Chapter 1:

Introduction
to biological
cells
Objectives

1. Introduction to biological cells

Ø Definition
Ø Elemental compositions of living organisms
Ø Classification of living organisms
Ø Cell organelles

2. Chemical compositions
Ø Carbohydrate
Ø Protein
Ø Lipid
Ø Nucleic acid
 Cells

Ø All living organisms are composed of one or

more units called cells
Ø Cells are the basic functional units of
tissues, organs and organisms: growth,
metabolism, stimulus response &
replication
Ø Cells only come from pre-existing cells
Ø Cell sizes range from 0.1 to 100
micrometres
Ø Cells are separated from their
environments via a selectively porous
membrane
Cells Hierachy of molecular
components in a cell
Cells and
organelles

Supramolecular
complexes (enzymes,
ribosomes,
chromosomes)
Macromolecules (proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, DNA,
RNA)

Biomolecules (amino acids, sugars,

fatty acids, nucleic acids)
Metabolites (Pyruvate, citrate, succinate,
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, Fructose-1,6-
biphosphate)

Precursors (H2O, CO2, NH4+, NO3-, N2)

Elemental compositions of cells
Elemental compositions of cells Fun fact

What property unites H, O, C, and N that make them suitable to the chemistry of life?

• Ability to form covalent bonds by electron-pair sharing.

• H, C, N, and O are among the lightest elements of the periodic table, capable of forming such
bonds
• Strength of covalent bonds is inversely proportional to the atomic weights
• The prevalence of C is due to its unparalleled versatility in forming stable covalent bonds
through electron-pair sharing
à H, C, N, and O form the strongest covalent bonds.

• Two other covalent bond-forming elements, P & S: also important in biomolecules

Classification of living organisms

2 types:
Ø Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea): single membrane, no clearly defined nucleus,
no internal membranes separating internal structures
Ø Eukaryotes (higher plants and animals): Have cell membranes and nucleus, have
internal structure surrounded by membranes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQ-SMCmWB1s
Biochemistry
 Classification of living organisms

“A prokaryote as a one-room efficiency apartment and a eukaryote as a $6 million mansion.

The size and separation of functional 'rooms,' or organelles, in eukaryotes is similar to the many
rooms and complex organization of a mansion. Prokaryotes have to get similar jobs done in a
single room without the luxury of organelles.”
-Erin Shanle, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Longwood University-
Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes Cell wall

Typically 3–25 nm thick

Consists of peptidoglycan—a combination of oligosaccharides and proteins.
The peptidoglycan structure involves chains of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM),
cross-linked through tetrapeptide side-chains for strength.
Prokaryotes Cell wall

Penicillin works by inhibiting the enzyme

transpeptidase involved in the synthesis of the cross-
linking the peptidoglycan chains in the bacterial cell
wall.
Penicillin inactivates the transpeptidase enzyme by
forming an irreversible covalent bond to the catalytic
serine residue of the enzyme

Lobanovska, M. and Pilla, G. (2017). Penicillin’s Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for
the Future? The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 90(1), pp.135–145.
Eukaryotes
 Classification of living organisms Questions
1. The presence of which of the following cell structures would tell that the cell is eukaryotic?
a. Ribosomes b. Cytoplasm c. Nucleus d. Cytoplasm

2. Cells in which the genetic material is not in a nucleus are called:

a. Prokaryotic cells b. cell wall c. some eukaryotic cells d. plasmids

3. A bacterial cell may also contain … called plasmid

a. Prokaryotic cells b. small rings of DNA c. free in the cytoplasm d. eukaryotic cells

4. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells … (in which chemical reactions occur)
a. Have cytoplasm b. do not have a cell wall c. prokaryotic cells d. have a cell membrane

5. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells … to allow substances in and out of the cell
a. Have a cell membrane b. have cytoplasm c. free in cytoplasm d. have a cell wall
Cell organelles

Ø A cell organelle is a specialised subunit or compartment within a cell that has a

specific function.
Ø They are membrane-bound structures found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
Ø Each organelle performs a distinct role, contributing to the overall function and
survival of the cell
Ø Important cell organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome
Cell organelles Plasma membrane

• Porous membrane, present in both plants and animal cells, selectively permeable.
• Communicate through the binding of ligands (hormones, neurotransmitters,…) to receptor
proteins on its surface
• Involved in the exocytosis (secretion) and endocytosis (internalisation) of macromolecules
 Cell organelles Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane consists of:

1. Lipid (~40%):
• Phospholipids: made of
glycerol, two fatty acid tails,
and a phosphate-linked head
group

Phospholipid
 Cell organelles Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane consists of:

1. Lipid (~40%):
• Phospholipids

Outer leaflet consists of PC, Sphingomyelin

Inner leaflet consists of PE, PI, PS
Net negative charge on the cytosolic face of the plasma
membrane
 Cell organelles Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane consists of:

1. Lipid (~40%):
• Phospholipids
• Cholesterol
Rigid ring structure that inserts into a bilayer of
phospholipids with its polar hydroxyl group.
Depend on temperature, cholesterol affects
fluidity

Cholesterol
 Cell organelles Plasma membrane

Structure of plasma membrane:

1. Lipids
2. Proteins (~50%)
• Integral proteins: ion channels, proton
pumps, and G-protein coupled receptors –
transmembrane proteins
• Peripheral proteins: temporarily associated
with lipid bilayer or integral proteins
 Cell organelles Plasma membrane

Structure of plasma membrane:

1. Lipids
2. Proteins (~50%)
3. Carbohydrates (~10%)
• Glycoproteins
• Glycolipids
• Functions: Cell recognition and
communication, intercellular attachment,
receptors
 Cell organelles Nucleus
• The nucleus is bounded by two membranes, the
inner and outer nuclear membranes. These two
membranes fuse together at the nuclear pores
through which molecules (mRNA, proteins,
ribosomes,...) can move between the nucleus and
the cytosol.

Within the nucleus, the DNA is tightly coiled around histone

proteins and organised into complexes called chromosomes.
 Endoplasmic reticulum
Cell organelles (ER)

• Interconnected network of membrane

vesicles.
• The rough ER is studded on the cytosolic
face with ribosomes, the sites of
membrane and secretory protein
biosynthesis
• Enzymes involved in the post-translational
modification (glycosylation, proteolysis,….)
are within the lumen of rough ER
• The smooth ER is the site of phospholipid
biosynthesis, and detoxification reactions
 Cell organelles Mitochondria

• The outer membrane contains porin proteins which

make it permeable to molecules of up to 10 kDa.
• The inner membrane (less permeable) has large
infoldings called cristae which protrude into the central
matrix. The inner membrane is the site of oxidative
phosphorylation and electron transport involved in ATP
production

• The central matrix is the site of numerous metabolic

reactions (citric acid cycle, fatty acid breakdown).
• The mitochondrial DNA which encodes some of the
mitochondrial proteins is also found in the matrix
Cell organelles Golgi apparatus

• The sorting centre of the cell.

• Proteins from rough ER is transported to
Golgi for further post-translational
modifications, then sorted and packaged
into different vesicles, transported
through the cytosol, eventually fusing
either with the plasma membrane to
release their contents into the
extracellular space (a process known as
exocytosis or with other internal
organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes,….)
 Cell organelles Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton Hollow cylindrical structures built from tubulin proteins,

guide the movement of organelles such as the mitotic
spindle during cell division (Eg: Colchicine inhibits
microtubule polymerisation, disrupting processes like cell
division; taxol stabilises tubulin, interferes with the mitotic
spindle and inhibits the proliferation of rapidly dividing cells)

Help in the formation of neurofilaments and keratin.

Provide tensile strength to the cell

Under the cell membrane, can be used for

moving the cell or in muscle contraction
Cell organelles Ribosome

Ribosomes are composed of RNA

and proteins. They are protein-
synthetic machines. Ribosomes read
the genetic information in mRNA
and it matches it with the specific
tRNA molecules. The ribosome then
links these amino acids together to
form a protein.
Cell organelles Questions

A … cell is a kind of cell that does not have a nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles.
The organisms that have this type of cell include archaea and …; all other organisms are …

The main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that the latter has a …
while the former does not. All … of the eukaryotes is stored in this organelle.

The … is the largest membrane-bound organelle present in the eukaryotic cell.

 Cell organelles Questions
1. Which of the following is a cellular organelle?
a) autosome b) liposome c) microsome d) peroxisome e) ribosome
2. Which of the following describes how regions of phospholipids are arranged in the cell membrane?
a. Hydrophobic fatty acid regions face each other with the interior of the cell membrane
b. Hydrophilic phosphate regions are positioned toward nonpolar environments
c. Hydrophilic phosphate regions face each other within the interior of the cell membrane
d. Hydrophobic fatty acid regions are positioned toward polar environments
3. Of the three cytoskeletal components, which is composed of the actin protein?
a) Microfilaments b) Microtubules c) Intermediate Filaments d) All cytoskeletal filaments
are made of actin.
4 Which of the following is true about the amino acids that make up a transmembrane protein?
a) amino acids with charged side groups are in contact with the fatty acid region of the cell membrane
b. Amino acids with non-polar side groups are in contact with the fatty acid region of the cell membrane
c. Amino acids with non-polar side groups are in contact with the phosphate region fatty acid region of the
cell membrane
d. Amino acids with polar side groups are in contact with the fatty acid region of the cell membrane
 Cell organelles Questions

5. Plasma membrane phospholipids

a) comprise 3 fatty acids esterified to a glycerol moiety
b) all have a net negative charge
c) can readily flip from one side of the membrane to the other
d) are in the liquid phase under physiological conditions
e) bind specifically to cholesterol

6. The nucleolus, situated within the nucleus, is the site of

a) transcription of rRNA
b) transcription of mRNA
c) splicing of mRNA
d) initiation of DNA replication
e) initiation of the mitotic spindle
 Chemical composition

The dry weight of cells is composed primarily of 4 classes of large organic compounds.
The cells also contain some small organic molecules and inorganic minerals.
 Major compounds
Organic compound Building block Some major functions Examples
Carbohydrate: Monosaccharides Energy storage, physical structure Glucose, fructose,
Mono-, di-, lactose, starch,
polysaccharide cellulose, pectin
Protein Amino acids Enzymes, toxins, physical Antibodies viral
structures surface, flagella
Lipid:
Triglycerides - Fatty acids and glycerol - Energy storage, thermal Fat, oil
insulation, shock absorption
Phospholipids - Fatty acids, glycerol, and a - Foundation for cell membranes Plasma
phosphate group which is
esterified to an organic molecule
Steroids - Four-ringed structure - Membrane stability Cholesterol
Nucleic acid Ribonucleotides; Inheritance, instructions for DNA, RNA
Deoxyribonucleotides protein synthesis
 Questions
1. Which one of the following is associated with bacterial cells?
a) Ribosomes b) Nucleus c) Chloroplasts d) Lysosomes

2. Which one of the following is associated with bacterial cells?

a) Ribosomes b) Nucleus c) Chloroplasts d) Lysosomes

3. The overall shape of a bacterial cell is determined by which of the following?

a) Cytoskeleton b) Cell wall c) Nucleoid d) Cell surface
membrane

4. Which of the following statements is correct?

a) Animal and fungal cells contain chloroplasts.
b) Animal and plant cells do not contain mitochondria.
c) Plant, animal and fungal cells possess mitochondria.
d) All plant cells contain chloroplasts.
 Questions

5. Which of the following are not found in plant cells?

a) Mitochondria b) Glyoxysomes c) Centrosomes d) Golgi apparatus

6. The nucleolus, situated within the nucleus, is the site of

a) transcription of rRNA
b) transcription of mRNA
c) splicing of mRNA
d) initiation of DNA replication
e) initiation of the mitotic spindle
 Questions

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phosphatidyl choline a. Turned over rapidly as part of a signalling
system

phosphatidyl inositol b. Never found in prokaryotes

phosphatidyl serine c. Normally outward facing in plasma

membrane
cholesterol d. Involved in redox reactions in membranes

quinone e. Normally inward facing in plasma membrane