volume of casting, V = (90)* = 7,29,000 mm* 17,28,000 Volume after solidification shrinkageExample 24. What will be the solidification time for a 1100 mm diameter and 33 mm thick easting of aluminium if the mould constant is 2.2 secimm? ? Solution. Diameter of casting, d = 1100 mm Heightithickness of casting, h = 88 mm ‘Mould constant, C= 2.2 secfmm? Solidification time, t : Volume ofthe casting, V= 4d xh = £ x (1100? « 33 = 31,960,948 mm? Surface area of the casting, A= 2% a = ax (1100)? = 1,900,663 mm? oe 222x( 1,360,948 \* 7,900,663, = 598.95 5 or 9.98 min, (Ans.) Example 2.5. Two castings of the same metal have the same surface area. One casting is in the form of sphere and other is a cube. What is the ratio of the solidification time for the sphere to that of a cube. (GATE) Solution. Let, V = Volume of casting, and ‘Surface area of casting Also, Apnere = Acabe (Given) According to Chvorinov’s rule, apt Solidification time, =(Z) -. Ratio of solidification time for the sphere to that of cube,Example 2.6. Tivo solid workpieces (i) Sphere with radius R, (ii) a cylinder with diameter equal to its height, have to be sand cast. Both workpieces have the same volume. Show that the cylindrical workpieces will solidify faster than the spherical workpieces. (GATE) Solution, Let, R= Radius of sphere, d= Dia. of cylinder, and h = Height of cylinder. ‘Then, volume of sphere, Veshore = dant ‘and, volume of cylinder, Vou z @xh 1 é (: hed. given) wo Vian = Vor .-(Given) Amok 4 or B= te ie, ‘According to Chvorinov’s rule : 2 Solidification time, &) 4 oR? Aan’ Now, 3) =3 5s Alppnere 4B? 3 v Fdxh fdxd og and, @) oa Alot adh 2x5? rxdsaxtd? & 118 = (3) R= e3 rom the above results, it is evident that the cylindrical workpiece wil solidify foster than the spherical workpiece (tis known that risers with a higher value of () loose heat at « slower rate). (Ans.) Example 2.7, Which one of the following casting shapes would have last sldifiation time? (i A sphere of diameter D = 25 mm ; (ii) A cylinder with both diameter d and height h = 25 mm ; (ii) A cube with a length of side | = 25 mm. Solution. Given : D = 25 mm ; d= h = 25 mm Least solidification time: According to Chvorinov’s rule, solidification time, nl where, V and A are the volume and surface area of the casting respectively. 25 mmAle Co? Cx(25? _ tanee= ©] Soe] == — ag = 88 © wo 2 ee exd = Pi pce | pe axed andxd fog = of) =0(2) = 1736.0 6 6 3 . 2 fty 25) = (i) tar eb = J -0(2) = 17.36 C. From above results we find that all three castings will have-the samé,sdlidification time. (Ans.) Example 2.8 Compare the solidification times for castings of three different shapes of same volume : Cubi, cylindrical (with height equal to its diameter) and spherical Solution, Let, A = Surface area of a casting, and” — ; ‘V=Volume of each casting = unity (say) (Given) ‘According to Chvorinov’s rule, we have : Salidication time, y), where C is a costant, () Cubic casting : Let Ibe the side of the cube. Then, Surface area, = 6 units, 1y is (i) = 000278 C. (i) Cylindrical casting : Let rand h be the radius and height ofthe cylinder. : h=2r Given ‘Then, V=arh or nr? x (2r) = 1 18 . ae r=(2) = 0.5419 unit. 2n,Surface area, A= 2nr? + 2arh = nr? + Oar x Or = Grr? (ii) Spherical casting : Let R be radius of the sphere, i sy Then, v= 5am’ =10R-(2) = 0.62 unit 3 an, Surface area, A= 4x? = dr x (0.62)? = 4.83 units ‘ L (zs) ‘Thus, ‘cubic casting’ has the least solidification time and as ‘such it will solidify the fastest ; the ‘spherical casting’ has the maximum solidification time and therefore will solidify the slowest. (Ans.) Example 2.9. With cylindrical riser, prove that for a longer solidification time, diameter of riser = height of riser. Solution. According to Chvorinov’s rule, 0.0429 ©. it Solidification time, t« % BC) where, V and A are volume and surface area of the casting ‘respectively, Vv From the expression (), it is evident that for longer solidification time, the ratio 69) should be maximum or the rati (3) should be minimum. Now, vat axh, where, d and h are the diameter and height of the cylinder respectively. or, ni)ie or, or, == Also, == he -- From expression (ii) or, d=h Proved. This optimum is true only for a side riser, Note, Fora lop riser, A=ndh+ 5 d Following the above procedure, it will be seen that d=2h aad poche Example 2.10, Calculate the ratio of solidification times of two steel cylindrical risers of sizes 36 cm in diameter by 72 em height and 72 cm in diameter by 36 cm in height subjected to identical conditions of cooling. (GATE) Solution. Given : d, = 86 em; hy = 72cm; dy= 72 em ; hy = 36 em. Ratio of solidification times of the two cylindrical risers : According to Chvorinov's rule, solidification time, - where V and A are the volume and surface area of the casting respectively. ld Riser-1: Riser-2 :From expression (), we have ior 1 briger-2 Example 2.11. An aluminium cube of 12 em side has to be cast along a cylindrical riser of height equal to its diameter. The riser is not insulated on any surface. Ifthe volume shrinkage of ‘aluminium during solidification is 6 per cent ; calculate : (@ Shrinkage volume of cube on solidification. (i Minimum size of the riser so that it can provide the shrinkage volume, (GATE) Solution. Given : Side of the aluminium cube, ¢ = 12 em Diameter of cylindrical riser, d = height of the riser (h) Volume shrinkage of aluminium during solidification = 6%. () Shrinkage volume of cube on solidification : Volume of casting = a° = (12)° = 1728 em* 0.64, (Ans.) Shrinkage volume = 6% = + x 1728 = 108.68 cm’. (Ans.) (Normally this shrinkage, depending upon metal, varies from 2.5 to 7.5%) (i) Minimum size of the riser : ‘A riser should be designed with minimum possible volume while having a longer soldi cation time than the casting. Now from practice, minimum volume of riser is approximately three times the shrinkage volume. = Minimum volume of riser = 3 x 103.68 = 311.04 em* x B gaxa= 4 d2xh,= 11.04 where sullx '? stands for riser. Now, h=d, (Giver) Ed?xd,=S1L04 or d,= 734 em In order to have a sound casting, the metal in the riser should be the last to cool that is, riser should have a longer solidification time than the casting, so (<8) « GG nase nmee wansaxtdt) (raxdsoxEd®) (nit+ta? |e eee ae ors se exh -exd 4 4 4 a 6x12x12 1 Waxi2x12 2 and,As is clear Os Minimum size of riser = 12 em diameter x 12 em height. : v= Ex casa asta emt. (Ans) Example 2.12. In a sand mould, a sprue of 210 mm height and 1152 mm? top area is provided to maintain the flow rate of liquid at 1,728,000 mm?/s. What should be the area at the base of down sprue to prevent aspiration of molten metal ? Take g = 9815 mm/s? Solution. Given : h = 210 mm ; Top area = 1152 mm ; Flow rate, @ = 1,728,000 mms, = 9815 mmis? Area at the base of down sprue : Velocity is down sprue, v= /Bgh 2x 9815x210 = 2030.3 mm/s Area at the base of down sprue to maintain the flow rate, Q_ 1,728,000 v 20803 = 851.1 mm*, (Ans)