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Rainfall variability in Indonesia new capital associated with the Madden-

Julian Oscillation and its contribution to flood events

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DOI: 10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100163

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 Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163

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Quaternary Science Advances

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/quaternary-science-advances

Rainfall variability in Indonesia new capital associated with the

Madden-Julian Oscillation and its contribution to flood events
Ravidho Ramadhan a, b, Marzuki Marzuki b, Wiwit Suryanto a, *, Sholihun Sholihun a,
Helmi Yusnaini b, Robi Muharsyah c
a
Department of Physics, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
b
Department of Physics, Universitas Andalas, Padang, 25163, Indonesia
c
Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics of Republic Indonesia, Jakarta, 10720, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Accurate and current rainfall analysis is crucial for planning and development in the new capital city of Indonesia
Rainfall (IKN). This study examines the effect of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) on rainfall variability in IKN using
MJO a 20-year dataset of Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) version 6 and automatic weather
New capital city Indonesia
station (AWS) data. The study analyzes flood events in IKN by examining flood information provided by the
Diurnal
National Agency for Disaster Countermeasures (BNPB) from 2008 to 2022 and the contribution of the MJO to
IMERG
these events. The findings indicate that the MJO significantly influences rainfall variability in IKN, with a more
pronounced effect during the dry season (JJASO) than in the wet season (NDJFMAM). This is demonstrated by
the higher occurrence of wet days and increased daily rainfall intensity, which is linked to extreme rainfall and
longer-duration events, mainly between midnight and morning (0400–0600 LST). Notably, although floods are
more common during the rainy season, the MJO can intensify flood events in IKN during the dry season.
Therefore, when developing an effective flood disaster mitigation system for IKN, it is crucial to consider the
amplitude and phase of the MJO.

1. Introduction
The Indonesian government decided in January 2021 to move the
National Capital from Jakarta, located on the island of Java, to a new
capital called Nusantara City (IKN) on the island of Borneo. IKN is in the
East Kalimantan province, located in the middle of Indonesia’s archi­
pelago. Despite considering various factors, including vulnerability to
disasters, the chosen area still experiences high annual rainfall due to its
proximity to the equator (As-syakur et al., 2013). As a result, the IKN
area is prone to hydrometeorological disasters, such as floods and other
calamities. Therefore, studying rainfall patterns in the IKN area is crucial
to aid in planning efforts (Van de Vuurst and Escobar, 2020).
Detailed rainfall patterns in IKN will improve the quality of urban
planning in IKN to minimize the potential impact of these hydromete­
orological disasters in the future. A study by Ramadhan et al. (2022)
focused on rainfall trends and hydrometeorological disasters in IKN. The
research revealed that rainfall in IKN exhibits two peaks: one in
November–December and another in March–April. Additionally, the dry
season in IKN, which occurs from August to October, is strongly influ­
enced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During this dry
season, particularly when accompanied by El Niño, the potential for
drought and fire disasters increases. Furthermore, an analysis of rainfall
trends in IKN indicates a general decrease, except for two specific
indices: consecutive wet days (CWD) and the number of rainy days
(R1mm). The same trend was also observed in the latest research con­
ducted by Marzuki et al. (2023). The CWD and R1mm indices increase in
IKN is associated with increased floods and landslides. Consequently,
several hydrometeorological disasters have the potential to occur in
IKN, necessitating proper mitigation measures to anticipate these
problems in the future.
While the analysis of rainfall and hydrometeorological disasters in
IKN has been conducted, a detailed study on the triggering factors for
extreme rain events and hydrometeorological disasters in the area is
lacking. Investigating the primary triggers for extreme rain events re­
mains challenging because extreme rain events tend to be more complex
(Boers et al., 2013). Extreme rain events leading to hydrometeorological

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ws@ugm.ac.id (W. Suryanto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100163
Received 26 June 2023; Received in revised form 1 January 2024; Accepted 7 January 2024
Available online 12 January 2024
2666-0334/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Ramadhan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163

disasters typically occur during the rainy season, but some extreme rain dominant diurnal cycle in the IKN region, as previously observed
events in IKN can also occur during the dry season. For example, Pur­ (Ramadhan et al., 2022a).
waningsih et al. (2022) investigated one extreme rain event in the IKN
that occurred on 27–28 August 2021 from a moisture origin and trans­ 2. Data and methodology
port point of view. This extreme rain event lasted for more than 11 h in
the dry season with an intensity of 82 mm/day, subsequently causing 2.1. Study area
floods and landslides in various regions of East Kalimantan. The study’s
findings indicate that the primary moisture transport during this The location for construction of the IKN is situated within the Sem­
extreme rain event originated from Borneo Island (53.73%), driven by boja and Sepaku Districts (Fig. 1). Administratively, the Semboja sub-
large-scale high vortex flow. The Banda Sea and its surrounding area district falls under Kutai Kartanegara Regency, while the Sepaku sub-
also contributed significantly to moisture transport (32.02%), influ­ district is located in North Penajem Paser Regency. Both areas are part
enced by the boreal summer intraseasonal oscillation (BSISO) and of East Kalimantan Province. Geographically, this region lies along the
low-frequency variability associated with La Niña. Thus, rainfall in IKN Makassar Strait, which separates Borneo and Sulawesi islands. The
is quite complex, with various influencing factors. Therefore, studies on Makassar Strait is a crucial water passage connecting the Pacific Ocean
triggering factors for extreme rain events in IKN are still needed. and the Indian Ocean, also known as the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF).
One of the primary factors influencing rainfall variability in Therefore, the climatic conditions in the IKN area are significantly
Indonesia is the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) (Zhang, 2013). The influenced by the sea surface temperatures in the Makassar Strait, which
MJO is a circulating pattern of active convergence zones that traverse depend on ITF variability. Regarding zoning, the IKN area experiences
from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in 30–60 days, with a speed relatively drier conditions than other regions in Borneo, with rainfall
of 5–10 m/s (Madden and Julian, 1971). These convergence zones are approximately 25–26% lower than the Borneo average (Sa’adi et al.,
characterized by air convergence at 850 mb and air divergence at 200 2021). Despite being relatively dry, previous studies have indicated that
mb. The active convergence leads to the formation of large-scale the IKN area still faces annual flooding triggered by rainfall, with an
convective clouds, known as Super Cloud Clusters (SCC), spanning average annual rainfall of 2762.9 ± 84.65 mm/year (Ramadhan et al.,
1000–2000 km. Indonesia’s location along the MJO trajectory signifi­ 2022a). Additionally, the topography of IKN exhibits some complexity,
cantly influences its rainfall patterns(Hidayat, 2016; Hidayat and Kizu, particularly in the southwest, where the maximum elevation reaches
2010). During the passage of the MJO through the Indonesian territory 812 m above sea level (ASL). For a detailed depiction of the location and
(active phase), rainfall increases, including extreme rainfall events topographical characteristics of IKN, refer to Fig. 1.
(Muhammad et al., 2021; Xavier et al., 2014). The influence of the MJO Climatologically, the IKN region experiences two distinct peaks of
on extreme rainfall events varies across regions in Indonesia. Phases 3 seasonal rainfall, occurring in November–December and March–April
and 4 of the MJO show a high probability of extreme precipitation (Ramadhan et al., 2022a). These rainfall peaks are influenced by the
events in nearly all regions of Indonesia, with an increase of more than southward and northward movements of the inter-tropical convergence
50%. Conversely, when the MJO is absent in Indonesia (suppressed zone (ITCZ) during the boreal winter season (November–April) (Aldrian
phases), the accumulation and frequency of extreme rainfall events and Dwi Susanto, 2003). Additionally, the dry season in IKN typically
decrease. Reductions in the probability of extreme precipitation events takes place from August to September. This dry season coincides with
ranging from 40% to 70% were observed during phases 1 and 2 in Papua
and Sulawesi, while in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, reductions occurred
in phases 5 and 6 (Muhammad et al., 2021).
The impact of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) on each island in
Indonesia is primarily influenced by local factors specific to each region.
In the case of Borneo, the interaction between MJO propagation and
local circulation plays a dominant role (Ichikawa and Yasunari, 2006;
Zhou et al., 2022, 2023). This interaction leads to distinct rainfall pat­
terns during the active (2–4) and inactive (5–7) phases of the MJO.
When the MJO is active, a positive daily precipitation anomaly is
observed in the southwestern region of Borneo, followed by a negative
daily precipitation anomaly in the northeastern region. Conversely,
during the inactive phase, a positive daily precipitation anomaly is
observed in the northeastern part of Borneo, while a decrease in daily
precipitation occurs in the southwest. The heterogeneity in the
positive-negative pattern of daily precipitation anomaly between the
southwest and northeast regions of Borneo during active and inactive
MJO phases is attributed to the complex topography, diurnal variability,
and variations in the coastline (Bai and Schumacher, 2022; Tan et al.,
2022; Wei et al., 2020). Consequently, conducting regional studies be­
comes necessary to gain a comprehensive understanding of the influence
of the MJO on local rainfall patterns in different regions of Borneo.
This study aims to analyze rainfall variability in the IKN during each
phase of the MJO and its contribution to flood occurrences. The analysis
of MJO influence is based on data obtained from automatic weather
stations (AWS) and high-resolution IMERG data. IMERG rainfall data
Fig. 1. Topography of the Indonesian maritime continent (a) and the location
complement rain gauge observations, addressing the limitations of re­
of the sub-district chosen as the capital of the capital city of Indonesia (b). The
cord gaps often encountered in rain gauge data. Moreover, due to the
red triangle represents the AWS station, which serves for weather monitoring.
limited coverage of rain gauge networks, the spatial characteristics of The red rectangle indicates the location of the buffer city, serving as a support
rainfall are often incomplete (Rabiei and Haberlandt, 2015). AWS and area for the capital city. The dotted red line represents the IMERG grid used for
IMERG data, with their respective temporal resolutions of 10 and 30 analyzing rainfall data in the IKN region. The elevation map uses NOAA’s
min, enable examining MJO interaction with local factors, including the ETOPO1 data.

2
R. Ramadhan et al.
the Australian monsoon period, characterized by dry air. As a result, the
IKN area can be classified as a semi-monsoon region, as its rainy season
is not solely governed by the monsoon, particularly during the peak
period of the Asian monsoon (DJF). In addition to monsoonal influences,
rainfall in the IKN region exhibits significant diurnal variability, pri­
marily driven by land-sea interactions attributed to its coastal location.
Most rainfall events in IKN occur inland and diminish as they approach
the coast. Although rainfall events are lower in coastal areas, the pro­
portion of long-duration rainfall events increases towards the coast and
offshore. Moreover, the peak timing of rainfall events in IKN displays
variations, indicating substantial interactions with the local circulation
patterns within the region.
2.2. Rainfall dataset
The impact of MJO on rainfall in the IKN region was assessed using
surface rainfall data obtained from the Integrated Multi-satellite Re­
trievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG) dataset. IMERG
data is a high-resolution satellite precipitation product (SPP) with a
temporal resolution of 30 min and a spatial resolution of 0.1◦ × 0.1◦ ,
approximately 11 km around the equator. This dataset combines ob­
servations from passive microwave (PMW) sensors on low-Earth-
orbiting (LEO) satellites and infrared (IR) sensors on geosynchronous-
Earth-orbit (GEO) satellites (Huffman et al., 2015). IMERG data, start­
ing from version 06, released in 2019, is available from June 2000 and
incorporates observations from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM) satellite (Tan et al., 2019). IMERG Version 06 data with a long
duration allows for a comprehensive analysis of the MJO’s influence on
the rainfall profile in IKN. For this study, IMERG Final (IMERG_F) V06
was used. IMERG-F has been calibrated using monthly rainfall data from
the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC). IMERG_F data of­
fers improved accuracy and detection capability in the Indonesian re­
gion compared to the other two IMERG data types (Early and Late),
which are not calibrated with surface data (Ramadhan et al., 2022c).
The analysis focused on a 20-year duration of IMERG_F V06 data from
January 2001 to December 2020. The MJO’s effect was characterized on
29 IMERG grids covering the Sepaku and Semboja areas, as depicted in
Fig. 1.
To validate the observations from IMERG, data from an automatic
weather station (AWS) owned by the Agency for Meteorology, Clima­
tology, and Geophysics of the Republic of Indonesia (BMKG) was uti­
lized. The AWS data has a resolution of 10 min and is obtained from a
single station, as indicated in Fig. 1. Rainfall measurements from the
AWS are based on tipping bucket-type measurements with an observa­
tion resolution of 0.2 mm. Due to limited availability, this study relied
on data from only one AWS station. The AWS data used in the study
spans from September 2017 to December 2022. To ensure data quality,
rigorous data quality control procedures were implemented by the re­
searchers and the BMKG. These quality control procedures follow
established protocols used in previous studies (Ramadhan et al., 2022b,
2022c). After conducting the necessary quality control checks, the sur­
face rainfall data from the AWS was obtained, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
2.3. Flood dataset
The impact of the MJO on rainfall is closely linked to flood occur­
rences in IKN. Data on floods is obtained from the web geoportal of the
National Disaster Management Agency (Badan Nasional Penanggu­
langan Bencana, 2023). The flood data from 2008 onwards is utilized
since it is the earliest available data on the BNPB web geoportal. The
available information from the BNPB data includes the date and district
where the flood event occurred. Therefore, the analysis regarding the
influence of MJO on flood events focuses on flood data in Kutai Karta­
negara Regency, North Penajem Paser Regency, and two buffer cities,
Samarinda and Balikpapan, spanning the period from 2008 to 2022.
Since 2019, the flood data has been available at the sub-district level,
3
Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163
Fig. 2. Percentage availability of monthly 10-min AWS observation data for
each year (a), hourly (b), and MJO phase (c).
enabling a more detailed analysis of floods in the IKN development area,
specifically the Sepaku and Semboja sub-districts.
2.4. Methods
Before examining the impact of MJO on rainfall in IKN, the MJO is
categorized into different phases based on the location of active con­
vection along the equator. Wheeler and Hendon (2004) divided the
positions of active convection into eight phases using data on outgoing
longwave radiation (OLR) and zonal winds at 850 mb and 200 mb. These
phases include Phase 1 in eastern Africa, phase 2 in the western Indian
Ocean, phase 3 in the eastern Indian Ocean, phase 4 in western
Indonesia, phase 5 in eastern Indonesia, phase 6 in the western Pacific
Ocean, phase 7 in the central Pacific Ocean, and phase 8 in the East
Pacific or western Africa. In this study, the MJO phase and its daily
convection strength were obtained from a database provided by the
Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology (BOM GOV AU, 2023).
The strength of the MJO is indicated by the MJO index, which is cate­
gorized as either strong (index ≥1) or weak (index <1). The analysis in
this study focuses solely on strong MJO events, as weak MJO events do
not significantly impact local rainfall (Kim et al., 2014). Therefore, the
data during weak MJO events were considered neutral without any MJO
modulation.
The impact of MJO on rainfall in IKN is analyzed separately for
different seasons to eliminate observational bias associated with sea­
sonal factors (Jiang et al., 2020). Previous studies primarily focused on
the MJO’s influence during the boreal winter season (Jiang et al., 2020).
The propagation of MJO during the boreal summer (May to August)
involves a more intricate process due to its interaction with tropical
mode variability, commonly known as the boreal summer intraseasonal
oscillation (BSISO). However, distinguishing between MJO and BSISO
events is not always straightforward (Wang et al., 2019). Therefore, this
study exclusively examines MJO events during the wet season
(November to May, NDJFMAM) and the dry season (June to October,
JJASO). The number of days for each MJO phase and season is provided
in Table 1. Due to the limited availability of AWS observation data
grouped by season, only 20 years of IMERG data are utilized to inves­
tigate the impact of each MJO phase in each season. The number of days
for each MJO phase, derived from AWS and IMERG data, is depicted in
Fig. 3.
The rainfall variability in IKN attributed to MJO is analyzed by
R. Ramadhan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163

Table 1 determination of each parameter’s value for every hour. A 0.1 mm/h
Number of observation days from AWS and IMERG for each season, MJO strong threshold is applied to classify IMERG data as a rain event. Further de­
and MJO weak. tails on the methodologies used for calculating PA, PF, and PI values and
AWS (days) IMERG (days) determining the duration of rain events can be found in previous studies
Weak MJO 515 2716
(Marzuki et al., 2021, 2022b).
Strong MJO - All Season 1163 4590
Strong MJO - NDJFMAM 744 2760 3. Results and discussion
Strong MJO - JJASO 419 1830

Table 3 presents the frequency of wet days, daily rainfall intensity,

examining the probability changes of daily and diurnal rainfall data and the 95th and 99th percentiles of all data (climatology) and during
obtained from IMERG and AWS. Daily data enables the assessment of weak MJO (neutral conditions) in IKN, based on 29 IMERG grids. The
variations in the frequency of wet days (R ≥ 1 mm/day) and the average frequency of wet days and daily rainfall intensity exhibited the most
daily rainfall intensity during wet days. Furthermore, the impact of MJO consistent values between climatological conditions and weak MJO.
on rainfall in IKN is investigated by examining the probability changes However, noticeable differences were observed in the 95th percentile
of various extreme rain indices. Table 2 describes the extreme rain
indices analyzed in this study. Table 2
Probability changes for each extreme index value (ΔPMJO) are List of the extreme indices used in this study.
calculated for each IMERG data grid with the following formula Name Definition Unit
(Muhammad et al., 2021; Ren and Ren, 2017): R10mm Probability of days when precipitation ≥10 mm from total wet %
days
(PMJO − PN )
ΔPMJO = x100% R20mm Probability of days when precipitation ≥20 mm from total wet %
PCLIM days
R95p Probability of days when precipitation ≥95 percentile rainfall %
where PMJO represents the extreme index value for each strong MJO climatology
phase, while PN represents the extreme index value during the neutral R99p Probability of days when precipitation ≥95 percentile rainfall %
climatology
phase (weak MJO). To assess the significance of the probability change
P95 The value of 95 percentile mm/
in PMJO and PN, a student test was conducted with a significance level of d
95%. This test aimed to evaluate the initial hypothesis (H0) that the PMJO P99 The value of 95 percentile mm/
and PN data are derived from independent random samples of the d
normal distribution with the same mean and variance. The alternative
hypothesis (H1) suggests that the data in PMJO and PN are derived from
populations with different mean and variance. The student test is a Table 3
commonly used statistical method to examine differences in the distri­ Frequency of Wet Days, Daily Intensity, P95 and P99 values for all data
bution of rainfall data samples (Brito et al., 2017; Longobardi and Vil­ (climatology) and weak MJO for all IMERG grids in IKN.
lani, 2010; Sa’adi et al., 2019). All NDJFMAM JJASO
The influence of MJO on diurnal rainfall patterns is assessed through
Climatology
the analysis of precipitation amount (PA), precipitation frequency (PF), Frequency of Wet Days (%) 61.77 ± 2.79 71.00 ± 3.36 48.97 ± 2.51
and precipitation intensity (PI) values. Each diurnal parameter is Daily Intensity (mm/d) 12.14 ± 0.85 12.36 ± 0.56 11.71 ± 1.45
calculated using hourly data, which is obtained by summing up the P95 (mm/d) 31.32 ± 2.08 34.02 ± 1.67 27.71 ± 3.19
IMERG half-hourly and 10-min AWS data. PA is calculated by dividing P99 (mm/d) 60.40 ± 4.42 64.85 ± 2.98 53.83 ± 8.22
Weak MJO
the total rainfall during the study period by the total hours of observa­ Frequency of Wet Days (%) 60.12 ± 3.24 73.10 ± 3.98 46.64 ± 3.01
tion. PF is determined by dividing the total identified rain data by the Daily Intensity (mm/d) 12.01 ± 0.75 12.55 ± 0.43 11.00 ± 1.55
total data available. PI is obtained by dividing the PA value by the PF P95 (mm/d) 30.49 ± 2.82 34.85 ± 1.96 24.92 ± 3.35
value. These calculations are performed for each hour, allowing for the P99 (mm/d) 59.89 ± 4.37 69.34 ± 4.62 48.77 ± 9.12

Fig. 3. Number of daily data for each MJO phase from AWS data (a), all IMERG data (b), IMERG data during NDJFMAM (c), and IMERG data during JJASO (d). Daily
data on AWS data was obtained by calculating the number of days with AWS 10-min data availability above 90% on that day. Furthermore, daily data on IMERG data
is obtained based on the number of days from the entire observation range.

4
R. Ramadhan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163

(P95) and 99th percentile (P99) values. Despite these slight differences, higher standard deviation is attributed to the strong influence of local
overall, the parameters of daily rainfall during weak MJO conditions factors during the dry season compared to the wet season (Moron et al.,
showed insignificant different when compared to the climatological 2010). One of Borneo’s most dominant local factors is the diurnal cycle
conditions in IKN. The insignificant different of daily rainfall patterns in (Qian et al., 2013). The dominant diurnal cycle leads to more accumu­
weak MJO and climatology conditions is due to the averaging of daily lated rainfall being observed in the coastal areas of IKN, with a decrease
data over a long period, which can smooth out short-term variations, in rainfall further away from the coast. As a result, significant spatial
including those associated with strong MJO events. Nonetheless, the variations are observed between the IKN grids (Ichikawa and Yasunari,
slight difference between climatology and weak MJO period signals the 2006; Ramadhan et al., 2022a).
influence of MJO on rain climatology in IKN. Thus, weak MJO condi­
tions were utilized as the reference for comparing the impact of MJO
3.1. MJO effect on daily rainfall in IKN
phases on rainfall in IKN. Adopting weak MJO conditions as the baseline
reduced the bias caused by climatological data influenced by strong
The distribution of the frequency of wet days and daily rainfall in­
MJO events.
tensity for each MJO phase is presented in Fig. 4. Significant differences
The frequency of wet days during weak MJO in the NDJFMAM
in the frequency of wet days were observed in phases 2–4 and 6–8,
season exhibited a difference of approximately 13.45% compared to the
compared to the weak MJO phase, across all seasons. The probability
JJASO season. However, the variation in the number of rainfall events is
changes in the frequency of wet days, calculated using Eq. 1, was higher
not particularly significant due to the proximity of IKN to the equator,
in phases 2–4, with increases of 6.80% (phase 2), 14.20% (phase 3), and
resulting in a tendency for high rainfall throughout the year (Lee, 2015).
8.18% (phase 4), compared to the weak MJO phase. Conversely, the
This condition positively impacts the community as it reduces the like­
probability changes in the frequency of wet days decreased by − 3.02%
lihood of drought occurrences in the IKN during the dry season. The
in Phase 6, -7.33% in Phase 7, and -12.63% in Phase 8. Significant dif­
daily rainfall intensity during weak MJO in the NDJFMAM and JJASO
ferences in the daily intensity of rainfall were observed in almost all
seasons does not show significant differences. The combination of high
MJO phases except for phase 5. There was an increase in the daily in­
daily rainfall intensity and a relatively high frequency of wet days in­
tensity of rainfall in phases 2, 3, and 4, with values of 2.16 mm/day
dicates a substantial potential for flooding in the IKN area during the dry
(17.48%), 0.90 mm/day (7.26%), and 0.91 mm/day (7.78%), respec­
and wet seasons. This is evident from the historical records of flood
tively. Conversely, a decrease in the daily intensity of rainfall was
events in the IKN that have occurred even during the dry season (Pur­
observed in phases 1, 6, 7, and 8, with values of − 0.88 mm/day
waningsih et al., 2022).
(− 7.50%), − 0.44 mm/day (− 3.49%), − 0.99 mm/day (− 7.49%), and
A significant difference was observed in the percentiles of extreme
− 0.95 mm/day (− 7.90%), respectively. The increase (decrease) in the
rain (P95) and very extreme rain (P99) between NDJFMAM and JJASO
frequency of wet days and daily intensity of rainfall during phases 2–4
during weak MJO. The values of P95 and P99 during NDJFMAM were
(6–8) in the IKN region aligns with previous studies conducted in the
9.93 mm/day (39.82%) and 20.57 mm/day (42.18%) greater than
Indonesian region (Hidayat, 2016; Hidayat and Kizu, 2010). This
during JJASO. These significant differences in P95 and P99 values,
pattern is attributed to an increase (decrease) in convection activity
despite no corresponding differences in the frequency of wet days and
caused by low-level wind convergence in the maritime continent region
daily intensity, indicate that the wet season in IKN exhibits a higher
during phases 2–4 (6–8) (Zhang, 2013).
intensity of extreme rainfall. This serves as a warning to the government
The profiles of the frequency of wet days and daily rainfall intensity
to remain vigilant during the rainy season, even in the absence of rainfall
obtained from the AWS observation data confirm the findings from the
modulation by the MJO. Additionally, the standard deviation values of
IMERG data (Fig. 5). The AWS data show a higher frequency of wet days
P95 and P99 are higher during JJASO than NDJFMAM (Table 3). This
in phases 2–4, consistent with the IMERG data (Fig. 5a). In the IMERG

Fig. 4. Distribution of frequency of wet days and daily intensity for all season (a, d), wet season (b, e), and dry season (c,f) based on 20 years of IMERG data in the
IKN area. The dashed black line represents the value of frequency of wet days and daily intensity during weak MJO.

5
R. Ramadhan et al.
Fig. 5. Probability of wet days (a) and daily intensity (b) over IKN from AWS observation. The dashed black line represents the value of frequency of wet days and
daily intensity during weak MJO.
data, the dominant increase in rainfall frequency occurs in phases 2–3
during the dry season and phase 4 during the wet season (Fig. 4a–c).
Similarly, the AWS data exhibit high values of daily rainfall intensity in
phases 2–3, which aligns with the IMERG observations for all seasons
(Figs. 5b and 4d). However, there is a slight difference in the peak fre­
quency and intensity values between the AWS and IMERG data. Based
on the AWS data, this discrepancy could be attributed to the limited
number of available days in each MJO phase (Fig. 3).
The probability changes in the frequency of wet days, and daily
rainfall intensity in the IKN region exhibit different values between the
wet season (NDJFMAM) and the dry season (JJASO) (Fig. 4). During
NDJFMAM, a significant increase (decrease) in the frequency of wet
days was observed in phases 3–4 (1–2, 7–8) compared to the weak MJO
phase. However, the increase in the frequency of wet days during
NDJFMAM was relatively small, with values of 3.53% (phase 3) and
8.65% (phase 4). Conversely, the maximum frequency of wet days
during NDJFMAM was observed in phases 7 (− 11.56%) and 8
(− 16.06%). In line with the significant decrease in the frequency of wet
days during phases 7–8, a decrease in the daily intensity of rainfall was
observed in NDJFMAM in phases 1 and 6–8. However, an increase in
daily intensity was observed in phase 4, with an increase of 0.96 mm/
day (7.70%). The most substantial decrease in daily rainfall intensity
was observed in phase 1, with a decrease of 1.74 mm/day (− 13.92%).
The increase (decrease) in the frequency of wet days and daily intensity
in phases 3–4 (6–8) in the IKN region aligns with previous studies
conducted in the maritime continent during the austral summer period
(October–April) (Hidayat and Kizu, 2010). However, during NDJFMAM,
the MJO effect is less dominant due to the MJO trajectory during boreal
winter, which tends to detour to the south of the Indonesian maritime
continent (Kim et al., 2017). As a result, the MJO’s influence on the
central region of the Indonesian maritime continent is less prominent.
The variability in the frequency of wet days and daily rainfall in­
tensity for each MJO phase is more pronounced in JJASO compared to
NDJFMAM (Fig. 4b, c, e, f). In JJASO, all MJO phases show a significant
difference in the frequency of wet days compared to the weak MJO
phase. There is an increase in the frequency of wet days in phases 1–4,
while a decrease is observed in phases 5–8. Significant increases in the
frequency of wet days are observed in phases 1, 2, and 3, with values of
13.24%, 19.27%, and 24.79%, respectively. Conversely, significant de­
creases in the frequency of wet days are observed in phases 6, 7, and 8,
with values of − 17.98%, − 18.17%, and − 15.85%, respectively. A
slightly different pattern is observed in terms of daily rainfall intensity
during JJASO, with insignificant differences in several MJO phases.
Daily rainfall intensity increases (decreases) are observed in phases 2–3
(5–8). The increase in rainfall intensity during JJASO is substantial, with
6
Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163
values of 4.69 mm/day (42.51%) and 2.90 mm/day (26.28%) in phases
2 and 3, respectively. Moreover, significant decreases in rainfall in­
tensity are observed in phases 5, 6, 7, and 8, with values of 0.63 mm/day
(− 4.19%), 2.4 mm/day (− 21.51%), 1.54 mm/day (− 12.62%), and 3.35
mm/day (− 29.77%), respectively. The substantial increase in intensity
in phases 2 and 3 during the dry season in IKN results in higher daily
intensity values for JJASO compared to NDJFMAM (Fig. 4e and f).
Therefore, during the active phase of MJO, the rainfall that occurs in IKN
during JJASO exhibits higher intensity, despite having a lower fre­
quency than NDJFMAM.
The influence of the MJO phase on the daily intensity of rainfall in
IKN during JJASO is significant, particularly in extreme rainfall events
(Fig. 6). The highest values of the extreme index are observed in phases 2
and 3. Among all the indices, only index R10mm reaches its maximum
value in phase 3, while for the other indices, the peak values are
observed in phase 2. This pattern aligns with the higher frequency of wet
days in phase 3 compared to phase 2. Conversely, the daily intensity of
rainfall is higher in phase 2 than in phase 3 during JJASO. The signifi­
cant increase in the number of days with intensity exceeding 10 mm/day
during phase 2 of JJASO contributes to an increase in the extreme in­
tensity percentile index. This can be observed from the substantial
probability changes in the indices P95 and P99 during phase 2 in JJASO,
which show increases of 70.85% and 59.15%, respectively, compared to
the weak MJO phase. In contrast, during phase 3, the increase in P95 and
P99 indices is less pronounced, with values of 54.47% (P95) and 37.04%
(P99) compared to weak MJO. The increased probability of extreme
precipitation near the active convective envelope resulting from MJO
propagation tends to occur in Borneo during the boreal summer (May to
August) (Muhammad and Lubis, 2022). Furthermore, the higher per­
centage increase in P95 and P99 values during phases 2 and 3, compared
to the percentage decrease in P95 and P99 values during phases 6–8,
contributes to the higher climatological values of P95 and P99 compared
to the weak MJO (Table 3). Thus, this raises concerns regarding flood
mitigation in IKN during JJASO, which coincides with the strong MJO
phases 2 and 3.
The differences in the peak values of the frequency of wet days, daily
rainfall intensity, and extreme rainfall events during the MJO phase in
IKN are observed in JJASO. The peak frequency of wet days is observed
in Phase 3, while the peak of daily rainfall intensity is observed in Phase
2. It leads to a greater increase in R20mm, R95p, R99p, P95, and P99
index during phase 2 and R10mm index during phase 3 in IKN during the
JJASO season. This finding is consistent with research conducted in the
mountains of Sumatra, where the peak in daily rainfall intensity occurs
earlier than the peak in wet day frequency (Marzuki et al., 2022a). The
occurrence of the peak rainfall intensity before the active convective
R. Ramadhan et al.
Fig. 6. Frequency of (a) R10mm, (b) R20mm; (d) R95p; (e) R99p; and difference of 95 (c) and 99 (f) percentile values of daily rainfall during JJASO for the IKN grid
based on 20 years of IMERG data.
envelope appears is expected in the land areas of the maritime continent
(Birch et al., 2016; Peatman et al., 2014). This is attributed to the
interaction between the large-scale MJO and mesoscale circulation over
the maritime continent (Peatman et al., 2014). The MJO brings high
humidity over the land of the maritime continent before the active
phase, which enhances local circulation and leads to rainfall. The
modulation of daily rainfall frequency and intensity during the 2–3 MJO
phase in the JJASO period results in the frequency of wet days and daily
intensity values being equivalent to or higher than those during the 2–3
MJO phase in NDJFMAM. The high wet day frequency and daily rainfall
intensity during JJASO can increase the potential for flooding during the
dry season, which is typically not anticipated. However, the MJO tends
to weaken during the boreal summer due to the barrier effect of the
maritime continent and the northward-propagation component of the
Asian summer monsoon (Ling et al., 2019; Zhang and Ling, 2017). As a
result, the number of strong MJO events reaching Phase 2 and Phase 3
during JJASO may not be significant, but it can still modulate significant
rainfall in IKN.
3.2. MJO effect on diurnal rainfall in IKN
MJO also influences diurnal rainfall patterns across the maritime
continent, as Birch et al. (2016) highlighted. There are several mecha­
nisms that explain how the MJO affects diurnal rainfall. First, the MJO
increases atmospheric convection, leading to increased cloud cover and
rainfall. Second, the MJO brings a surge of water vapor to the Maritime
Continental region, which aids the development of convective clouds.
Thirdly, the MJO affects low wind patterns, causing hot and humid air to
lift, forming clouds and rainfall. Fourth, the MJO impacts large-scale
atmospheric circulation, which can alter local wind patterns and affect
rainfall. Fifth, the MJO interacts with local geographical features, such
7
Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163
as mountains, which can increase air lift and affect rainfall patterns.
Sixth, the MJO is also associated with the propagation of atmospheric
disturbances, which can trigger convection and rainfall. Finally, the
influence of the MJO on diurnal rainfall can be seasonally variable,
sometimes strengthening and weakening the diurnal cycle in the Mari­
time Continent. Thus, the MJO can affect the timing, accumulation,
duration, frequency, and intensity of diurnal rainfall in IKN located in
the maritime continent.
One particular aspect affected by the MJO is the duration of rainfall
events in IKN, as depicted in Fig. 7. The percentage of rain event dura­
tion in IKN, based on IMERG data, is categorized into short-duration
(<3 h), moderate-duration (3–6 h), and long-duration (>6 h) rainfall.
In all seasons (Fig. 7a), long-duration rainfall increases during phases
1–4, accompanied by a decrease in short-duration rainfall. Conversely,
phases 5–8 exhibit more short-duration rainfall events (and fewer long-
duration events) than the weak MJO phase. However, a significant dif­
ference in long-duration rainfall between the strong MJO phase and the
weak MJO phase is only observed in phase 4 (3.74%). Although the
differences in the number of long-duration rainfall events are insignifi­
cant, they have a considerable impact on the peak values of PA, PF, and
PI (Marzuki et al., 2022b).
The effect of the MJO on rainfall duration exhibits a different pattern
during the NDJFMAM and JJASO seasons, as illustrated in Fig. 7b and c.
In NDJFMAM, the pattern closely resembles the overall data trend
shown in Fig. 7a. This is because 70% of the total rainfall events in IKN
occur during the NDJFMAM season. Although some differences in the
percentage of rainfall events during NDJFMAM can still be observed,
these differences are considered insignificant. In contrast, during JJASO,
significant variations in the percentage of rainfall duration are evident
between phases 2 and 3 of the MJO compared to the weak MJO phase.
Notably, there is a significant increase in long-duration rainfall during
R. Ramadhan et al.
Fig. 7. Percentage of rain event duration during all seasons (a), NDJFMAM (b), and JJASO (c) for the IKN area from 20 years of IMERG data.
JJASO in phases 2 and 3, with values of 7.81% and 7.41%, respectively,
compared to the weak MJO phase. Conversely, a notable decrease in
short-duration rainfall during JJASO is observed only in phase 2, with a
value of − 6.86% compared to the weak MJO phase. This emphasizes the
dominant contribution of long-duration rainfall to the high daily rainfall
intensity observed during phase 2 of the MJO in JJASO (Fig. 4c).
Furthermore, a significant decrease in the percentage of long-duration
rainfall is observed in JJASO during phase 6, with a value of − 10.59%
compared to the weak MJO phase. This is consistent with the minimum
daily rainfall intensity observed during phase 6 of JJASO (Fig. 4c).
The MJO’s impact on diurnal rainfall can also be observed in the PA,
PF, and PI values (Fig. 8). In IKN, the PA values exhibit two peaks: one in
the early morning (0400–0600 local standard time, LST) and another in
the early afternoon (1400–1600 LST). These PA peaks observed in
IMERG data are consistent with those obtained from AWS observations
(Fig. 9). The early morning PA peak in IKN is associated with the
leeward propagation of rainfall during midnight and morning (Ichikawa
and Yasunari, 2006; Zhou et al., 2022), while the early afternoon PA
peak is related to the land-sea breeze circulation over the maritime
Fig. 8. The average of PA, PF, and PI value for each MJO Phases during all seasons (a, d, g); wet season (b, e, h); and dry season (c, f, i) from the IMERG data for the
IKN grid.
8
Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163
continent (Yamanaka et al., 2018). Similarly, the peak times of PF also
exhibit two peaks (Fig. 8). Although PA and PF have two peaks, the PF
peak time is delayed compared to PA’s. This is consistent with previous
studies conducted in Sumatra (Marzuki et al., 2021, 2022b). The delay
in the PF peak time compared to PA is attributed to the development
time of rain in the tropics, which typically begins with convective rain
followed by stratiform rain (Worku et al., 2019). Convective rain with
high rainfall intensity primarily influences the peak time of PA, while
stratiform rain with a longer duration plays a significant role in the peak
time of PF. The dominant peak values of PI occur in the 0400–0600 LST
range due to high-intensity rain from midnight to morning in IKN.
However, the PF and PI peaks obtained from IMERG data slightly differ
from those obtained by AWS observations (Fig. 9). This discrepancy may
be attributed to the high spatial variability in PF and PI values in IKN, as
AWS data is collected from a single observation point near the IKN beach
(Ramadhan et al., 2022a). This finding underscores the importance of
validating diurnal rainfall peaks using satellite data in areas with mul­
tiple diurnal rainfall peaks.
The diurnal rainfall patterns in IKN are influenced by both the season
R. Ramadhan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163

Fig. 9. The number of total rain events (TE) with a threshold of 0.1 mm/h (a) and the percentage of rain with a duration of <3 h (b), 3–6 h (c), and >6 h (d) for the
IKN area, based on 20 years of IMERG data.

and the MJO phase, as illustrated in Fig. 8. The variations in PA, PF, and 3.3. Analysis of flood event
PI are more pronounced during the dry season (JJASO) compared to the
wet season (NDJFMAM). These differences can be attributed to varia­ To analyze the impact of MJO-induced rainfall variability on flood
tions in heat flux intensity between the two seasons (Moron et al., 2015). disasters in IKN, flood data from BNPB was utilized. Fig. 10a presents the
During the summer, the solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface is monthly flood events and corresponding MJO phases in all study areas
generally higher compared to the rainy season, resulting in higher heat for 2008–2022 based on BNPB data. The number of flood events is
flux. This elevated heat flux leads to a larger temperature contrast be­ generally lower during the dry season (JJASO) compared to the rainy
tween the land and sea, promoting stronger local circulations. In the season (NDJFMAM) (Fig. 10a). The occurrence of floods is relatively low
case of IKN, during the dry season, the sea-breeze and valley-breeze at the beginning of the rainy season. The frequency of floods increases
convergence tend to be stronger in the afternoon and at night (Ichi­ notably from January to March. The lower number of floods at the start
kawa and Yasunari, 2006; Qian et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2022). Addi­ of the rainy season can be attributed to the relatively good soil ab­
tionally, the peak values of PA, PF, and PI during the early morning sorption capacity during that period (Hu et al., 2021). As the rainy
hours (0400–0600 LST) are more prominent in the active phase of the season progresses, the soil absorption capacity decreases, leading to an
MJO (phases 2–4) compared to the inactive phase (phases 6–8) in Bor­
neo. This pattern is also observed in AWS observations (Fig. 9). This is
because, during the active phase, convective rainfall dominates the
precipitation in Borneo during the nighttime to early morning period. In
contrast, stratiform rainfall dominates during the inactive phase (Ichi­
kawa and Yasunari, 2006).
In addition to affecting the diurnal amplitude, the MJO phase also
influences the shift in the peak rainfall time, as depicted in Fig. 8. Such a
shift is more prominent during the dry season (JJASO) than during the
rainy season (NDJFMAM). Specifically, the peak time of PA and PF
comes late during phases 4–8 (5–7). The shift in peak times is also
observed in AWS data (Fig. 9), but it is not as distinct as in the IMERG
data. Previous studies conducted in the maritime continent region have
also observed a similar late rainfall peak during the inactive phase (Oh
et al., 2012). Oh et al. (2012) found that convergence over land during
the night comes late in the inactive phase compared to the active phase.
Furthermore, the shift in peak time is more noticeable in the early
morning peak compared to the early afternoon peak (Fig. 8). The peak of
early morning rainfall in IKN during the inactive phase typically occurs
between 0700 and 0900 LST. This phenomenon can be attributed to the
weakening of low-level westerly winds in eastern Borneo during the
inactive phase, which reduces the leeward rainfall enhancement in IKN
(Ichikawa and Yasunari, 2006). Fig. 10. Distribution of flood events in the districts of Kutai Kartanegara,
Penajem Paser Utara, Samarainda and Balikpapan from BNPB data for
2008–2022 (a); as well as the distribution of flood events in Sepaku and Sem­
boja Districts from BNPB data for 2019–2022. The colorbar shows the number
of events.

9
R. Ramadhan et al.
increased risk of flooding. Interestingly, during the JJASO season, the
highest number of flood events is observed in August and September,
despite these months typically experiencing the lowest rainfall in IKN
(Ramadhan et al., 2022a). Moreover, the maximum number of floods
during August and September coincides with phases 2 and 3 of the MJO.
This highlights the significant influence of the MJO on flood occurrences
in the IKN region, particularly during the dry season.
To better understand the MJO’s impact on flood events in the IKN
region, the number of flood events, specifically in the Semboja and
Sepaku areas from 2019 to 2022, was examined (Fig. 10b). Over three
years, 12 flood events were recorded in these areas based on BNPB data.
Most of these flood events occurred in Sepaku, accounting for 10 out of
the recorded events. This can be attributed to Sepaku’s location near a
hilly area, making it more susceptible to rainwater runoff from higher
elevations. Additionally, two-thirds of these flood events took place
during the wet season (NDJFMAM), aligning with the flood pattern
observed in Kutai Kartanegara Regency, North Penajam Paser Regency,
Balikpapan City, and Samarinda City (Fig. 10a). Therefore, it is evident
that the seasonal factor plays a significant role in influencing the number
of flood events in the IKN region.
The influence of the MJO phase on flood events in the IKN region
differs between the wet season (NDJFMAM) and the dry season (JJASO).
In the NDJFMAM, flood events occur during the active phase of the MJO
(phases 2–4) and during the inactive phase (phases 1, 5–8). The number
of flood events during the MJO active phase in the NDJFMAM accounted
for 50% of the recorded flood events. Based on BNPB data, the impact of
flood events between the active and inactive phases during DJFMAM did
not show significant differences. During the inactive (active) phase in
the NDJFMAM, the most notable impacts were the submergence of 139
(101) houses. Thus, the influence of the MJO phase on flooding in the
IKN region is not dominant during the NDJFMAM. However, the effect
of the MJO on flood events in the IKN region becomes more significant
during the dry season (JJASO). Three of the four recorded flood events
during JJASO occurred during phases 2 and 3 of the MJO. The occur­
rence of flood events in phases 2 and 3 in IKN during JJASO aligns with
high MJO modulation of rainfall frequency, intensity, and duration.
Furthermore, according to BNPB data, two of the three flood events
during the active MJO phase in JJASO had substantial impacts,
including the inundation of 915 and 455 houses. On the other hand, one
flood event that occurred during the inactive phase of the MJO
(September 25, 2022) did not have a dominant impact and resulted in
the submergence of only seven houses. During the occurrence of floods
in JJASO, factors such as La Niña, increased sea surface temperature
(SST) in Indonesian waters, and other phenomena like the Borneo vor­
tex, cold surge, and Convectively Coupled Kelvin Waves (CCKW) may
contribute to flooding in the inactive phase (Baranowski et al., 2020;
Liang et al., 2023; Purwaningsih et al., 2022; Tangang et al., 2008). It is
worth noting that the MJO also influences the probability of major flood
days and events in various other areas.
The impact of the dominant MJO on floods in the IKN region during
the dry season should concern the government when planning the area’s
development. Considering the MJO’s influence on flood probability is
essential, as this phenomenon has been observed in various locations
worldwide (Zhang, 2013). The increase in rainfall and intensity during
phases 2 and 3 of the MJO highlights the potential for flooding.
Therefore, incorporating the MJO into the flood disaster mitigation
system in the IKN region is crucial to enhance disaster resilience. Several
aspects should be considered to improve flood resilience, such as
expanding water catchment areas, particularly in Sepaku. With the
changing land cover in the IKN region due to urbanization (Safitri et al.,
2022), the need for water catchment areas will become increasingly
important. Therefore, including the MJO factor in flood simulation
models is essential to accurately determine the required water absorp­
tion capacity for effective flood mitigation in the IKN region.
10
Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100163
4. Conclusions
The MJO significantly influences the characteristics of rainfall and
flood events in the IKN area. This influence is more pronounced during
the dry season (JJASO) compared to the wet season (NDJFMAM). In the
wet season, rainfall is generally high in each MJO phase, and the in­
crease in rainfall during the MJO active phase is not as substantial as
during the dry season. The largest increase in the frequency of wet days
during the wet season was observed in phase 4 of the MJO (8.65%),
while during the dry season, the increase reached 24.79% in phase 3.
Moreover, the increase in daily rainfall intensity in JJASO due to the
MJO is more significant than in NDJFMAM. The increase in daily rainfall
intensity during phases 2–3 MJO of JJASO is accompanied by extreme
rainfall events. This is evident from the increase in the 95th and 99th
percentile rainfall values during JJASO, where phases 2 and 3 of the
MJO exhibit an increase of more than 60% compared to weak MJO.
Additionally, there is a significant increase in the percentage of long-
duration rainfall during phases 2 and 3 of the MJO in JJASO, namely
7.81% and 7.41%, compared to weak MJO. Although flooding in IKN
primarily occurs during the wet season, the MJO amplifies the number
of floods during the dry season. The increased percentage of extreme and
long-duration rainfall during phases 2 and 3 of the MJO in JJASO en­
hances the potential for flooding in IKN. This aligns with the high
number of flood events reported by BNPB during phases 2 and 3 of the
MJO in JJASO. Policymakers should consider this a crucial aspect in
establishing an early warning system and mitigating the impacts of
flooding in IKN. Furthermore, the MJO’s propagation also causes a shift
in the peak of midnight to morning rainfall in IKN. The peak rainfall
occurs earlier during the active MJO (phases 2–3) than the inactive MJO
(phases 6–8). This shift in diurnal rainfall peaks, influenced by MJO
propagation in IKN, holds significant information for early flood warn­
ing systems. Policymakers need to consider this dependency of diurnal
rain peaks on MJO propagation in IKN. It should be noted that this
research is based on observational data, and the use of climate models
would provide more detailed insights into the mechanisms of rainfall
formation in the IKN area.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ravidho Ramadhan: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation,
Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Marzuki Marzuki: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology,
Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Wiwit Suryanto: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding
acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Supervision, Valida­
tion, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sholihun
Sholihun: Formal analysis, Investigation, Supervision, Validation.
Helmi Yusnaini: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Soft­
ware, Visualization. Robi Muharsyah: Data curation, Formal analysis,
Resources, Supervision, Validation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Meteorology, Climatology, and
R. Ramadhan et al.
Geophysics Agency (BMKG) for providing the data for research pur­
poses. We also thank the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
for providing IMERG data.
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