INDUSTRIALTRIBOLOGY

TRIBOLOGY SERIES

Advisory Editor: DOUGLAS SCOTT Editorial Board

W.J. Bartz (Germany) R. Bassani (Italy) C.A. Brockley (Canada) H. Czichos (Germany) D. Dowson (UK) N.Gane (Australia) W.A. Glaeser (USA) M. Goder (France) H.E. Hinterman (Switzerland) I.V. Kragelskii(USSR) K.C. Ludema (USA) G.W. Rowe (UK) T. Sakurai (Japan) J.P. Sharma (India)

Vol. 1 Tribology - A Systems Approach to the Science and Technology of Friction, Lubricationand Wear (Czichos) Vol. 2 Impact Wear of Materials (Engel) Vol. 3 Tribology of Natural and Artificial Joints (Dumbleton) Vol. 4 Tribology of Thin Layers (Iliuc) Vol. 5 Surface Effects in Adhesion, Friction, Wear and Lubrication (Buckley) Vol. 6 Frictionand Wear of Polymers (Bartenev and Lavrentev) Vol. 7 Microscopic Aspects of Adhesion and Lubrication (Georges, Editor) Vol. 8 IndustrialTribology- The PracticalAspects of Friction, Lubrication and Wear (Jones and Scott, Editors) Vol. 9 Mechanics and Chemistry in Lubrication (Dorinson and Ludema) Vol. 10 Microstructure and Wear of Materials (Zum Gahr) Vol. 11 Fluid Film Lubrication- Osborne Reynolds Centenary (Dowson et al., Editors) Vol. 12 Interface Dynamics (Dowson et al., Editors) Vol. 13 Tribology of Miniature Systems (Rymuza) Vol. 14 Tribological Design of Machine Elements (Dowson et al., Editors) Vol. 15 Encyclopediaof Tribology (Kajdas et al.) Vol. 16 Tribology of Plastic Materials (Yamaguchi) Vol. 17 Mechanics of Coatings (Dowson et al., Editors)

TRIBOLOGY SERIES, 8

INDUSTRIAL TRIBOLOGY
The PracticalAspects of Friction, Lubrication and Wear
edited by

MERVIN H. JONES
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Swansea, Swansea, U.K.

and

DOUGLAS SCOTT
Consultant, Editor of "Wear", Secretary of The Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, Glasgow, U. K.

ELSEVIE R SCl ENTl F IC PUBLISHING COMPANY AMSTERDAM -OXFORD -NEW YORK

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat25 P.O. Box 21 1,1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Distributorsfor the USA and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 655 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10010, USA

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main e n t r y under t i t l e :
Industrial tribology.

(Tribology s e r i e s ; 8 ) Includes b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and indexes. 1. Tribology. I. J o n e s , Mervin H., 193911. S c o t t , Douglas, 19161 1 Series. 1 . TJ1075.148 1983 621.89 82-24248 ISBN 0-444-42161-0 (U. S. )

ISBN 0444421614 (Vol. 8 ) ISBN 044441677-3 (Series)

First edition 1983 Second impression 1991

0 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1983 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., P.O. Box 21 1,1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Special regulations for readers in the USA. This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, MA 01970, USA. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred to the copyright owner, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., unless otherwise specified. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products. instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Printed in The Netherlands

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

XXI

FOREWORD
CHAPTER 1. TRIBOLDGY IN PERSPECTIVE, D. EDITOR O WEAR F SCOTT, CONSULTANT,

XXIII
1 1 1 2

1.1
1.2

Introduction Impact o f T r i b o l o g y Economic a s p e c t s o f t r i b o l o g y Mechanisms o f wear Surface stu d ie s Lubrication Lubricants Materials Surface treatments

1.3
1.4

1.5

3 4

1.6
1.7

5 5 6

1.8

1.9

1.10 Computer a i d e d d e s i g n 1.11 Machinery c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g

1.12 C o n c l u s i o n s References

7 8
8

3
10

CHAPTER 2.

WEAR, 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

D.

SCOTT, CONSULTANT, EDITOR O WEAR F

12 12

Introduction The wear p r o c e s s Scuffing A b r a s i v e wear Fretting F l u i d and c a v i t a t i o n e r o s i o n R o l l i n g contact f a t i g u e Wear d e t e c t i o n and assessment Conclusions
I

14
14

17
18

19
20 24 29

References

VI
CHAPTER 3. SELECTION O BEARINGS, M.J. F NEALE, MICHAEL NEALE

AND ASSOCIATES LTD.

3.1 3.2 3.3

Introduction Bearing types Performance of v a r i o u s t y p e s o f b e a r i n g

31 31 31 33 33 35 35 36 37 37 40 42

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3

Rubbing b e a r i n g s R o l l e r bearings F l u i d f i l m bearings F l e x i b l e members

Selection o f a s u i t a b l e bearing Applications w i t h u n i d i r e c t i o n a l load and c o n t i n u o u s movement Applications with o s c i l l a t i n g movernent Applications with multidirectional l o a d and c o n t i n u o u s movement

CHAPTER 4.

DESIGN OF PLAIN BEARINGS,

USE OF BEARING DATA

D E S I G N CHARTS, F.A.
GLACIER METAL CO.

MARTIN AND D.R.

GARNER, THE

LTD.

45 45 45 46 46 47 48 50 50 51 52 52
ba 1 ance

4.1 4.2

Introduction

4.1.1 4.2.1

Notation

Journal b e a rin g design l i m i t s Limits o f operation

4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 4.2.1.3 4.2.1.4 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2

Thin o i l f i l m l i m i t High b e a rin g temperature

O i l oxidation l i m i t
O i l f i l m instabil

Region o f s a f e o p e r a t i o n

C a l c u l a t i o n and d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s Dimensionless d a t a

Stage 1

Design p r o c e d u r e s w i t h hea

Stage 1 1

57

Improvement i n d e s i g n a i d s

Stage 111

57 58 58 60

Design p r o c e d u r e f o r c y l i n d r i c a l b o r e b e a r i n g s Method o f approach Guidance f o r s a f e o p e r a t i o n

VII

4.4.2.1 4.4.2.2 4.4.3 4.4.3.1 4.4.3.2 4.4.3.3 4.4.3.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2

O i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s and temperatures
O i l f i l m instability

60 64 65 67 67 67 69 72 72 72 75 75 76

Performance p r e d i c t i o n Minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s Misalignment Power l o s s and o i l f l o w Temperatures

High speed a p p l i c a t i o n s Non l a m i n a r o p e r a t i o n P r o f i l e bore bearings

Example o f use o f design a i d s Problem Procedure

4.6.2.1 4.6.2.2 4.6.2.3 4.6.2.4 4.6.2.5 4.6.2.6 4.6.2.7 4.6.2.8 4.6.2.9

Re f e r ence s

Diametral c l e a r a n c e Maximum s p e c i f i c l o a d r a t i n g Region o f s a f e o p e r a t i o n P r e d i c t i o n o f minimum o i l

f i l m thickness

76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 78

Check for l a m i n a r o p e r a t i o n P r e d i c t i o n o f power loss Prediction o f o i l flow P r e d i c t i o n o f maximum b e a r i n g temperature Prediction o f o i l o u t l e t temperature

CHAPTER 5 .

THE D I A G N O S I S OF PLAIN BEARING FAILURES, R.W.

AND E.B.

WILSON

SHONE,

SHELL RESEARCH CENTRE.

80 80 80 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 82

5.1 5.2

Introduction Properties required o f bearing m a t e r i a l s

5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7 5.2.8

Fatigue resistance Compressive s t r e n g t h Conformability Embeddability S t r e n g t h a t e l e v a t e d temperatures Compatibility Corrosion resistance Cost

VIII
5.3 Type, c o n s t r u c t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p l a i n bearing materials 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 White m e t a l s ( B a b b i t t s ) Copper l e a d a l l o y s Lead bronzes Aluminium a l l o y s Phosphor and s i l i c o n bronzes Silver Porous and s e l f l u b r i c a t i n g b e a r i n g s Discussion o f m e t a l l i c b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s

82
82 86 86 87 88 88 88 88 89

5.3.4
5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 5.4 5.4.1

Bearing f a i l u r e s M e t a l l u r g i c a l d e f e c t s i n new b e a r i n g s 5.4.1.1 5.4.1.2 5.4.1.3 5.4.1.4 Bad bonding Gas c a v i t i e s Oversize cuboids Excessive l e a d c o n t e n t i n t i n based w h i t e m e t a l s

89
89

81
91

91

5.4.1.5
5.4.2

Uneven l e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
copper- l e a d

and lead-bronze a I I o y s

91
96 96 97 102 117 119 122 123

F a i l u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h design, f i t t i n g o r o p e r a t i n g environment 5.4.2.1 5.4.2.2 5.4.2.3 5.4.2.4 5.4.2.5 5.4.2.6 5.4.2.7 6.4.2.8 5.4.2.9 5.4.2.10 Bad f i t t i n g Extraneous p a r t i c l e s Corrosion C a v i t a t i o n and e r o s i o n E l e c t r i c a l d i scha r g e damage Wire wool f a i l u r e s Fatigue Thermal c y c l i n g damage A l l o y i n g i n service Inadequate v i s c o s i t y and l a c k
of lubricant

125
125

126 127 130

5.5

Conclusions

Ref e rence s

CHAPTER 6.

ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS,

SKF (UK)

D.G.

HJERTZEN AND R.A.

JARVIS, 132 132 132

LTD.

6.1
6.2

Introduction Bearing s e l e c t i o n

IX
6.3
Bearing types

133 133 133 134 134 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 141 143 144 144 145 150 151 152
Temperature range

6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 6.3.11 6.3.12 6.4

S i n g l e row deep groove b a l l b e a r i n g Self-a1 i g n i n g b a l l b e a r i n g s Angular c o n t a c t b a l l b e a r i n g Double row a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a l l b e a r i n g C y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r bearing Double row c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s Needle r o l l e r b e a r i n g s Taper r o l l e r b e a r i n g s Double row s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s Spherical r o l l e r t h r u s t bearings B a l l t h r u s t bearings Bearings w i t h s p h e r i c a l o u t s i d e surface and extended i n n e r r i n g w i d t h

F a t i g u e l i f e and l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y

6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

Usage

Hertzian contact R e l a t i o n s h i p between l o a d and l i f e F u r t h e r development o f t h e l i f e e q u a t i o n

Boundary dimensions

Speed l i m i t s F r ic t i o n Lubrication

6.9.1 6.9.2 6.10 Seals

Greases

6.9.1.1

152 155 157 159 162 163 163 165 165 166 167 167 168 169 171

O i l lubrication

6.11 Noise 6.12 A n t i c i p a t i n g b e a r i n g damage 6.13 D e t e c t i o n o f b e a r i n g damage by shock p u l s e

mea su rement

6.14 F i t s ( s h a f t and housing) 6.15 C o n d i t i o n s o f r o t a t i o n 6.16 I n f l u e n c e o f l o a d and temperature 6.17 Bearing a p p l i c a t i o n s 6.18 Bearing c a r e 6.19 Bearing mounting 6.20 D im o u n t i n g b e a r i n g s 6.21 Mounting and dismounting by o i l i n j e c t i o n 6.22 Cleaning o f b e a r i n g s

X
6.23 R e c o g n i t i o n o f b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s 6.23.1 6.23.2 6.23.3 6.23.4 6.23.5 6.23.6 6.23.7
Wear I n c o r r e c t mounting Cage f a i l u r e s Smearing Vibrations Rust and o t h e r t y p e s o f c o r r o s i o n Passage o f e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t through bearings

172 172 174 175 177 178 181 181

CHAPTER 7.

PRACTICAL GEAR TRIBOLOGY, T . I .

FOWLE, CONSULTANT

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Introduction Alignment Tooth a c t i o n Tooth s u r f a c e d i s t r e s s

184 184 184 187 189 189 191 194 195 195 196 197

7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.5

References

Pitting Scuffing A b r a s i v e wear Other forms o f gear wear

Problems i n l u b r i c a t i o n systems

Gear problems : causes and remedies

CHAPTER 8.

MATERIALS FOR TRIBOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 0. SCOTT, CONSULTANT, EDITOR OF WEAR

8.1 8.2 8.3

Introduction Types o f m a t e r i a l s Materials f o r specific applications

205 205 205 207 7-07

21 0

8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.3.6 8.3.7 8.3.8 8.3.9 8.3.10

P l a i n bearings Gears R o l l i n g bearings Wear r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s Tools Cutting tools Piston rings Cams and t a p p e t s F r i c t i o n materials P l a s t i c bearings

21 1 21 3

214 215 21 5 216 217

21 7

XI
8.4 Surface t r e a t m e n t s and c o a t i n g s Conclusions 218 22 1 221

8.5

References

CHAPTER 9.

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS, A.R. TRIBOLOGY CENTRE 9.1 9.2 9.3 Introduction

LANSDOWN, SWANSEA 223 223 224 226 226

Selecting the l u b r i c a n t type Properties o f mineral o i l s 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity

temperature r e l a t i o n s h i p pressure r e l a t i o n s h i p

229 23 1

9.3.4
9.3.5 9.3.6 9.4

A n t i - w e a r , extreme p r e s s u r e and a n t i f r i c t i o n properties Stability Con tami nan t s

Choice o f base o i l 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 L i m i t a t i o n s o f mineral o i l s High temperatures Flammability Compatibil i t y

9.5 9.6 9.7

Greases

Sol i d l u b r i c a n t s
Gas l u b r i c a t i o n

CHAPTER 10.

LUBRICANT ADDITIVES, THEIR APPLICATION, PERFORMANCE AN0 LIMITATIONS, D.M. LABORATORIES. 10.1 10.2 10.3 Introduction Basic p r o p e r t i e s of l u b r i c a n t s Lubricant a d d i t i v e s 10.3.1 Detergent and d i s p e r s a n t a d d i t i v e s 10.3.1.1 Detergent t y p e s .1 Sulphonates SOUL, LUBRIZOL INTERNATIONAL 242 242 242 243 243 243 245 245 248 249

.2 Phosphonates and/or thiophosphonates

.3 Phenates

.4 A l k y l s u b s t i t u t e d
sal i c y l a t e s

XI1
10.3.1.2 Mode o f a c t i o n o f d e t e r g e n t add i t i v e s 10.3.1.3 Di spe rsant a d d i t i v e s . 1 Cop0 1 yme r s
.2 S u b s t i t u t e d Succinimides

249
249

250
250

.3 Amides

250

.4 Other chemicals
10.3.1.4 Mode o f a c t i o n o f d i s p e r s a n t additives

251
251

10.3.2

A n t i o x i d a n t s and b e a r i n g c o r r o s i o n inhibitors 10.3.2.1 10.3.2.2 10.3.2.3 10.3.2.4 10.3.2.5 Di t h i op ho sphates Hindered phenol N i t r o g e n bases S u l ph uri sed p o l y o l e f i n s Mode o f a c t i o n o f a n t i o x i d a n t s 251 252 252

252
252 252 253 253 253 254

10.3.3

Corro si on i n h i b i t o r s 10.3.3.1 10.3.3.2 10.3.3.3 10.3.3.4 10.3.3.5 10.3.3.6 Di t h i op ho sphates Di t h i carb amates Sulphur p r o d u c t s Phosphorus

Sulphur p r o d u c t s

254
254

T r i a z o l e s and c h e l a t i n g agents Dime rcap t o t h iad i o z o l e derivatives

2 54
254 254

10.3.3.7

Mode o f a c t i o n o f c o r r o s i o n inhibitors

10.3.4 10.3.5

Rust i n h i b i t o r s V i s c o s i t y improvers 10.3.5.1 Mode o f a c t i o n o f V . I . improvers

255
2 56 257

10.3.6

Pour p o i n t depressants 10.3.6.1 Mode o f a c t i o n o f pour p o i n t d ep ressa nts

257

10.3.7

Extreme p ressu re a d d i t i v e s 10.3.7.1 Comrnerical E.P. a d d i t i v e s and

258

t h e i r application 10.3.7.2 10.3.7.3 10.3.7.4 10.3.7.5 10.3.7.6 Automotive E.P. gear o i l s

258
259
260 262 262 263

An t i wea r a d d i t i v e s E.P.
E.P.

a d d i t i v e s f o r t u r b i n e o Is a d d i t i v e s f o r c u t t i n g o Is a d d i t ve s

Mode o f a c t i o n o f E.P.

XIII
10.3.8 10.3.9 10.4 Emulsifiers Friction modifiers 264 264 265 266

Conclusions

References

F CHAPTER 11. CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION O LUBRICANTS,

A.R.
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4

LANSDOWN, SWANSEA TRIBOLOGY Consumption Reducing consumption Reclamation and r e - r e f i n i n g Economics

CENTRE

26 7 26 7 270 271 273

CHAPTER 12. HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS OF LUBRICANTS, A.R. 12.1 12.2 12.3

EYRES, MOBIL EUROPE INC.,

Introduction Composition o f l u b r i c a n t s M i n e r a l base o i l f a c t o r s 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4 12.3.5 12.3.6 Acute t o x i c i t y Dermatitis
O i l mist

275 275 275 2 76 276 277 277 278 278 280 280 280 281 281 28 1 282 282 282 283 283 284 284 285 287 288

O i l vapours
Skin cancer Eye i r r i t a t i o n

12.4

Additive factors 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.4.3 12.4.4 12.4.5 12.4.6 Lead compounds Orthophosphates C h l o r i n a t e d Naphthalenes Sodium N i t r i t e and Amines Sodium Mercaptobenzothiazole Trichloroethylene

12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

B a c t e r i a and b i o c i d e s Synthetic l u b r i c a n t s Used and r e c l a i m e d o r r e - r e f i n e d o i l s H e a l t h and s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s 12.8.1 12.8.2 12.8.3 12.8.4 Suppliers r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s Skin p r o t e c t i o n O i l m i s t and vapour S k i n cancer

XIV
12.8.5 12.9 B a c t e r i a and b i o c i d e s 289 289 289

Conclusions

References

CHAPTER 13. EFFECTIVE CONTAMINATION CONTROL I N FLUID P OWE R

SYSTEMS, J.B. 13.1

SPENCER,

SPERRY VICKERS

291 291 292 294 294 294 294

Introduction 13.1.1
A syst e mat i c approach t o f i l t r a t i o n

13.2

D i r t Input

t yp es and sources o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n

13.2. I 13.2.2 13.2.3 13.2.4

New o i 1 B u i l t i n contamination Environmental Co nt amination E n t r y p o i n t s f o r e nvironmental contamination 13.2.4.1 13.2.4.2 13.2.4.3 A i r breathers Power u n i t access p l a t e s Cylinder seals

295 295 295 295 296 296 296 296 297 297 300 30 1 302 302 303 305 305 305 306 306 306 307 307

13.2.5 13.3

Generated c o n t a m i n a t i o n

E f f e c t s o f t ype s and s i z e s o f p a r t i c l e s 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 13.3.5 13.3.6 13.3.7 13.3.8 13.3.9 Catastrophic f a i l u r e Intermittent f a i l u r e Deg rad at i on f a i l u r e Pumps Motors D i r e c t i o n a l valves Pressure c o n t r o l s Flow c o n t r o l s Summary

13.4 13.5

S p e c i f y i n g con t a mi na t i o n l e v e l s Selecting the f i l t e r 13.5.1 13.5.2 13.5.3 13.5.4 13.5.5 13.5.6 13.5.7 Nominal r a t i n g A b sol u t e r a t i n g The b ub bl e t e s t Mean f i l t r a t i n g r a t i n g Multipass f i l t e r test Beta r a t i o Practical c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f i l t e r performance 13.5.7.1 13.5.7.2 Pulsating flow Bypass i n g

307 308 308

xv
13.5.8 13.6 13.6.1 13.6.2 13.6.3 13.6.4 13.7
Summary Filter sizing

312 318 318 320 322 324 327

Locating the f i l t e r Pump i n l e t f i l t r a t i o n Pressure 1 i n e f i l t r a t i o n Return 1 i n e f i 1 t r a t i o n

O f f line filtration

CHAPTER 14. SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT, PART ONE,

B.D.

HALLIGAN, JAMES WALKER 6 CO. LTD. Introduction Materials Seal designs Tribological considerations

330 330 331 338 339 339 343 344 346 347 347 348 350 350 350 351 351 351 351 351

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4

14.4.1 14.4.2 14.4.3 14.4.4 14.4.5 14.4.6 14.5 14.6

Storage

Film conditions Surface f i n i s h Seal f r i c t i o n Type o f f l u i d Filtration A i r entrainment

Selection

14.6.1

Recommendations

14.6.1.1 14.6.1.2 14.6.1.3 14.6.1.4 14.6.1.5 14.7

Assembly

Temperature Humidity Light Oxygen and ozone Deformation

CHAPTER 15. SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT, PART TWO, ROTARY SHAFT L I P SEALS, B.D. HALLIGAN, JAMES WALKER E CO. LTD.

353 353 354 355 356 357 358 359

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7

Introduction Design Material Seal l u b r i c a t i o n Shaft surfaces Friction Speeds

XVI
15.9 Pressure 359 360 360 361

15.10 Care and h a n d l i n g 15.10.1 15.10.2 15.10.3 Storage Handling Fitting

36 1
362 362

15.11 S e r v i c e problems and t h e i r s o l u t i o n s 15.11.1 Unacceptable leakage

CHAPTER 16. SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT, PART THREE, COMPRESSION PACKINGS, 16.1

B.D. HALLIGAN, JAMES WALKER t CO. LTD.

Pumps Valves

370 370 371 371

The packed g l a n d 16.1.1 16.1.2

16.2 16.3 16.4

Operating p r i n c i p l e s Gland design Packing c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a t e r i a l s 16.4.1 16.4.2 16.4.3 16.4.4 16.4.5 16.4.6 16.4.7 16.4.8 16.4.9 Fibre material Lubricants Construct ion Additional material Selection Fitting Fault finding Standardization The f u t u r e

373
374

376
3 76 376 3 76 379 383 388 390 391 392 393

Appendix 1

Safety o f asbestos g l a n d packings and gaskets

CHAPTER 17. CENTRALISED LUBRICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN, J.G.

MERRETT, 395 395 396

ENGINEERING AN0 GENERAL EQUIPMENT LTD.

17.1 17.2 17.3 Introduction Points of l u b r i c a t i o n Selecting the l u b r i c a n t 17.3.1

o i l or grease

396

O i l o r grease7 when t o use one and when the other 397

17.3.2

L u b r i c a t i n g grease t o s e l e c t them

t h e t y p e s and how 398

17.3.3

Lubricating o i l s s e l e c t them

types and how t o 400

XVII

17.3.3.1 17.3.3.2 17.3.4 17.4 17.5 17.6

The p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e o i l Specialist lubricants

40 1 402 402 402 402 403 403 403 405

Summarising l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n

Pipe diameter vs f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s L u b r i c a t i o n requirements f o r p l a i n b e a r i n g s S e l e c t i n g t h e r i g h t t y p e o f l u b r i c a t i o n system

17.6.1

Grease l u b r i c a t i o n systems

17.6.1.1 17.6.1.2 17.6.1.3

D i r e c t f e e d i n g systems I n d i r e c t o r l i n e systems Comparison o f p a r a l l e l systems

s i n g l e l i n e and

dual l i n e

412 412 41 2 412 413 413 416 418 41 9 419 421 421 421 421 423 424 425

17.6.1.4 17.6.1 - 5 17.6.1.6 17.6.2

S e l e c t i n g grease l u b r i c a t i o n systems Lubrication o f p l a i n o r sleeve bearings Lubrication o f a n t i f r i c t i o n ( b a l l and r o l l e r ) b e a r i n g s

O i l l u b r i c a t i o n systems

17.6.2.1 17.6.2.2 17.6.2.3 17.6.3

T o t a l l o s s systems Systems designed w i t h small amount o f h e a t removal Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n c o o l ing

M i c r o - f o g l u b r i c a t i o n systems

17.6.3.1 17.6.3.2 17.6.3.3 17.6.3.4 17.6.3.5 17.6.4 17.7

Summary References

Working p r i n c i p l e s O i l quality Compressed a i r Systems d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s Some t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s

Check l i s t

CHAPTER 18. ON CONDITION MAINTENANCE, R.A. DIAGNOSIS CENTRE

COLLACOTT, FAULT

427 427 427 428 428

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4

Introduction Background Management o f cond i t i o n mon i t o r ing F a i l u r e modes and e f f e c t s a n a l y s i s

XVIII
18.5
Monitoring technique s e l e c t i o n

432 433 433

18.5.1

V i b r a t i o n monitoring

18.5.1.1 18.5.1.2

Proximity probes Seismic v e l o c i t y transducers, accelerometers, vibration

meters, spectrum analysers

434

18.5.1.3 18.5.2 18.5.3 18.5.4 18.6

References

Waveform a n a l y s i s

4 36
436 4 38 444 444 445

Inspection, i n t e g r i t y s u r v e i l l a n c e Contaminant a n a l y s i s Trends a n a l y s i s

Deterioration l i m i t s

CHAPTER 19. THE TRIBOLOGY OF METAL CUTTING, E.M.

OF BIRMINGHAM

TRENT, U N I V E R S I T Y

446 446 446

interface

19.1 19.2 19.3

Introduction Metal c u t t i n g phenomena Conditions a t the tool-work

448 448 451 45 1 452 456

19.3.1 19.3.2 19.3.3 19.3.4 19.3.5 19.3.6 19.4 19.4.1 19.4.2 19.4.3 19.4.4 19.5
References

Tool forces and stresses C u t t i n g speed Heat i n metal c u t t i n g Seizure o f the tool-work i n t e r f a c e C u t t i n g t o o l temperatures

SI i d i n g a t the tool-work i n t e r f a c e
Abrasion Surface shearing D i f f u s i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n Attrition

4 58
459 46 1 46 1 463 465 467 470

C u t t i n g t o o l wear

Coolants and l u b r i c a n t s

CHAPTER 20. ROLE OF LABORATORY TEST MACHINES, F.T.

BARWELL AND

M.H.

JONES, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE Experimental method

O F SWANSEA

471 471 4 72 472 474 479

20.1 20.2

Lubricant type approval t e s t i n g machines 20.2.1 Engine t e s t s Gear t e s t s Simulation o f i n d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n s

20.2.2 20.2.3

XIX
20.3

A n a l y s i s i n t o system elements o f t h e b a s i s f o r selection o f laboratory tests

480 488 492

20.4

Equipment f o r b a s i c re sea rch

Ref e r enc e s GLOSSARY

493
502

AUTHOR INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

506

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

XXI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The e d i t o r s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f M r . G. W i l l i a m s and

Mr.

J . Thomas o f t h e l u b r i c a t i o n department o f B r i t i s h Steel C orporation,

Po r t T a l b o t and D r . G. Thomas o f t he E x t r a Mural Department, U n i v e r s i t y Colle g e , Swansea, who have been a c t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e annual Seminars on i n d u s t r i a l T r i b o l o g y s i n c e t h e i r i n c e p t i o n .

Acknowledgement i s a l s o due t o v i s i t i n g l e c t u r e r s who generously gave t h e i r t i m e i n d e v e lo p in g t h e Seminar t o i t s p r e s e n t successful f o r m a t . i n c l u d e R. Gronbech

P.

These

Davey Un i t e d, J. Bathgate Morris

David Brown Gears Ltd.,

Gadd

NAML Gosport, N.W. E.T.

F arva l ube Ltd.,

D. H a t t o n
D.J.

Shell

International, Dr.

Jagger

Angus Seals Ltd.,

and D r .

Haines

B r i t i s h A i r c r a f t Corp ora t i o n.

The e d i t o r s e x te nd t h e i r g r a t i t u d e t o t h e t y p i n g e x p e r t i s e o f Mrs. M.A. W i l l i a m s and Mrs. P.T. ready copy. Hancock who have so e x p e r t l y produced t h i s camera

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

XXIII

FOREWORD
Some e le v e n ye ars ago M r . Ronald Dale, B r i t i s h Steel C orporation, P o r t Talbot,

v i s i t e d t h e C o lleg e t o propose t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a course i n T r i b o l o g y f o r Steelworks Design S t a f f . T h i s p rop osa l was r e a d i l y accepted because prepar-

a t i o n s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e T r i b o l o g y Centre were a l r e a d y w e l l advanced. The f i r s t c o urse was r a t h e r a m b i t i o u s i n s o f a r as i t was o f two weeks duration, t h e f i r s t week b e i n g devoted t o f a i r l y heavy t h e o r y w h i l s t more

p r a c t i c a l m a t e r i a l was i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e second week.

A particular feature

was t h e i n c l u s i o n o f p r o j e c t s based on contemporary problems a t t h e steelw orks. These p r o j e c t s were a l l o c a t e d t o small teams and, on t h e f i n a l day, the leader

o f each team had t o r e p o r t t o t h e whole co urse on t h e s o l u t i o n a r r i v e d a t by h i s team. The demand f o r re pe at courses was s t r o n g and they have been r u n a t annual i n t e r v a l s e v e r s i nce . However, t h e p a t t e r n o f i n s t r u c t i o n has been m o d i f i e d from

y e a r t o y e a r as t h e r e s u l t o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s completed by course members and i n response t o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s by employers. Thus t h e p r e s e n t course i s o f s h o r t e r

d u r a t i o n and i s o r i e n t a t e d towards p r a c t i c e from t h e o u t s e t , t h e o r y o n l y b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d when r e q u i r e d t o p o i n t t h e way towards t h e s o l u t i o n s o f p r a c t i c a l problems. One o f t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e f i r s t course, t o c o n t r i v e t h e maximum degree o f been r e t a i n e d and developed,

i n te r c h a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n between p a r t i c i p a n t s , h a s

p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e course i s now r e c r u i t e d from a number o f i n d u s t r i e s be s id e s t h e s t e e l i n d u s t r y and indeed f rom several c o u n t r i e s . The t e r m ' T r i b o l o g y ' , as f o l l o w s : d e f i n e d i n t h e Chambers T w e n t i e t h Century D i c t i o n a r y

a sci e nce and t e chn ol o gy embracing a l l s u b j e c t s i n v o l v e d when s u r -

fa c e s i n c o n t a c t move i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r (Greek t r i b e i n , t o rub, and logos, speech, a d i s c o u r s e ) had then been o n l y r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d t o emphasize the m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e o f t h e study o f b e a r i n g system. The term 'Lub-

r i c a t i o n ' which had been used p r e v i o u s l y was considered t o be inadequate because

i t focussed a t t e n t i o n on one element o n l y o f t h e b e a r i n g system

n o t a b l y the

l u b r i c a n t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r f a c t o r s such as t h e m a t e r i a l o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r a c t i n g elements. The need f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e new term was n o t n e c e s s i t a t e d by any f a i l u r e t o d e v e l o p t h e s u b j e c t f rom t h e re search and development p o i n t o f view b u t r a t h e r t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o a body o f knowledge w hich was n o t thought t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y a p p l i e d w i t h i n i n d u s t r y a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r time. The development

o f T r i b o l o g y has always been r e l a t e d t o advances i n t h e S t a t e o f t h e A r t o f

XXIV
Engineering. Thus, d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , progress was dominated by The hydrodynamic t h e o r y o f l u b r i c a t i o n was

the r a i l w a y and t h e steamship.

developed t o e x p l a i n Beachamp Towers experiments on b e a r i n g s used on t h e Metrop o l i t a n RaiIway,and M i c h e l l ' s t i l t i n g pad t h r u s t b e a r i n g s were considered t o be very s u i t a b l e for s h i p s ' p r o p e l l e r s h a f t s . devoted t o t h e a i r c r a f t and a ut omo bi l e ;
o f th e e a r l y work o f N.E.L.

The t h i r t i e s t h i s c e n t u r y were Much

t h e f o r t i e s t o the gas t u r b i n e .

and N.A.S.A.

Cl e veland was d i r e c t e d t o the problems The o r i g i n o f o u r s i s t e r

o f high-speed b e ari ng s. institution,

Then came at omi c energy.

The N a t i o n a l T r i b o l o g y L a b o r a t o r y a t R i s l e y , can be a t t r i b u t e d t o technology has i n t r o d u c e d a whole range o f

t h i s need and, more re cen t l y, spa ce

new problems p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l a t e d t o o p e r a t i o n i n r a r i f i e d atmospheres. I f one has t o d eci d e on t o d a y ' s s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i t i s t h e urge f o r g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y m a i n l y achieved by au t o mat i c and o t h e r w i s e c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e equipment. T h i s has focussed a t t e n t i o n on t h e importance o f r e l i a b i l i t y and o f

reduced maintenance,which c a l l f o r t h e utmost refinement o f t r i b o l o g i c a l design. Means f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f machines so as t o a n t i c i p a t e f a i l u r e and t o r a t i o n a l i s e maintenance have now assumed t h e utmost importance. The t r i b o l o g y o f t h e m a n u fa c t u ri ng i n d u s t r y w i l l p r o b a b l y be t h e most important grow th area o f o u r s u b j e c t d u r i n g t h e n e x t decade. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e o u t p u t o f p r e s e n t day research schools i n T r i b o l o g y , o f which t h e r e a r e a growing number, t h e body o f knowledge which has been b u i l t up d u r i n g t h e p a s t c e n t u r y p r o v i d e s p owerf ul t o o l s f o r any engineer who wishes t o improve a p r o d u c t o r p r a c t i c e and i t i s hoped t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g volume w i l l p o i n t t h e way t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f sound t r i b o l o g y i n many i n d u s t r i e s .

F.T. Barw ell U n i v e r s i t y C ollege o f Swansea

1 TRIBOLOGY
1.1
INTRODUCTION

IN PERSPECTIVE

D. SCOTT, C o n s u l t a n t , E d i t o r o f Wear

As o u r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c i v i l i z a t i o n expands, m a t e r i a l and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i mp ort an t . Wear i s a major cause o f m a t e r i a l wastage, Friction is a

so any r e d u c t i o n o f wear can e f f e c t c o n s i d e r a b l e savings.

p r i n c i p a l cause o f energy d i s s i p a t i o n and c o n s i d e r a b l e savinas a r e p o s s i b l e by improved f r i c t i o n c o n t r o l . L u b r i c a t i o n i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l Thus t r i b o l o g y , which i s t h e science and techi s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e importance i n

l i n g wear and r e du ci ng f r i c t i o n .

nolo g y o f f r i c t i o n l u b r i c a t i o n and wear, m a t e r i a l and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n .

The h i s t o r y o f t h i s r e l a t i v e l y new science

which i s concerned w i t h problems t h a t have always presented man w i t h a c h a l l e n g e has been r e c o r d e d 111, and t h e fundamentals reviewed [ 2 ] .

1.2

IMPACT O TRIBOLOGY F Since t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e L u b r i c a t i o n Report [ 3 ] t h e r e has been an i n -

c r e a s i n g awareness t hro ug ho ut i n d u s t r y o f t h e s u b j e c t o f t r i b o l o g y .

I n t h e UK

t h e N a t i o n a l Centre f o r T r i b o l o g y and I n d u s t r i a l U n i t s o f T r i b o l o g y have been s e t up t o p r o v i d e a d v i c e t o i n d u s t r y on t he u t i l i s a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g knowledge. These a r e now v i a b l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s o p e r a t i n g as c o n t r a c t research o r g a n i s a t i o n s s e l l i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s a t commercial r a t e s . Over t h i r t y u n i v e r s i t i e s , p o l y -

t e c h n i c s and t e c h n i c a l c o l l e g e s have i n c o r p o r a t e d courses on v a r i o u s aspects o f t r i b o l o g y i n t o t h e i r syllabuses.

A b a s i c t r i b o l o g y module

[41 f o r undergraduate

mechanical e n g i n e e r i n g courses has been drawn up. j e c t f o r t h e h i g h e r n a t i o n a l c e r t i f i c a t e (H.N.C.)

T r i b o l o g y i s an e l e c t i v e subi n e n g i n e e r i n g i n the U n i t e d

Kingdom and a t r i b o l o g y c o n t e n t i s i n c l u d e d i n some committee f o r n a t i o n a l academic awa ds (C.N.N.A.) courses. Post-graduate research i n t r i b o l o g y , t h r e e have

l e a d i n g t o h gher degrees i s c a r r i e d o u t a t several u n i v e r s i t i e s ; c h a i r s i n t r b o log y.

to i n d u s t r y .

Various courses and t r a i n i n g programmes a r e a l s o a v a i l a b e

T r i b o l o g y i s now reco gn i zed u n i v e r s a l l y and P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r o f U.S.A.

151

d e c l a r e d i t t o be a g e n e r i c t ech no l og y u n d e r l y i n g many i n d u s t r i a l s e c t i o n s and t h e p r o s p e c tu s f o r an I n d u s t r i a l T r i b o l o g y I n s t i t u t e a t Rensselaer Technolooy Center has been p rese nt ed [ 6 ] . Numerous papers on t r i b o l o g y a r e p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y and many r e p o r t research d i r e c t e d towards a b e t t e r under.standing o f t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e s governinq

2 i n t e r a c t i n g surfaces. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , most o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d i s n o t

s u i t a b l e f o r d i r e c t use by d esi g ne rs and en gi neers as research workers g e n e r a l l y f i n d i t more c o n ve ni e nt t o express r e s u l t s i n terms o f non-dimensional parameters r a t h e r than as t h e s p e c i f i c da t a r e q u i r e d f o r design purposes. bology handbook
A tri-

[7] has been produced w i t h t h e o b j e c t o f p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

A synoptic j o u r n a l

t o i n d u s t r y i n a f o rm t h a t i s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e and understood by e n g i n e e r i n g de s ig n e r s , draughtsmen and works e ng i ne ers.

[8] has been

i ntr o d u c e d t o reduce t i me spent i n l i t e r a t u r e p e r u s a l . There i s a steady g rowt h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f T r i b o l o g y S o c i e t i e s on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c a l e.

1.3

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF TRIBOLOGY

The L u b r i c a t i o n Report [ 3 ] est i mat ed , w i t h i n an e r r o r o f t w e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t , t h a t an amount exceeding f i v e hundred m i l l i o n pounds per annum can be saved i n t h e c i v i l i a n s e c t o r o f t h e UK economy by improvements i n e d u c a t i o n and res e a r c h i n t r i b o l o g y . Such improvements a r e s i g n i f i c a n t , n o t merely i n c o s t

s a v in g s , b u t a r e c r u c i a l t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l pro gress and have doubly s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t he economic w e l l - b e i n g o f t he n a t i o n and t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f i t s e n g i n e e r i n g p r o d uct s. The ASME Research Committee on L u b r i c a t i o n i n t h e i r " Strategy Conservation t h r ou gh T r i b o l o g y " f o r Energy

[ 9 ] r e p o r t e d t h e magnitudes o f energy conserv-

a t i o n t h a t can p o t e n t i a l l y be o b t a i n e d i n t h e f o u r major areas o f road t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , power g e n e r a t i o n , t u r b o machinery and i n d u s t r i a l processes through progres s i n t r i b o l o g y . The e s t i m a t e d 1 1 p er c e n t t o t a l savings i n annual US energy

consumption i s e q u i v a l e n t t o some s i x t e e n b i l l i o n US d o l l a r s by an e x p e n d i t u r e i n r e s e a r c h and development o f an e s t i m a t e d t w e n t y - f o u r m i l l i o n d o l l a r s .

A techno-economic

st ud y [ l o ] concluded t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t r i b o l o g i c a l

p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s can e f f e c t n a t i o n a l energy savings o f c o n s i d e r a b l e magnitude i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, i n t he areas covered which comprise t h e major These savings a r e e s t i m a t e d a t 468 t o p a r t s o f 87% o f energy consumption.

f 7 0 0 m i l l io n p e r annum.
E r o s io n can be expensive and i t has been r e p o r t e d [ l l ] t h a t t h e i n g e s t i o n o f du s t c l o u d s can reduce t h e l i v e s o f h e l i c o p t e r engines by as much as 90 per c en t; l o c a l s t a l l can be caused by removal o f as l i t t l e as 0 . 0 5 mm o f m a t e r i a l I n pneumatic t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f from t h e l e a d i n g edges o f compressor blades.

m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h p i pe s, t h e e r o s i v e wear a t bends can be up t o f i f t y times more than t h a t i n s t r a i g h t s e c t i o n s . Even wood c h i p s can cause such wear [ 1 2 ] .

Analyses o f t h e f a i l u r e o f b o i l e r tubes i n d i c a t e t h a t about one t h i r d o f a l l occ u r r e n c e s were due t o e r o s i o n [131.

3
Although a b r a s i v e wear i s u s e f u l t o shape and p o l i s h e n g i n e e r i n g components, i t s unwanted occurrence i s p r o b a b l y t h e most s e r i o u s i n d u s t r i a l wear problem. In the a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y as many as f o r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e components

r e p l a c e d on equipment have f a i l e d by a b r a s i v e wear [ 1 4 ] . The wear o f t o o l s used f o r c u t t i n g m e t a l s i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e importance t o t h e economics o f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g i n d u s t r y , I t was e s t i m a t e d i n 1971 [ 1 5 ] t h a t In

f o r t y b i l l i o n d o l l a r s was spent i n t h e USA on t h e machining o f metal p a r t s .

t h e UK about twenty m i l l i o n c a r b i d e c u t t i n g t o o l s a r e used p e r year a t a c o s t o f f i f t y m i l l i o n pounds. Several e s t i m a t e s have been made on t h e c o s t o f f r i c t i o n and wear. Jost [16]

s t a t e d t h a t f r i c t i o n and wear i n t h e USA accounted f o r an e x p e n d i t u r e o f one hundred b i l l i o n d o l l a r s p e r annum. Technology of F.R.G.

A Committee o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Research and

[ 1 7 ] e s t i m a t e d t h a t f r i c t i o n and wear caused a n a t i o n a l

Rabinowicz [18] has e s t i m a t e d t h a t about t e n p e r c e n t o f a l l

economic waste o f t e n b i l l i o n OM p e r annum o f which about f i f t y p e r c e n t i s due t o a b r a s i v e wear.

energy generated by man i s d i s s i p a t e d i n f r i c t i o n processes. T r i b o l o g i c a l f a i l u r e s a r e i n v a r i a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e a r i n g s and t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o s t s which can be i n v o l v e d i t has been r e p o r t e d [19] t h a t a simple b e a r i n g f a i l u r e i n a f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d s t e e l m i l l can l e a d t o a t o t a l shut down which a t f u l l o u t p u t r a t e may c o s t one hundred and f i f t y t o t h r e e hundred pounds p e r minute.
A s i m i l a r b e a r i n g f a i l u r e on a modern g e n e r a t o r s e t c o u l d i n v o l v e

t h e C e n t r a l E l e c t r i c i t y Generating Board i n a l o s s o f one t o twenty pounds s t e r l i n g p e r m i n u t e t i l l t h e s e t was a g a i n o p e r a t i o n a l .

A s i m i l a r bearing

f a i l u r e i n t h e USA has been quoted t o c o s t t w e n t y - f i v e thousand d o l l a r s p e r day [ZO]. I t has been r e p o r t e d [ Z l ] t h a t t h e t o t a l c o s t o f wear f o r a US naval

a i r c r a f t amounted t o two hundred and f o r t y t h r e e d o l l a r s p e r f l i g h t hour.

1.4

MECHANISMS OF W A ER Progress i n wear c o n t r o l can be a i d e d by a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

mechanisms by which i t occurs.

Research workers have tended t o i s o l a t e and

study s p e c i f i c wear mechanisms such as adhesion, a b r a s i o n , e r o s i o n and f a t i g u e . Such r e s e a r c h has g e n e r a l l y been d i r e c t e d towards t h e study o f s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n , t h e changes brought about by t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and t h e environment p r e s e n t . L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been g i v e n Recently, p a r t i c l e

t o t h e p r o d u c t s o f wear, t h a t i s t o t h e d e b r i s generated.

t r i b o l o g y [ 2 2 ] has a l l o w e d p o s t u l a t i o n o f t h e mechanisms o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n which t o g e t h e r w i t h r e f i n e d techniques o f s u r f a c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and t h e study of sub-surface changes a i d s t h e e l u c i d a t i o n of t h e wear process. Advances i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g emerge o n l y f r o m a w i l l i n g n e s s t o q u e s t i o n accepted t h e o r i e s . Q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f wear a i d e d by r e f i n e d

4 i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e ch ni q ue s a r e now s t i m u l a t i n g the p i o n e e r i n g s p i r i t . d e l a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y o f wear Suh's

[23]

i s t h e t y p i c a l example o f r e c e n t progress.

Surface e x a m in at i on and wear p a r t i c l e a n a l y s i s has l e d t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s [24] t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n p o l i s h e s t h e surf ace s and c r e a t e s a shear mix l a y e r o f s h o r t c r y s t a l l i n e o r d e r o f a l most s u p e r d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l which spreads over t h e s u r f a c e as f i r s t proposed by B e i l b y

[25].

Repeated r u b b i n g c o n t a c t causes t h e shear

mix l a y e r t o f a t i g u e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r t i c l e s f l a k e o f f . F u r t h e r work i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a more complete d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s u r fac e b e h a v io u r o f m a t e r i a l s and t h e wi d er a p p l i c a t i o n o f new t h e o r i e s must a w a i t th e a d d i t i o n a l evidence. I t may thus be p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e wear r a t e s o f

m a t e r i a l s based on f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s and fundamental p r o p e r t i e s . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f a system a n a l y s i s t o wear problems i s r e c e i v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n [26]. The complex n a t u r e o f wear has delayed i t s i n v e s t i g a t i o n b u t i t now appears t h a t t he e r a when wear was considered a branch o f s t u d i e s i n f r i c t i o n and l u b r i c a t i o n i s coming t o an end. The success o f t h e f i r s t I n t -

e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Wear o f M a t e r i a l s 1271 e s t a b l i s h e d wear as a s u b j e c t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l importance i n i t s own r i g h t . i o n a l Conference

A second [ 2 8 ] and a t h i r d I n t e r n a t Microscopic

[29]

have been h e l d and a f o u r t h i s planned.

asp e c ts o f wear a r e r e c e i v i n g a t t e n t i o n f r i c t i o n and wear have been reviewed available

[30] and c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r [31]. A s t a t e o f the a r t r e v i e w o f

wear i s

[32].

1.5

SURFACE STUDIES The f r i c t i o n a l and wear b eh avi o ur o f m a t e r i a l s i s g r e a t l y dependent upon t h e

s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l and i t s topography.

Surface i n t e r a c t i o n causes changes i n

these p r o p e r t i e s b u t d e t a i l e d knowledge o f happenings i n t h e i n t e r f a c e when wear i s occurring i s d i f f i c u l t t o acquire. I t has been usual t o study surfaces a t Besides t h i s p r o -

v a r i o u s stages o f wear t o p o s t u l a t e t h e sequence o f events.

cedure g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n i s now b e i n g g i v e n t o the s i z e , morphology and s t r u c t u r e o f wear p a r t i c l e s as w e l l as t o t h e l o c a l i s e d n a t u r e o f damage t o surface, i n t e r f a c e and su bsu rf a ce m a t e r i a l . Several new t o o l s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r

t h e s tu d y o f s u r fa ces a t a t o mi c l e v e l , n o t a b l y Auger e l e c t r o n spectroscopy, x - r a y photon e l e c t r o n spectroscopy, scanning ion spectroscopy and i o n s c a t t e r i n g

spectroscopy which w i t h complementary i n f o r m a t i o n from x - r a y energy a n a l y s i s i n t h e scanning e l e c t r o n microscope and micro-probe a n a l y s i s a i d t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l e l u c i d a t i o n o f s u r f a c e phenomena

[33,34]. [35,36].
The e n t i r e s t a t i s t i c a l m i c r o -

Advances have been made i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c a l techniques t o the c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f rough s u r f a c e s

geometry o f c e r t a i n rough s u r f a c e s can now be c o m p l e t e l y described i n terms o f t h e number o f peaks and mean l i n e c r o s s i n g s counted on a s i n g l e p r o f i l e . These

5
te c h n iq u e s a r e now b e i n g a p p l i e d i n t r i b o l o g y and i t appears t h a t i n instrume n t a t i o n t h r e e - d imen si on al mapping i s now w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d [ 3 7 ] . For t h e

measurement, assessment and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f v e r y f i n e surfaces, a l a s e r beam te c h n iq u e o f l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g appears p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f o r q u a l i t y c o n t r o l purposes [ 3 8 ] .

1.6

LUBRICATION Since Reynolds [ 3 9] produced h i s e q u a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e p i o n e e r i n g work o f

Tower,

(see [ 4 0 ] )

t h e mathematical e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e process o f f i l m f o r m a t i o n

between r e l a t i v e l y moving s u r f a c e s has been fundamental t o a l l l u b r i c a t i o n theory. Equations have been d e r i v e d and a p p l i e d t o t h e s t u d y o f the v a r i o u s

s u r f a c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s used i n p r a c t i c e , and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e high-speed d i g i t a l computer a l l o w e d t h e si mu l t a ne ou s s o l u t i o n o f Reynolds e q u a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e e l a s t i c d ef orma t i o n o f t h e surfaces. el a s to h y d r o d y n a mi c l u b r i c a t i o n (EHL) f i l m s , Optical studies o f

i n f r a - r e d temperature measurements

and t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e response o f vi sco us l i q u i d s t o h i g h frequency shear have g r e a t l y improved t h e u nd erst an di n g o f e l astohydrodynamic c o n t a c t s . It i s

perhaps b e t t e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e l u b r i c a n t i n a h i g h l y loaded EHL c o n t a c t as an e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s o l i d r a t h e r t ha n a s a vi scou s f l u i d . Based on t h e new unders ta n d in g , a t h e o r y o f EHL t r a c t i o n has been advanced [ 4 1 ] which may be a p p l i e d
t o e n g i n e e r i n g components such as r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s and v a r i a b l e - s p e e d d r i v e s .

The e la s t o h y d r o d yn ami cs o f e l l i p t i c a l c o n t a c t s has been a p p l i e d t o b a l l and r o l l e r bearing l u b r i c a t i o n [42]. Progress i n hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n appears t o be c e n t r e d on d e t a i l e d developments r a t h e r t h an improved fundamental understanding. Work on boundary

l u b r i c a t i o n seems t o be o r i e n t e d towards s p e c i f i c problem areas such as e l e v a t e d temperatures and h o s t i l e environments. Two c e n t u r i e s o f study have

f a i l e d t o u n r a v e l c o m p l e t e l y t he m y s t e r i e s o f l u b r i c a t i o n problems most i m p o r t a n t t o mankind, t he mechanism o f human j o i n t s . t h e s im p le squeeze f i l m [44] Following the t e n t a t i v e pr o p o s a l o f squeeze f i l m s [43] and t h e emphasis on t h e p r o t e c t i v e motion o f
i t i s co nsi d ere d t h a t t h e prospect o f EHL i s good

b u t t h a t t h e p r o m i s i n g mode i s squeeze f i l m and n o t r o l l i n g s l i d i n g [451. C o l l e c t i o n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e t r i b o l o g y o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l j o i n t s [46] and t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f b i o m a t e r i a l s [ 4 7 ] .

1.7

LUBRICANTS When f a i l u r e i n s e r v i c e o ccurs i t i s co mmercially more a c c e p t a b l e t o change

t h e l u b r i c a n t r a t h e r t ha n t h e d esi g n.

Thus research and development work i s

c o n t i n u o u s l y d i r e c t e d towards improved l u b r i c a n t s , a d d i t i v e s t o impart o r r e i n f o r c e d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s and s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s w i t h unique p r o p e r t i e s . The more r e c e n t ma j or developments i n l u b r i c a n t f o r m u l a t i o n appear t o have

6
been on c u t t i n g f l u i d s , f i r e - r e s i s t a n t carbon f l u i d s . h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s and s y n t h e s i s e d h y d r o -

Although t h e l a t t e r may c o s t more than m i n e r a l - o i l based

p r o d u c t s , e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y may g i v e an o v e r a l l c o s t s a v i n g . Complications caused by l u b r i c a n t s l e a d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f w e a r - r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s w i t h good f r i c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s which can o p e r a t e w i t h o u t l u b r i c a t i o n . A n t i - p o l l u t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n i s p l a c i n g emphasis on sealed, l u b r i c a t e d - f o r l i f e machinery u s i n g s o l i d l u b r i c a n t s and s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s which l u b r i c a t e . Under such c o n d i t i o n s i n t e r f a c i a l c o n d i t i o n s become i m p o r t a n t . Plastics

m a t e r i a l s a r e r e c e i v i n g increased a t t e n t i o n e s p e c i a l l y where chemical and therma 1 i n e r t n e s s a r e requ i red.

Pol y t e t r a f 1 u o r o e t h y 1 ene ( P .T. F. E ) has become

the standard s o l i d l u b r i c a n t i n cryogenic applications. f l o w has been c o n t r o l l e d by s u i t a b l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t .

I t s tendency t o c o l d

Newer polymers a r e b e i n g Metal f i l m l u b r i c -

i n c r e a s i n g l y used where h i g h thermal s t a b i l i t y i s r e q u i r e d .

a n t s a r e now f i n d i n g use and p o t e n t i a l developments i n s o l i d l u b r i c a n t technol o g y may a r i s e f r o m composite s o l i d - l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t s t o use t h e s p e c i f i c p r o p e r t i e s o f each.

1.8

MATERIALS The emergence o f new design concepts i s a m a j o r i n c e n t i v e f o r t h e development

o f w e a r - r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s data. and s t r e s s problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h advanced t r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g strength, light-weight materials.

The thermal

require high-

Conventional m a t e r i a l s have been improved by

o r t h o d o x methods almost t o t h e l i m i t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s so t h a t new t y p e s o f m a t e r i a l s such as composites, s y n t h e t i c diamond and s a p p h i r e ,

new g r a p h i t e 5 and c a r b i d e s , metal b o r i d e s and n i t r i d e s which approach t h e hardness o f n a t u r a l diamond a r e b e i n g developed.

To u t i l i z e t h e i r s p e c i f i c p r o -

p e r t i e s new d e s i g n concepts a r e r e q u i r e d as t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l s i n e x i s t i n g designs can l e a d t o problems and f a i l u r e s i n s e r v i c e . Besides

r e p l a c i n g m e t a l s , ceramics may be used as c o a t i n g s t o complement d e s i r a b l e metal characteristics with refractory properties, o x i d a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e . I n t h e f i e l d o f p l a i n b e a r i n g s n o major development o f s o f t metal b e a r i n g s appears l i k e l y i n t h e immediate f u t u r e as t h e p o s s i b l e a l l o y s o f a l l commercially f e a s i b l e s o f t e r metals have been f u l l y e x p l o i t e d , A v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s come i n s u l a t i n g and e r o s i o n , wear,

c l o s e to u t i l i s i n g f u l l y t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y o f p l a i n b e a r i n g s o f c u r r e n t designs and l u b r i c a t i o n systems. The development o f p l a s t i c s b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s capable

o f b e i n g manufactured t o and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e c l o s e t o l e r a n c e s o f m e t a l s c o u l d cause something o f a r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e b e a r i n g f i e l d . P l a s t i c s and t h e i r composites dominate t h e d r y b e a r i n g scene m a i n l y due t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f design and performance d a t a [48,49].
A s i g n i f i c a n t advance

i n fundamental understandinn o f t h e wear o f p l a s t i c s composites has been t h e

7
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e dominant r o l e o f t h e c o u n t e r f a c e metal [50]. d e p o s i t i o n techniques such as s p u t t e r i n g , chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n (C.V.D) ion-implantation, Vacuum

i o n - p l a t i n g and

appear p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f o r s o l i d f i l m

l u b r i c a n t s o l u t i o n s t o a wide range o f d r y b e a r i n g problems. I n the f i e l d o f r o l l i n g b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s , methods such as r e d u c t i o n o f gas c o n t e n t [ 5 1 ] and d e l e t e r i o u s c a r b i d e s e g r e g a t i o n [ 5 2 ] a r e b e i n g developed t o improve r o l l i n g c o n t a c t f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e . weight s a v i n g [ 5 4 ] . Developments i n h i g h speed t o o l s t e e l b e a r i n g s have c e n t r e d around a f i n e r d i s p e r s i o n o f c a r b i d e s [ 5 3 ] and The use o f h i g h e r than normal a d d i t i o n s o f a l l o y i n g

elements t o p r o v i d e m a r g i n a l l y improved p r o p e r t i e s may n o t j u s t i f y t h e increased cost. There appears t o be a steady b u t u n s p e c t a c u l a r development o f ceramic m a t e r i a l s such as s i l i c o n n i t r i d e [ 5 5 ] . Brakes and c l u t c h e s r e q u i r e t o d i s s i p a t e c o n t i n u a l l y g r e a t e r e n e r g i e s due t o loads and speeds g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s i n g and improved m a t e r i a l s a r e c o n s t a n t l y demanded t o contend w i t h more arduous d u t i e s and h i g h e r temperatures. Owing t o

t h e p o s s i b l e h e a l t h hazard t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s s u r e t o r e p l a c e asbestos, t h e most e f f e c t i v e f i l l e r m a t e r i a l f o r p h e n o l i c r e s i n s due t o i t s f i b r o u s n a t u r e and h e a t r e s i s t a n c e . S i n t e r e d metal m a t r i c e s a r e now used f o r severe d u t y

a p p l i c a t i o n s b u t a t t e m p t s t o i n t r o d u c e o t h e r o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s have n o t y e t succeeded i n d i s p l a c i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s except i n h i g h l y specialised f i e l d s . Concorde uses carbon composites a g a i n s t themselves and

these m a t e r i a l s w i t h cheaper f i b r e s and f i l l e r s may be a p r o m i s i n g method o f approach t o t h e replacement o f a s b e s t o s - f i l l e d p h e n o l i c r e s i n s .

1.9

SURFACE TREATMENTS The m a t e r i a l o f e n g i n e e r i n g components must have s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

t o s a t i s f y t h e design requirements and s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o contend w i t h wear, f a t i g u e and environmental e f f e c t s . promise t o these requirements. Surface c o a t i n g s o f f e r t h e b e s t com-

Surface t r e a t m e n t s a r e a l s o a t t r a c t i v e as an

a l t e r n a t i v e t o design o r l u b r i c a n t changes t o combat wear i n s e r v i c e [56,571. Besides t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s r e c e n t l y developed, s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s i n v o l v i n g t h i n s u r f a c e f i l m s w i t h s p e c i f i c p r o p e r t i e s a r e now f i n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g

use and p r o v i n g t o be advantageous as w e a r - r e s i s t a n t

coatings.

The t r e a t m e n t s

i n c l u d e p h y s i c a l and chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n processes. wear and c u t t i n g c o s t s [58].

The u s e o f T i c

c o a t i n g s on s i n t e r e d c a r b i d e c u t t i n g t o o l s i s a t y p i c a l example o f r e d u c i n g t o o l Low temperature CVD processes and c o n t r o l l e d

n u c l e a r thermo-chemical d e p o s i t i o n a r e b e i n g developed t o produce equiaxed g r a i n m a t e r i a l o f e x c e p t i o n a l hardness. Ion p l a t i n g and i o n i m p l a n t a t i o n a l s o

appear t o be f i n d i n g use f o r s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s .

1.10

COMPUTER-AIDED D E S I G N

I t i s o n l y by t he co mbi n at i on o f improved s c i e n t i f i c undetstanding and i t s speedy i n d u s t r i a l u t i l i s a t i o n t h a t r a p i d t e c h n o l o g i c a l progress can be achieved. I n the p a s t, a major d i f f i c u l t y has been t h e d e l a y o r l a c k o f feedback from i n d u s t r y and t h u s t h e de l ay i n t h e t i m e t ake n f r o m t h e i n c e p t i o n o f a good idea t o i t s f r u i t f u l application. To e l i m i n a t e such delays i n c r e a s i n g use i s b e i n g In

made o f t h e computer i n de si gn t o en ab l e al most instantaneous feedback.

the f i e l d o f p l a i n b e a r i n g s , u s i n g a s u i t a b l e programme t h e designer need o n l y tra n s m it i n f o r m a t i o n on b e a r i n g d esi g n t o be informed o f performance c h a r a c t e r istics. I n t h i s way he can have i n s t a n t feedback and make use o f t h e l a t e s t computation

research r e s u l t s w i t h o u t b e i n g an e x p e r t i n t h e f i e l d s o f t r i b o l o g y , o r programming. In effect,

he has a t hand what amounts t o a u n i v e r s a l t e s t i n g t e s t i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , modify the

machine i n which he can p l a n h i s design,

design and a g a i n measure i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o n t i n u i n g t h e process u n t i l s a t i s f i e d t h a t he has t h e optimum de si gn b e f o r e c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f t o f u l l - s c a l e t e s t , production o r service. M a t e r i a l s s e l e c t i o n f o r optimum performance by

computer i s now approaching r a p i d l y .

1.11

MACHINERY CONDITION MONITORING

Economic p r e s sure s a r e ca usi n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f w i t h d r a w i n g equipment from s e r v i c e a t p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l s f o r i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance t o be r e p l a c e d by f a i l u r e p r e v e n t i o n maintenance. Thus, means have been developed t o determine

th e c o n d i t i o n o f machinery w h i l s t i n s e r v i c e and t o d e t e c t any d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f performance so t h a t remedial a c t i o n can be t a ken b e f o r e t h e breakdown p o i n t i s reached. The m o n i t o r i n g t ech ni q ue chosen depends upon the s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n

r e q u i r e d and t h e c o s t o f a c q u i r i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n compared w i t h t h e savings such i n f o r m a t i o n can e f f e c t . There has been a g rad ua l acceptance o f v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s a l t h o u g h t h i s has proved t o be n e i t h e r t h e s i m p l e s t n o r t h e most e f f e c t i v e method t o use. a n a l y s i s f r o m a massive b u i l d - u p o f da t a . The h i s t o r y o f a wear process i s reco rde d i n t h e wear d e b r i s produced and magnetic p l u g s and s p e c t r o g r a p h i c o i l a n a l y s i s (SOAP) a r e now e x t e n s i v e l y used t o d e t e c t abnormal wear. The US Defense Department spends f o r t y m i l l i o n d o l l a r s The

problem o f d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u s u a l l y c r e a t e s t h e need f o r expensive t r e n d

pe r y e a r on o i l a n a l y s i s [ZO] t o p r e d i c t o n l y c e r t a i n types o f f a i l u r e i n one power system, th e a i r c r a f t gas t u r b i n e , d i r e c t r e p a i r costs. t o save t w i c e t h i s f i g u r e i n terms o f

A l t ho ug h t h ese t ech ni q ues have proved e f f e c t i v e i n p r o SOAP

v i d i n g wa r n in g o f changes i n a system, t he y have some disadvantages.

p r o v i d e s a knowledge o n l y o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f metal i n t h e l u b r i c a n t b u t no i n f o r m a t i o n on t he s i z e o r shape o f t he wear p a r t i c l e s . Some damage has u s u a l l y

o c c u r r e d when t h e magnetic p l u g p i c k s up d e b r i s l a r g e enough f o r o b s e r v a t i o n . Ferrography [24,59] a convenient method f o r t h e i s o l a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f

wear p a r t i c l e s has opened up a new dimension i n wear d e t e c t i o n and assessment i n the form o f p a r t i c l e t r i b o l o g y ,
[22].

N o n - m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s can a l s o be

i s o l a t e d f r o m l u b r i c a n t s so t h a t l u b r i c a n t degeneration p r o d u c t s can be i d e n t i f i e d t o assess c o n d i t i o n and performance. Recent developments [ 6 0 ] have

enabled t h e a d o p t i o n o f f e r r o g r a p h y t o b i o - e n g i n e e r i n g f o r t h e study o f p r o s t h e s i s j o i n t s , which should a s s i s t t h e development o f improved m a t e r i a l s and design o f a r t i f i c i a l i m p l a n t s . As a r t h r i t i c j o i n t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o wear t h e

a n a l y s i s o f a s p i r a t e d s y n o v i a l f l u i d appears p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f o r t h e s t u d y o f wear r a t e s , mechanisms and b i o l o g i c a l responses t o wear i n human j o i n t s . F e r r o g r a p h i c s y n o v i a l f l u i d a n a l y s i s should augment u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e t i o l o g y and pathogenesis o f d e g e n e r a t i v e a r t h r i t i s and p r o v i d e a method f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s , documentation, p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n and t r e a t m e n t o f t h e disease. Some

f i f t e e n m i l l i o n USA c i t i z e n s a r e a f f l i c t e d w i t h o s t e o a r t h r i t i s [ 2 0 ] . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Ferrography has been planned [611.

The f i r s t

1 .12

CONCLUS I ONS
it

I n t h e s h o r t t i m e s i n c e t r i b o l o g y was launched as a concept on i t s own,

has been d e s c r i b e d as t h e w o r l d ' s f a s t e s t growing a p p l i e d science, as s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y [ 6 2 ] and as a means o f n a t i o n a l w e a l t h c r e a t i o n w i t h o u t commensurate c a p i t a l investment [ 6 3 ] . So t h a t t r i b o l o g y may q u i c k l y achieve m a t u r i t y s t i l l Most i n d u s t r i a l t r i b o l o g i c a l

g r e a t e r use must be made o f e x i s t i n g knowledge.

problems can be s o l v e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y by a l o g i c a l s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e problem and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g knowledge.

I t t h u s appears t h a t

increased e f f o r t i s r e q u i r e d t o d i s s e m i n a t e knowledge i n a r e a d i l y understood f o r m t o e f f e c t g r e a t e r energy, m a t e r i a l s and manpower savings a t a minimum c o s t .

I t i s hoped t h a t t h e subsequent c h a p t e r s go some way towards doing t h i s .

F u t u r e t r e n d s may be t o experiment l e s s b u t t o measure and i n t e r p r e t more. Research may be j u s t i f i e d o n l y i f i t can p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o a l l o w i n d u s t r y t o s o l v e i t s immediate problems o r can produce s i g n i f i c a n t advances i n technol o g i c a l progress. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s may i n f l u e n c e t r i b o l o g i s t s by

demanding reduced n o i s e l e v e l s o f mechanisms and t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n and t o x i c i t y f r o m l u b r i c a n t s . L u b r i c a n t s g e n e r a l l y do n o t wear o u t b u t become

contaminated and s o , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e environment and c o n s e r v a t i o n , r e c l a m a t i o n , which i s p r e s e n t l y o n l y p r a c t i s e d i f economical, w i l l tend t o become o f major importance as we approach an e r a i n which q u a l i t y o f l i f e , s a f e t y and a c l e a n environment may w e l l be t h e m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e behind t e c h n o l o g i c a l innovation.

10
REFERENCES Dowson,D. H i s t o r y o f T r i b o l o g y , 1979, Longmans, London. Suh,N.P. and Saka,N. (Ed.), Fundaments o f T r i b o l o g y , 1980, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 3 L u b r i c a t i o n ( T r i b o l o g y ) - Education and Research. A Report on t h e Present P o s i t i o n and I n d u s t r y ' s Needs, 1966, HM S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , London. 4 A Basic T r i b o l o g y Module, 1973, Dept. Trade and I n d u s t r y , London. 5 White House Fact Sheet - The P r e s i d e n t ' s I n d u s t r i a l I n n o v a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s , Oct. 1979, White House Press S e c r e t a r y , U.S.A. 6 I n d u s t r i a l T r i b o l o g y I n s t i t u t e - Prospectus, Sept. 1981, Rensselaer P o l y t e c h n i c , Troy, N.Y. 7 Neale,M.J. (Ed.), T r i b o l o g y Handbook, 1973, B u t t e r w o r t h s , London. 8 Synoptic J o u r n a l , I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London. 9 S t r a t e g y f o r Energy Conservation Through T r i b o l o g y , 1978, ASME, N.Y. 10 Jost,H.P. and S c h o f i e l d , J . Energy Saving Through T r i b o l o g y - The James C l a y t o n L e c t u r e , Feb. 1981. I . Mech. Engrs., London. 1 1 Tilly,G.P., 8 t h I C A S Congress, Amsterdam, 1972. 12 Lehrke,W.D. and Nonnen,F.A., 1st I n t . Conf. P r o t e c t i o n o f Pipes, Durham, 1975, Paper G2, BHRA, C r a n f i e l d . 13 Raask,E., Wear, 1968, '3, 301. 14 Richardson,R.C.D., Jone5,M.P. and Attwood,D.G., Proc. A g r i c . Eng. Symp., 1967, Div. 2, Paper 26, I n s t . A g r i c . Enors., London. 15 Z l a t i n , L . , 1st I n t . Cemented Carbide Conf., Chicago, 1971, Paper 1071-918. 16 Jost,H.P. i n H a l l i n g , J . (Ed.), P r i n c i p l e s o f T r i b o l o g y , 1975, X I I , Macmillan, N.Y. 17 T r i b o l o g i e Res. Rep., T76-35, 1976, M i n i s t r y o f Research and Technology, Z e n t r a l s t e l l e f u r L u f t und Raumfahrtdokumentation und I n f o r m a t i o n , Munich. 18 Rabinowicz,E., I n Chynoweth,A. and Walsh,Wm. (Eds). , M a t e r i a l s Technology, 1976, p. 165 (Amer. I n s t . Phys. Conf. Proc. No.32, N.Y.). 19 Braithwaite,E.R., I n d u s t r i a l L u b r i c a t i o n , 1969, 21, 241. 20 Ling,F.F., Proc. o f t h e T r i b o l o g y Workshop, 1974, N a t i o n a l Science Foundation, U.S.A. 21 Devine,M.J. (Ed.), Proc. o f a Workshop on Wear C o n t r o l t o A l l o w Product D u r a b i l i t y , 1977, Naval A i r Development Centre, Warminster, PA. 22 Scott,D., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., 1975, ,l & 623. 1. 23 Suh,N.P. Wear, 1977, 24 Scott,D., Seifert,W.W. and Westcott,V.C., S c i . Amer., 1974, 230, 88. 25 Beilby,G., Aggregation and Flow i n S o l i d s , 1921, Macmillan, London. 26 Czichos,H., T r i b o l o n y - A Systematic Approach t o t h e Science and Technology o f F r i c t i o n , L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear, 1979, E l s e v i e r , Amsterdam. 27 Ludema,K. (Ed.), Wear o f M a t e r i a l s , 1977, ASME, N.Y. 28 Ludema,K. (Ed.), Wear o f M a t e r i a l s , 1979, ASME, N.Y. 29 Ludema,K. (Ed.), Wear o f M a t e r i a l s , 1971, ASME, N.Y. 30 Georges,J.M. (Ed.), M i c r o s c o p i c Aspects o f Adhesion and L u b r i c a t i o n , 1982, E l s e v i e r , T r i b o l o g y S e r i e s 7, Amsterdam. 31 Kragelsky,I.V., Dobychin,M.N. and Kombalov,V.S., F r i c t i o n and Wear C a l c u l a t i o n Methods, 1982, Pergamon, Oxford. 32 Scott,D. (Ed.), T r e a t i s e on M a t e r i a l s Science and Technology, Vol.13, Wear, 1979, Academic Press, N.Y. 19. 33 Buckley,D.H., Wear, 1978, 34 Buckley,D.H., Surface E f f e c t s i n Adhesion, F r i c t i o n and Wear, 1981, E l s e v i e r , T r i b o l o g y S e r i e s 5, Amsterdam. 35 P r o p e r t i e s and Metrology o f Surfaces, Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., 1967/68, 182, 3 K , London. 36 Thoma5,T.R. and King,M., Surface Topography i n Engineering - A S t a t e o f t h e A r t Review and B i b l i o g r a p h y , 1977, BHRA, C r a n f i e l d . 37 Thomas,T.R., (Ed.), Rough Surfaces, 1982, Longman, London. 38 F o r s y t h , l . , and Scott,D. C h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f Micro-machined M i r r o r Surfaces, Wear, 1982, I n Press.

1 2

32,

44,

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157. Reynolds,O., P h i l . Trans. Roy. Soc., 1886, Cameron,A. Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., 1979, 193, P r e p r i n t No.25, London. Proc. Roy. SOC. A., 1977, 356, 215. 41 Johnson,K.L. and Tevazwark,J.L., 42 Hancock,B.T., and Dowson,D., B a l l Bearing L u b r i c a t i o n - The E l a s t o hydrodynamics o f E l l i p t i c a l Contacts, 1981, W i l e y & Sons, N.Y. 43 Fein,R.S., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London, 1967, 181, ( 3 J ) , 125. ( 3 J ) , 45. 44 Dowson,D., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London, 1967, P r e p r i n t 33/77. 45 Higginson,G., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London, 1977, 46 Dumbleton,J.H., (Ed.), The T r i b o l o g y o f N a t u r a l and A r t i f i c a l J o i n t s , 1980, E l s e v i e r , T r i b o l o g y S e r i e s , 3, Amsterdam. Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s o f B i o m a t e r i a l s , 47 Hastings,G.W., and Williams,D.F. 1980, W i l e y & Sons, N.Y. 48 A Guide t o t h e Design and S e l e c t i o n o f Dry Rubbing Bearings, 1976, E.S.D.U. Data Item, 76029. T r i b o l o g y I n t . , 1973, 6, 219. 49 Lancaster,J.K., and Lavrentev,V.V., F r i c t i o n and Wear o f Polymers, 50 Bartenev,G.M., 1981, E l s e v i e r , T r i b o l o g y S e r i e s , 6 , Amsterdam. 339. 51 Scott,D. and McCullagh,P.J., Wear, 1973, 52. Scott,D. and B l a c k w e l l ,J., Wear, 1975, 46, 273. 149. 53 Scott,D. and B l a c k w e l l , J . , Wear, 1978, 54 Scott,D., T r i b o l o g y I n t . , 1976, 2, 261. 55 Scott,D., Wear, 1977, 43, 71. Proc. 1 s t T u r o . T r i b o l o g y Congress, 1975, p.165, I . Mech. 56 Wilson,R.W., Engrs., London. 283. 57 Scott,D., Wear, 1978, Wear, 1978, 407. 58 Hintermann,H.E., Tribology Int., 59 Bowen,R., Scott,D., Seifert,W.W. and Westcott,V.C., 1976, 2, 261. Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London, 1978, 60 Scott,D. and Westcott,V.C., P r e p r i n t C42/78, 123. 61 F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conf. on Ferrography, 1982 (Sept.), Univ. Swansea ( I n Press). 62 E u r o t r i b , 7 7, 1977, Bundesrepublik, Deutschland, D u s s e l d o r f . T r i b o l o g y , 1978, l , J 34. 63 Jost,H.P.,

39

177,

40

T L

191,

3,

3,

5,

5,

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9
D.

WEAR

SCOTT, Consultant, E d i t o r of Wear

2.1

INTRODUCTION Wear may be d e f i n e d as the undesired displacement o r removal o f surface mat-

e r i a l , although under some circumstances,

the i n i t i a l stages o f wear o r m i l d

wear which tends t o smooth surfaces, may be b e n e f i c i a l f o r the running-in o f mechanisms. The economic i m p l i c a t i o n s o f wear cause concern i n industry, as a

reasonable l i f e i s r e q u i r e d o f mechanical equipment t o cover c a p i t a l and maintenance costs. Whilst, i n many instances, wear may n o t place an absolute l i m i t
i t c e r t a i n l y causes a great deal o f expenditure

on the l i f e o f an investment,

on maintenance t h a t must take place;

such maintenance i s c o s t l y i n i t s e l f , b u t

a l s o c o s t l y i n l o s t p r o d u c t i v i t y w h i l s t i t i s being c a r r i e d o u t . Although wear has f o r long been a subject o f p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t , fundamental knowledge o f wear i s sparse. This i s due probably t o the i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

nature o f wear making i t d i f f i c u l t t o e l u c i d a t e and the f a c t t h a t wear has been accepted as i n e v i t a b l e and unavoidable and so mechanical p a r t replacement technology has dominated wear c o n t r o l technology. Progress i n wear c o n t r o l and prevention can be made o n l y a f t e r a b e t t e r understanding o f the mechanisms by which i t occurs and o f the c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s has been acquired.

2.2

THE WEAR PROCESS Wear may take many forms depending upon surface topography, c o n t a c t c o n d i t i o n s

and environment b u t , g e n e r a l l y , t h e r e are two main types, mechanical and chemical. Mechanical wear involves processes which may be associated w i t h f r i c t i o n , abrasion, erosion and f a t i g u e . Chemical wear a r i s e s from surface a t t a c k by

r e a c t i v e compounds and the subsequent rubbing o r breaking away o f the r e a c t i o n products by mechanical a c t i o n . The d i f f e r e n t types o f wear may occur s i n g l y ,

s e q u e n t i a l l y o r simultaneously, b u t a l l wear phenomena centre on a common chara c e r t i s t i c , an o v e r s t r e s s i n g o f the surface 111. When two surfaces a r e i n contact, the r e a l area o f contact i s considerably

less than the apparent area o f c o n t a c t being confined t o a number o f small areas where opposing h i g h spots touch. Pressure i n these areas w i l l be h i g h and the

surface m a t e r i a l deformed by the a p p l i e d load u n t i l the c o n t a c t area becomes s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o support the load. According t o Bowden and Tabor 121, i n

13
the absence o f an e f f e c t i v e s e p a r a t i n g f i l m a j u n c t i o n may be formed between th e s u r fa c e s , and r e l a t i v e mo t i o n w i l l cause t h e j u n c t i o n t o be broken, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e removal o f m a t e r i a l f ro m one o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e surfaces. Ming Feng [ 3 ] c o n s i d e r s t h a t p l a s t i c f l o w o c c u r s a t c o n t a c t i n g a s p e r i t i e s so t h a t m a t i n g s u r f a c e s conform i n a p a t t e r n o f r i d g e s and grooves and g i v i n g r i s e t o s t r a i n hardening. Mechanical i n t e r l o c k i n g p r e v e n t s s l i p a t t h e i n t e r f a c e

d u r i n g r e l a t i v e mo t i o n and shear o ccurs i n t h e s o f t e r subsurface m a t e r i a l una f f e c t e d by s t r a i n hardening. The sheared o f f m a t e r i a l may be i n t h e form o f

d e b r i s o r i f t h e she ari n g process produces a s u f f i c i e n t r i s e i n temperature, t h e wear p r o d u c t s may become a t t a c h e d t o one o f t h e surfaces. The a d h e s iv e wear t h e o r y as d e s c r i b e d by Archard [4,5] postulates the

f o r m a t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s a t c o n t a c t i n g a s p e r i t i e s which a r e hemispherical i n shape. Rabinowicz [ 6 ] c o n s i d e r s t h a t t he r a t i o o f s u r f a c e energy t o m a t e r i a l

hardness i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n wear and may have some e f f e c t on wear p a r t i c l e size. Al t ho ug h wear eq ua t i o ns [4,6] d e r i v e d f r o m these t h e o r i e s a r e

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e xpe ri men t a l r e s u l t s , S e i f e r t and We s tco t t [7,8]

t he y do n o t account f o r t h e b a s i c

m e t a l l u r g y o f t h e m a t e r i a l s and a r e based on s e v e r a l a r b i t r a r y assumptions. have demonstrated t h a t r u b b i n g wear p a r t i c l e s take

t h e f o r m o f t h i n f l a k e s o f metal w i t h h i g h l y p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e s and a r e n o t hemis p h e r i c a l fragments g e n e r a l l y proposed by adhesion t h e o r y . [9,10] Suh and o t h e r s

have proposed a d e l a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y o f wear based on the behaviour o f su bsu rf a ce v o i d and c r a c k f o r m a t i o n and The de-

d i s l o c a t i o n s a t t h e r u b b i n g su rf a ce,

t h e subsequent j o i n i n g o f c r a c k s by shear d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e surface.

l a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e wear p a r t i c l e shape i s t h i n f l a k e - l i k e sheets as opposed t o t h e he mi sph eri ca l shape proposed by t h e adhesion t h e o r y and t h a t t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r can undergo l a r g e p l a s t i c deformation. Experimental

r e s u l t s showing t h e process o f wear sheet f o r m a t i o n by d e l a m i n a t i o n a r e claimed t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e t h e o r y [ll]. Suh has r e p o r t e d t h a t b u l k m a t e r i a l hardness i t s e l f i s n o t t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r on wear and t h a t t h e d e l a m i n a t i o n t h e o r y s a t i s f i e s t h e thermodynamic req ui re men t s o f t h e f r i c t i o n a l and wear behaviour o f m e t a l s [ 1 2 ]. W e st co t t and o t h e r s [8,13] suggest t h a t s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n

p o l i s h e s t h e s u r f a c e s and c r e a t e s a shear mi x l a y e r of s h o r t c r y s t a l l i n e o r d e r o f a lm o s t s u p e r d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l which spreads o v e r t h e s u r f a c e t o e f f e c t the smooth n a t u r e o f r u n - i n s u r f a c e s as f i r s t proposed by B e i l b y [14]. Repeated

r u b b i n g causes t h e shear mi x l a y e r t o become f a t i g u e d and r u b b i n g wear p a r t i c l e s f l a k e o f f [ 1 3 ]. Such a s t a t e o f e q u i l i b r i u m m a i n t a i n s benign wear, b u t d i s -

r u p t i o n o f t h i s s t a t e can cause i n i t i a t i o n o f a more severe mode o f wear [13].

A r h e o l o g i c a l mechanism of p e n e t r a t i v e wear [ 1 5 ] has been proposed f o r the

formation o f p l a t e - l i k e debris.

The st ud y o f subsurface e f f e c t s d u r i n g the Study o f the

s l i d i n g o f m e t a l s su pp ort s t h e assumption o f d e l a m i n a t i o n 1161.

14
wear behaviour o f u l t r a h i g h m o l e c u l a r we i gh t (UHMW) p o l y t h e n e r e v e a l e d a p l a s t i c a l l y f lo wed smooth s u r f a c e and sub surf ace c r a c k i n g which separated sheets o f polymer f rom t h e wear t r a c k i n t h e form o f smooth s u r f a c e d p l a t e l e t s [17]. wear. H i r s t [18], K r a g e l s k i i [19] and S c o t t [20] have reviewed t h e s u b j e c t o f

Bickerman 1211 has c r i t i c a l l y reviewed t h e t h e o r i e s o f adhesion and

f r i c t i o n a l phenomena i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t and Barw ell [22] has reviewed t h e t h e o r i e s o f wear and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e .

2.3

SCUFFING Under s l i d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , the c h i e f ta sk o f a l u b r i c a n t i s t o a l l o w r e l a t i v e T h i s can be achieved

m o t io n between s urf ace s, w i t h low f r i c t i o n and no damage.

i f th e l u b r i c a n t f i l m i s t h i c k enough t o keep t h e surfaces a p a r t and hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l .

I f however, i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s cannot be maintained,

t h e s u r fa c e s w i l l come i n t o c o n t a c t and wear o r damage i n the form o f s c u f f i n g

w i l l o c c u r , Fig.1.

The m e t a l l o g r a p h i c a l l y changed, s c u f f e d m a t e r i a l , Fig.2,

i s c o n s i d e r a b l y h ard er ( v a r y i n g f r o m 300 t o 850HV) than the o r i g i n a l carbon

Fig.1. ( ~ 7 5 )S c uf f e d s t e e l surface

Fig.2. (H= x110, V= ~ 1 1 0 0 ) Taper s e c t i o n through a s c u f f e d surface. i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the s c u f f e d m a t e r i a l

s t e e l (180HV). [23,241

Electron microscopical

r e v e a l s t h a t i t i s m a r t e n s i t e and tempered m a r t e n s i t e o r t r o o t s t i t e ,

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l has been heated t o above t h e a u s t e n i t i s i n g tempe r a t u r e and r a p i d l y coo l ed . Hydrocarbon l u b r i c a n t breakdown i n t h e c o n t a c t

15
zone [ 1 5 ] can l e a d t o i n crea se o f carbon c o n t e n t and hardness due t o d i f f u s i o n o f carbon and gases i n t o t h e heated deformed m a t e r i a l . The complex mechanism o f s c u f f i n g i s d i f f i c u l t t o e l u c i d a t e as t h e process, by c u m u la t iv e a c t i o n , d e s t r o y s evidence o f i t s i n i t i a l stages.

To study

s c u f f i n g and t o f o l l o w t h e development o f s u r f a c e f a i l u r e a cros,sed c y l i n d e r machine has been used [26] i n whi ch one c y l i n d e r i s r o t a t e d and a mating c y l i n d e r , a t r i g h t an gl e s t o i t , i s so t r a v e r s e d t h a t t h e area o f c o n t a c t moves al o n g t h e s u r f a c e o f b o t h c y l i n d e r s . Examination o f t h e h e l i c a l t r a c k round a

t e s t e d c y l i n d e r r e v e a l s how s u r f a c e damage b u i l d s up w i t h t e s t d u r a t i o n and l o a d 1271. The b e a r i n g t r a c k s on l u b r i c a t e d s t e e l c y l i n d e r s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d

by t h e in c r e a s e d o p t i c a l r e f l e c t i v i t y . i n i t i a t e d by s h o r t f i n e marks, f a i 1 ure.

As t h e l o a d increases f a i l u r e i s

f o l l o w e d by i n c i p i e n t s c u f f i n g and continuous

Study o f t a p e r s e c t i o n s has h el p ed c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f rubbing a c t i o n ; t h e i n i t i a l p o l i s h i n g seems t o be achieved by

smoothing o f t h e g r i n d i n g a s p e r i t i e s by p l a s t i c deformation as suggested by Westcott Fig.3.

[7,81 and Suh 191, Fig.3.

Subsurface metal l o g r a p h i c changes occur,

Heat produced by ru bb i ng a c t i o n appears t o temper t h e hard s t e e l .

Surface hardness may be pre serve d by r a p i d quenching from above the austeni t i s i n g t e m p e r a t ure by l u b r i c a n t o r b u l k m a t e r i a l . surface m a t e r i a l u s u a l l y contains cracks. The w h i t e - e t c h i n g , hard

Thermal s o f t e n i n g may occur by con-

d u c t i o n o f h e a t i n t he subsurface are a away from l u b r i c a n t quenching a c t i o n . Local h e a t i n g , and subsequent quenching by l u b r i c a n t o r c o l d b u l k metal may be s u f f i c i e n t t o m e t a l l o g r a p h i c a l l y change and harden t h e s u r f a c e o f s o f t s t e e l ,
so t h a t b o t h h a r d and s o f t s t e e l when s c u f f e d ,

and t h e s c u f f e d m a t e r i a l , The e l e c t r o n micro-

develop a s i m i l a r m e t a l l o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e and hardness.

scope has r e v e a l e d t h e f i n e m e t a l l o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e o f rubbed m a t e r i a l , the n a t u r e o f t h e o r i g i n a l ground s u r f a c e and t he smooth r u n - i n s u r f a c e and has rev e a le d t h a t th e i n i t i a t i o n o f wear on a sub-microscopic s c a l e develops i n a s i m i l a r manner t o t h a t observed on a l a r g e r scale. With l i g h t loads, t h e sur-

fa c e s a r e smoothed by p l a s t i c d ef orma t i o n o f t h e a s p e r i t i e s , m e t a l l u r g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s occu r and s c u f f i n g appears t o i n i t i a t e from small scores. W i t h i n t h e scores on h a r d s t e e l , f e a t u r e s a r e v i s i b l e s u p p o r t i n g t h e Bowden and Tabor ( 2 ) mechanism o f f a i l u r e , Fig.4a. P l a s t i c deformation and roughening o f

s o f t s t e e l i n d i c a t e o v e r - s t r e s s i n g o f t h e s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l which i s n o t incons i s t e n t w i t h t h e ideas o f B l o k [ l ] and Ming-Feng pre s s u r e (e.p.1

131, Fig.4b.

Extreme

a d d i t i v e s a r e used t o p r e v e n t metal t o metal c o n t a c t between D e t a i l e d e xamination o f surfaces by t h e

h e a v i l y loaded moving surf ace s.

e l e c t r o n microscope has shown t h e b u i l d up o f p r o t e c t i v e f i l m s and p r o v i d e s exp e r im e n ta l e v ide nce f o r t h e g e n e r a l l y agreed a c t i o n o f these a d d i t i v e s ; r e a c t i o n w i t h s u r f a c e metal t o form adherent s u r f a c e f i l m s w i t h good boundary p r o p e r t i e s [27].

16

Fig.3a.

(x80)

F i n e l y qround

Fig.3b. surface.

( ~ 7 5 0 0 ) F i n e l y ground

surface adjacent to run-in surface.

F i g . 3 ~ . ( ~ 7 5 0 0 ) Run-in s u r f a c e .

Fig.3d.

(H= x 1 0 0 , V= ~ 1 1 0 0 )

Taper s e c t i o n t h r o u g h a s c u f f e d surface.

17

Fig.4a.

( ~ 7 5 0 0 ) I n i t i a t i o n of

Fig.4b.

(~7500) Initiation of

s l i d i n g wear on a ha rd s t e e l s u r fa c e .

s l i d i n g wear on a s o f t s t e e l surface,

2.4

ABRASIVE WEAR From an economic p o i n t o f view, a b r a s i v e wear caused by p l o u g h i n g o r gouging

o f a h a r d s u r f a c e , h ard p a r t i c l e s o r d e b r i s , a g a i n s t a r e l a t i v e l y s o f t e r mating s u r f a c e i s p r o b a b l y t he most s e r i o u s s i n g l e cause o f wear i n e n g i n e e r i n g practice. process, [28,31]. There a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t a b r a s i o n , p r i m a r i l y a crude machining i s r e l a t e d t o i n d e n t a t i o n hardness and hence t o s t a t i c y i e l d s t r e s s Evidence o f e x t e n s i v e damage o r i g i n a t i n g from a small p a r t i c l e o f Fig.5.

d e b r i s has been r e p o r t e d [32,34],

A p a r t i c l e o f hard b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l

may cause damage i n a s i n g l e pass t hro ug h t he area o f minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s o f a b e a r in g . However, i n so passing,

i t may be rendered i n e f f e c t i v e due e i t h e r

t o breakdown i n t o s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s o f dimensions s m a l l e r than t h e minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s o r by b ei n g comp l et el y embedded i n the s o f t e r o f t h e mating materials. O t h e o t h e r hand a s o f t m a t e r i a l p a r t i c l e may work harden on n
I n gouging t h e s o f t e r b e a r i n g

passage between r e l a t i v e l y moving su rf a ces.

m a t e r i a l s u r f a c e , t h e p a r t i c l e may, i f t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l a l s o work hardens, be o n l y p a r t i a l l y embedded i n an e q u a l l y ha rd s u r f a c e area and become a source o f f u r t h e r damage t o t h e mat i ng su rf a ce.

18

a.

Large b e a r i n g machined by hard p a r t i c l e

b.

( ~ 1 5 0 ) S e c t i o n through t h e p a r t i a l l y embedded h a r d p a r t i c l e

Fig.5.

Wire-wool

type b e a r i n g f a i l u r e .

I f a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s a r e conveyed by a f l u i d stream t h e impact o f t h e

abr a s iv e p a r t i c l e s u r fa c e [35].

laden f l u i d w i l l g i v e r i s e t o e r o s i v e wear o f any i n t e r p o s e d

The e x t e n t and t ype o f wear depends upon t h e impinging angle of

t h e p a r t i c l e s and t h e d u c t i l i t y o f t h e su rf a ce.

2.5

FRETTING F r e t t i n g i s a s p e c i f i c f o rm o f wear wh i ch occurs when t h e r e i s s l i g h t

v i b r a t o r y movement between loaded su rf a ces i n c o n t a c t and which m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f by p i t t i n g o f t h e su rf a ces and t h e accu mul a t i on o f o x i d i s e d d e b r i s , Fig.6. An

e l e c t r o n m ic r o s c o pi ca l st ud y of t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f f r e t t i n g [23] has p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t f o r t h e suggestion t h a t a t t h e o u t s e t i t i s no d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r forms o f wear, b u t t h a t t h e f i n e d e b r i s produced by t h e i n i t i a l damage due t o metal t o metal c o n t a c t and r e l a t i v e mo t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a c u m u l a t i v e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n [36,38]. The d e b r i s , b e i n g l a r g e l y t h e o x i d e o f t h e

m e t a l s in v o lv e d , occupies a g r e a t e r volume t h an t h a t o f t h e metal destroyed and

i n a l i m i t e d space,

t h i s can l e a d t o a p ressu re b u i l d up and seizure.

The form

and e x t e n t o f f r e t t i n g damage depends on t h e chemical n a t u r e o f t h e environment and on whether or n o t t he d e b r i s can escape or i s b u i l t up between t h e surfaces.

19

I t has been suggested t h a t t h e i n i t i a l d e b r i s has a p l a t e i k e form produced by a process of d e l a m i n a t i o n

[39].

The a c t u a l r a t e o f wear may slow down i f t h e d e b r i s ac s as a b u f f e r between t h e two s u r fa c e s . Thus a p roce ss which i n i t i a t e s as adhesive wear may change

t o a b r a s i o n and t he n t h e wear r a t e may sl o w down due t o d e b r i s keeping t h e s u r f a c e s a p a r t . The f i n a l f a i l u r e may t he n be by f a t i g u e f r a c t u r e , c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n b e i n g e f f e c t e d by t h e s t r e s s r a i s i n g r o l e o f f r e t t i n g p i t s .

Fig.6a.

(~7500) I n i t i a t i o n

Fig.6b.

(x10,ODO)

Fretting

o f f r e t t i n g on h a r d s t e e l .

damage on a t i t a n i u m implant.

2.6

FLUID AND CAVITATION EROSION These wear mechanisms a r i s e f rom t h e impact o f f l u i d s a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s .

F l u i d e r o s i o n damage caused by smal l drops o f l i q u i d can occur i n steam t u r b i n e s and f a s t f l y i n g a i r c r a f t t hro ug h t h e impact o f w a t e r d r o p l e t s causing p l a s t i c d e p r e s s ions i n t h e su rf a ce. As t h e f l u i d f l o w s f r o m t h e deformed zone

i t can cause shear d e f o r m a t i o n i n p e r i p h e r a l areas and repeated deformation

causes a f a t i g u e t y p e o f damage by p i t t i n g and roughening o f t h e surface. C a v i t a t i o n e r o s i o n damage is caused by impact from t h e c o l l a p s e o f vapour or gas bubbles formed i n c o n t a c t w i t h a r a p i d l y moving o r v i b r a t i n g surface. The

p h y s i c a l damage t o m e t a l s i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by p i t t i n g s u g g e s t i v e o f a f a t i g u e origin. The u l t i m a t e r e s i l i e n c e o f m a t e r i a l , measured as t h e energy t h a t can be

d i s s i p a t e d b e f o r e a p p r e c i a b l e de f o rmat i on and c r a c k i n g occurs, appears t o be an

20
i mp o r ta n t p r o p e r t y o f met al s i n c a v i t a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e .

2.7

ROLLING CONTACT FATIGUE The u s e f u l l i f e o f r o l l i n g elements i s l i m i t e d by s u r f a c e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

p i t s o r f r a c t u r e b ei n g caused by a f a t i g u e process dependent upon t h e p r o perties o f the material, t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and t h e environment

[40,42].

The phenomenon i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e sudden removal o f s u r f a c e The process has

m a t e r i a l o r f r a c t u r e due t o repeated a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

t h r e e phases, p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t he m a t e r i a l p r i o r t o c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n , c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n and c r a c k pro pa ga t i o n. R o l l i n g c o n t a c t f a t i g u e c r a c k s i n i t i a t e e i t h e r a t t h e s u r f a c e and propagate i n t o t h e m a t e r i a l , o r s t a r t below t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e area o f c a l c u l a t e d maximum H e r t z i a n s t r e s s and propagate towards t h e s u r f a c e depending upon p r e v a i l i n g circumstances. The p r o p a g a t i o n o f s u r f a c e c r a c k s seems t o be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and t h e environment th e r o l l i n g d i r e c t i o n , Fig.7,

[43].

The cracks, t r a n s v e r s e t o

propagate s t e a d i l y i n t o t h e m a t e r i a l a t an a c u t e

Fig.7.

( ~ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ) R o l l ing

Fig.8.

Single f a i l u r e p t i n

contact f a t i g u e cracks i n En31 b a l l b e a r i n g s t e e l .

a mineral o i l l u b r i c a t e d bearing b a l l . t he n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e maximum sheai ng f o r example, i f i t leads t o

an g le t o t h e r o l l i n g d i r e c t i o n ,

s t r e s s e s , propagate p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e t o detach s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l and form

a p i t , Fig.8.

I f t h e environment i s d e l e t e r i o u s ,

hydrogen e m b r i t t l e m e n t m a t e r i a l , Fig.9,

[ 4 4 , 4 5 ] t h e c r a c k s may propagate r a p i d l y , deep i n t o t h e

Fig.10.

so t h a t f r a c t u r e ensues,

21

Fig.9.

( ~ 7 5 ) Rapid crack

Fig.10.

Fractured non-

propagation i n a non-flammable f l u i d l u b r i c a t e d bearing b a l l .

flammable f l u i d l u b r i c a t e d bearing b a l l .

Subsurface cracks i n i t i a t e a t depths associated w i t h the region o f c a l c u l ated maximum H e r t r i a n s t r e s s and propagate p a r a l l e l t o the surface t o remove surface m a t e r i a l , Fig.11. Crack i n i t i a t i o n may be f a c i l i t a t e d by b r i t t l e , non-

m e t a l l i c i n c l u s i o n s i n the stressed region which crack, break the m e t a l l i c c o n t i n u i t y and a c t as s t r e s s r a i s e r s . Owing t o r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g a c t i o n , mechanical and metallographic changes occur i n the stressed surface and immediate subsurface m a t e r i a l o f r o l l i n g elements [41,42,46]. The s t r u c t u r e o f conventional En 31 b a l l bearing s t e e l The

c o n s i s t s o f f i n e l y dispersed carbide spheroids i n martensite, Fig.12.

m e t a l l o g r a p h i c a l l y changed m a t e r i a l o f the surface l a y e r i s devoid o f carbides as a r e s u l t o f h i g h c o n t a c t stresses and l o c a l h i g h temperature f l a s h e s causing s o l u t i o n o f the carbides f o l l o w e d by r a p i d quenching under pressure, Fig.13.

Absorption o f gases from l u b r i c a n t breakdown may c o n t r i b u t e t o surface hardening and crack i n i t i a t i o n . S t r i n g e r type carbides may form i n the subsurface area

o f c o n t a c t due t o a n n i h i l a t i o n o f the coarse carbides by p l a s t i c deformation, Fig.14. Sections transverse t o the r o l l i n g d i r e c t i o n may reveal the presence cracks develop i n such areas,

o f l o c a l i s e d areas o f tempered martensite; Fig.15.

There i s a t h r e s h o l d s t r e s s l e v e l above which metallographic change

22

Fig.11.

( ~ 3 7 5 ) Subsurface c r a c k

Fig.12.

(~8000) S t r u c t u r e o f

i n an En31 s t e e l b e a r i n g b a l l .

En31 b a l l b e a r i n g s t e e l .

Fig.13.

(~12,000)

Deformed m e t a l -

Fig.14.

(~15,000)

S t r i n g e r type

l o g r a p h i c a l l y changed, s p h e r i c a l carbide free, surface material o f a used b e a r i n g b a l l .

c a r b i d e s i n subsurface m e t a l l o g r a p h i c a l l y changed b a l l b e a r i n g s t e e l .

23
oc c u r s , s u g g e s t ing t h a t t h e changes may be due t o a y i e l d i n g o r p l a s t i c f l o w phenomenon r a t h e r than a tempering e f f e c t o r be i n d i c a t i v e o f o v e r l o a d o r a l o n g duration o f stressing. S i m i l a r s u b s u rf a ce changes and a s s o c i a t e d c r a c k s a r e found i n s e c t i o n s o f r o l l i n g elements p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o l l i n g d i r e c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h a s s o c i a t e d e l o n g a t e d w h i t e e t c h i n g a rea s o f i n crea sed hardness, Fig.16. The extreme hard-

ness o f t h e w h i t e e t c h i n g m a t e r i a l may be due t o a f i n e c e l l s i z e o r the almost c o l l o i d a l d i s p e r s i o n o f v e r y f i n e c a r b i d e s formed p o s s i b l y by s t r a i n induced p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o l l o w i n g s o l u t i o n o f coa rse c a r b i d e s , Fig.17.

F i g 15.

( ~ 5 7 5 ) Tempered m a r t e n s i t e i n

Fig.16

( ~ 1 1 0 0 ) Subsurface c r a c k s and

t h e s u b s u r f a c e a re a o f r o l l i n g c o n t a c t .

associated white etching m a t e r i a l .

t appears t h a t seve ral d i f f e r e n t modes o f r o l l i n g c o n t a c t f a t i g u e can cause

c r a ks t o n u c l e a t e and p rop ag at e i n de pe nd en t ly a t v a r i o u s r a t e s ;

thus the Whilst the

phenomenon i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by h i g h l y l o c a l i s e d c o n d i t i o n s .

ge n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b u l k m a t e r i a l a r e i mportant, s p e c i f i c aspects such as t h e s t e e lm a k in g process, gas c o n t e n t and c l e a n l i n e s s a r e a l s o e q u a l l y important [48,52]. The n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and t h e environment can have a dominant

e f f e c t on f a i l u r e . M a t e r i a l c o m bi n at i on [53] and m a t e r i a l l u b r i c a n t combination r e q u i r e c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o ensure s a t i s f a c t o r y performance [54,55]. I n r o l l i n g c o n t a c t i n t h e absence o f a l u b r i c a n t , f a i l u r e occurs, n o t by the usual f a i l u r e mechanism b u t by e xcessi ve wear l i m i t i n g t h e u s e f u l l i f e due t o v i b r a t i o n and n o i s e tS6,571.

24

Fig.17.

( ~ 7 0 0 0 ) F i ne s t r u c t u r e i n

subsurface w h i t e e t c h i n g m a t e r i a l o f En31 s t e e l .

2.8

WEAR DETECTION AND ASSESSMENT

One o f t h e most d i f f i c u l t problems i n e n g i n e e r i n g design i s t h e p r e d i c t i o n

and assessment o f p o s s i b l e wear.

An e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t and d i f f i c u l t t a s k i s t h e Simple methods o f wear

d e t e c t i o n o f wear d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f machines.

measurement such as t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f changes i n s u r f a c e topography by s t y l u s measurement and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w e i g h t loss have disadvantages. Machinery must be d i s m a n t l e d f o r t h e measurements t o be made and i n a c c u r a c i e s i n weig h t may a r i s e due t o o x i d a t i o n and a b s o r p t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t . As t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e wear process i s re corded i n t h e wear d e b r i s produced

[581 an a t t r a c t i v e method o f wear d e t e c t i o n and assessment i s contaminant

a n a l y s i s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t used. L u b r i c a n t s i n o p e r a t i n g mechanisms may be conv e n i e n t l y checked f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n o f wear by s p e c t r o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s a l t h o u g h t h e method has some disadvantages [59] b e i n g i n some i n s t a n c e s r e l a t i v e l y b l i n d t o large particles.

A si mpl e d e v i c e such as a magnetic p l u g i n an o i l sump can

c o l l e c t f e r r o u s d e b r i s and i n d i c a t e wear o f a moving p a r t 1601 b u t some s e r i o u s damage may have o c c u r r e d b e f o r e d e b r i s l a r g e enough t o be d e t e c t e d has been collected. Wear p a r t i c l e s a r e unique, h a v i n g i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which bear evidence o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which t he y were formed [8,58,61]. Careful

25
ex a m in a tio n o f t he morphology and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the composition o f wear p a r t i c l e s can t h u s y i e l d s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e surfaces from which they were produced, t h e mechanism o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n and t h e o p e r a t i v e wear mode i n t h e system f r o m whi ch t he y were e x t r a c t e d . Ferrography [7,8,62,63] i s a t e chn i qu e developed t o separate wear d e b r i s and

contaminant p a r t i c l e s c o n v e n i e n t l y f ro m a l u b r i c a n t f o r examination and a n a l y s i s . The duplex Fe r r o gra ph a n a l y s e r c o n s i s t s o f two p a r t i c l e separators, a standard a n a l y s e r and a d i r e c t r e a d i n g (DR) Ferrograph. The DR Ferrograph i s a simple

i ns tr u m e n t used t o d et ermi n e t he amount and s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wear p a r t i c l e s i n a l u b r i c a n t sample f ro m which s i g n i f i c a n t numerical d a t a can be d e r i v e d [ 6 2 , 641. When s u c c e ssi ve l u b r i c a n t samples y i e l d c o n s t a n t d e n s i t y readings i t may

be concluded t h a t t h e machine i s o p e r a t i n g n o r m a l l y and producing benign wear p a r t i c l e s a t a steady r a t e .

A r a p i d i ncre ase i n t h e q u a n t i t y o f p a r t i c l e s and

i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t h e r a t i o o f l a r g e t o small p a r t i c l e s i n d i c a t e s t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a more severe wear process. The use o f a simple e q u a t i o n p r o v i d e s a s i n g l e F u l l Ferrographic a n a l y s i s

f i g u r e f o r a c o mpa rat i ve s e v e r i t y o f wear index. u s i n g t h e b i c h r o m a t i c microscope [62,63],

e l e c t r o n microscopy [62,651 and

h e a t i n g te c h n iq u es [66] may be used t o supplement t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from p a r t i c l e s p r e c i p i t a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o s i z e on a p rep are d s u b s t r a t e by the a n a l y t i c a l Ferrograph. P a r t i c l e s generated by d i f f e r e n t wear mechanisms have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which may be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c wear mechanism [8,61,62,67]. t i c l e a t l a s has been p rep are d [68].

A wear par-

Rubbing wear p a r t i c l e s found i n t h e lub-

r i c a n t o f most machines have t h e f o r m o f p l a t e l e t s and i n d i c a t e normal permissi b l e ' w e a r , Fig.18. C u t t i n g wear p a r t i c l e s t a k e t h e form o f m i n i a t u r e s p i r a l s , Fig.19.

l oo p s and b e n t w i r e s s i m i l a r t o c u t t i n g s f r o m a machining o p e r a t i o n ,

A c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f such p a r t i c l e s i s i n d i c a t i v e o f a severe a b r a s i v e wear

process. The o p e r a t i v e regimes o f s l i d i n g wear can be c l a s s i f i e d by t h e p a r t i c l e s produced. S i x regimes wh i ch ge ne rat e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r t i c l e s have been Free metal p a r t i c l e s a r e produced i n regimes 1,2 and 3 and r a n g i n g f r o m t h e small p a r Fig.18,to large

i d e n t i f i e d [13].

thes e regimes may be re cog ni se d by p a r t i c l e s i z e ,

t i c l e s o f regime 2 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s o f regime

3,

Fig.20,

which may v a r y i n s i z e up t o 2 5 0 ~ 1

when t h e shear mixed s u r f a c e l a y e r becomes u n s t a b l e and l o c a l i s e d adhesion oc cu r s . Three d i s t i n c t p a r t i c l e types, w i t h r o l l i n g bearing fatigue. l ami n ar, s p h e r i c a l and chunks a r e a s s o c i a t e d

Laminar p a r t i c l e s a r e t h i n metal p a r t i c l e s up t o

50um i n major dimension c o n t a i n i n g h o l e s formed i n passage through the r o l l i n g contact. Such p a r t i c l e s a r e generated t hro ug hout t h e l i f e o f t h e bearing. Spherical p a r t i c l e s ,

T h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n increases w i t h t h e onset o f s p a l l i n g .

26

Fig.18.

( ~ 7 5 0 ) Rubbing wear particles

and friction polymer.

( ~ 7 5 0 ) Optical micrograph
Fig.19.

( ~ 4 5 0 ) Scanning electron micrograph

Cutting wear particles.

21

Fig.20.

( ~ 4 0 0 ) Large m e t a l l i c wear p a r t i c l e .

a.

( ~ 7 5 0 )O p t i c a l

micrograph Fig.21.

b.

(x3,000) Scanning e l e c t r o n m ic r o g raph

Steel spherical p a r t i c l e s .

Fig.21,

a r e generated w i t h i n a p r o p a g a t i n g f a t i g u e c r a c k and t h e i r d e t e c t i o n X-ray energy a n a l y s i s i n t h e

g i v e s warning o f impending f a t i g u e f a i l u r e [ 6 9 ] .

scanning e l e c t r o n microscope can e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e y a r e composed o f r o l l i n g bearing material. F a t i g u e chunks c o n s t i t u t e t h e m a t e r i a l removed by s u r f a c e

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n and p i t f o r m a t i o n .

28
Fatigue p a r t i c l e s from a gear t o o t h although o f s i m i l a r dimensions d i f f e r from those from r o l l i n g bearings, a r e g e n e r a l l y o f i r r e g u l a r shape, f r e e from holes and have a smooth surface. f a t i g u e process progresses. The number o f p a r t i c l e s increases as the

Larger f a t i g u e chunks o f gear m a t e r i a l a r e ind-

i c a t i v e o f surface d e t e r i o r a t i o n by p i t t i n g . S c u f f i n g o f gears causes an increase i n the number o f wear p a r t i c l e s which tend t o have a rough surface and an i r r e g u l a r shape. As the s e v e r i t y of

s c u f f i n g increases, the l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s produced have surface s t r i a t i o n s indicative o f s l i d i n g action. Owing t o the thermal e f f e c t s o f s c u f f i n g , p a r t i c l e s

may be p a r t i a l l y o x i d i s e d w i t h a range o f temper colours. As both a r t h r i t i c and a r t i f i c i a l j o i n t s a r e subjected t o wear, Ferrographic a n a l y s i s of synovial f l u i d i s a p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e method o f studying the mechanisms and b i o l o g i c a l responses t o wear i n human j o i n t s

1701.

2.9

CONCLUSIONS I n the present and foreseeable f u t u r e world economic s i t u a t i o n , m a t e r i a l and

energy conservation i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y important.

As wear i s a major

cause o f m a t e r i a l wastage, any reduction i n wear can e f f e c t considerable savings i n m a t e r i a l and the energy necessary f o r t h e i r production. Thus increasing

emphasis w i l l be given t o methods o f wear c o n t r o l and prevention. The complex mechanisms o f wear, however, a r e n o t e a s i l y e l u c i d a t e d as the process by cumulative a c t i o n o b l i t e r a t e s evidence o f the important i n i t i a l stages o f damage. Being an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y subject, a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y app-

roach i s r e q u i r e d f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f wear and the c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s t o enable the m s t s u i t a b l e design t o be chosen embodying the best m a t e r i a l and the c o r r e c t l u b r i c a t i o n t o ensure minimum wear and s a t i s f a c t o r y s e r v i c e performance from moving mechanisms.

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Col l a c o t t , R . A . , "Mechanical F a u l t Diagnos s and C o n d i t i o n M o n i t o r i n g " , 1977, Chapman and H a l l , London. Scott,D., Wear, 1975, 34, 15-22. Tribology I n t . , Bowen,E.R., Scott,D., Seifert,W.W. and Ve t c o t t , V . C . ,

1976, 9 ( 3 ) 109-115.
Scott,O. and Westcott,V.C., Proc. E u r o t r i b 77, 1977, Band 1, paper 70, 1-6 Westcott,V.C., Naval Research Reviews, 1977 (March) 1-8, O f f i c e o f Naval Research, Wash i n g t o n . Scott,D. and Mills,G.H., i n "Scanning E l e c t r o n Microscopy", 1974, P a r t I V , 838-888, I.I.T., Chicago. B a r w e l l , F . T . , Bowen,E.R. and Westcott,V.C., Wear, 1977, 44, 163-171. Ruff,W. Wear, 1977, 42, 49-62. Bowen,E.R. and Westcott,V.C., "Wear P a r t i c l e A t l a s " , 1976, Foxboro/Transo n i c s I n c . , Mass, U . S . A . Scott,D. and Mills,G.H., Wear, 1973, 24, 235-242. Mears,D.C., Wear, 1978, 50, 115-126.

31

'{

SELECTION OF BEARINGS

M.J.

NEALE

Michael Neale and A s s o c i a t e s L t d .

3.1

INTRODUCTION The s e l e c t i o n o f an a p p r o p r i a t e t y p e o f b e a r i n g , f o r use i n a p a r t i c u l a r

a p p l i c a t i o n , i s a d e c i s i o n t h a t i s u s u a l l y made v e r y e a r l y i n a design process. A t t h a t stage, v e r y d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on b e a r i n g performance i s n o t u s u a l l y necessary, and what i s r e a l l y r e q u i r e d i s broad guidance on t h e i m p o r t a n t
_ L . .

a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s types. ntended t o meet t h i s requirement.

The i n f o r m a t i o n presented i n t h i s s e c t i o n

3.2

B E A R I N G TYPES

The b a s i c f u n c t i o n o f b e a r i n g s i s t o a l l o w a l o a d t o be t r a n s m i t t e d between two s u r f a c e s which a r e i n r e l a t i v e motion. There a r e t h r e e main t y p e s o f

b e a r i n g as shown i n F i g u r e 1, and these a r e p l a i n b e a r i n g s , r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s and f l e x u r e s . In p l a i n bearings the load i s transmitted over a considerable

area, w h i l e i n r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s t h e area a c t u a l l y i n c o n t a c t , and t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e load, i s very small. The t h i r d t y p e depends on t h e use o f f l e x i b l e com-

ponents and i s o n l y s u i t a b l e f o r o s c i l l a t o r y movement. I t can be seen f r o m F i g u r e 1 t h a t t h e r e a r e f i v e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s b e h i n d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s types and these a r e : ( i ) To p e r m i t t h e two s u r f a c e s t o r u b t o g e t h e r and t o a r r a n g e t h e s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s so t h a t s e i z u r e o r excess f r i c t i o n does n o t o c c u r and so t h a t an a c c e p t a b l e r a t e o f wear i s o b t a i n e d . In practice t h i s i s usually

achieved by t h e c h o i c e o f m a t e r i a l s w i t h s u i t a b l e b u l k p r o p e r t i e s o r by t h e use of some f o r m o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g , which may e i t h e r be a p p l i e d i n advance o r a l l o w e d t o form i n s i t u . ( i i ) To keep t h e s u r f a c e s separated by a f i l m o f f l u i d , so t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e movement can o c c u r w i t h i n t h e f i l m .

To do t h i s t h e f l u i d must be

maintained a t a s u f f i c i e n t pressure t o h o l d the surfaces apart against

32

L J Z h

The basic problem

To transmit load between two surfaces in relative motior!

Plain rubbing bearings

The surfaces are allowed to rub together Pressure In the film keeps the surfaces apart

'
J(
( (((),

Plain fluid film bearings

C .G

tn 0

, ,j
]

Magnetic or electrostatic bearings

Surfaces held apart by mutual repulsion

.Q

Rolling element bearings

s-4
I

Surfaces separated by rolling elements of circular cross section The pivot point moves as the bearing rocks

tn

r .-

m
L

Rocker pods

8 a

Knife edges

The sharp edge gives the minimum pivot point movement

E .-

Rubber bearings

Movement by elastic deflection of the rubber Rotation about the crossover point by strip deflection Movement permitted by elastic deflection

Crossed strip

! ! ! 3
X

tn

h
Cables or torsion rods

Q)

Fig.1

Various types o f b e a rin g T h i s p r e s s u r e may be o b t a i n e d by f e e d i n g i n f r o m an

the a p p l i e d load.

e x t e r n a l h i g h p r e s s u r e source, o r may be g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e f i l m by r e l a t i v e movement o f s u i t a b l y shaped s u r f a c e s f l o o d e d w i t h a v i s c o u s fluid.

33
( i i i ) One s u r f a c e may be a l l o w e d t o r o l l on t h e o t h e r . T h i s , however,

produces an i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e a n g u l a r and t r a n s l a t i o n a l movements o f t h e a d j a c e n t components, which i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e shape o f t h e r o l l i n g s u r f a c e s , and i n p r a c t i c e may n o t always a l l o w t h e r e q u i r e d degrees o f freedom. To overcome t h i s p r o b l e m t h e r o l l i n g s u r f a c e s a r e

o f t e n p e r m i t t e d t o s l i d e a s w e l l as r o l l , such as i n g e a r t e e t h , o r t h e p r o b l e m may be overcome by i n s e r t i n g a t h i r d element between t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e two o r i g i n a l components as i n a r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g . ( i v ) To produce a r e p u l s i v e f o r c e between t h e s u r f a c e s by magnetic o r e l e c t r o s t a t i c means. ( v ) To p o s i t i o n a f l e x i b l e member between t h e two components which can d e f l e c t t o a l l o w a r e l a t i v e o s c i l l a t i n g movement t o o c c u r between them. S u i t a b l e members can be formed by f i l l i n g most o f t h e space between t h e s u r f a c e s w i t h an adequate t h i c k n e s s o f e l a s t o m e r i c m a t e r i a l o r by u s i n g t h i n connecting ligaments o f higher strength materials.

3.3

PERFORMANCE O V A R I O U S TYPES OF BEARING F Since t h e a b i l i t y t o t r a n s m i t a l o a d w i t h r e l a t i v e movement i s t h e b a s i c

f u n c t i o n o f a b e a r i n g , a s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e a l l o w a b l e l o a d and speed f o r b e a r i n g s o f v a r i o u s s i z e s and t y p e s s h o u l d p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t s t a n d a r d f o r t h e comparison o f t h e i r performance. For t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l o a d and speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s b e a r i n g t y p e s , t h e f i r s t i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e s t o be e s t a b l i s h e d i s t h e , a p p r o x i m a t e shape o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , so t h a t a g e n e r a l comparison can be made between t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s . The b a s i c forms o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be

d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h govern t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s b e aring types. T h i s i s d i s c u s s e d below and t h e r e s u l t i n g performance c u r v e s

a p p l i e d t o j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s compared i n F i g . 2 .

3.3.1

Rubbing B e a r i n g s

I n a b e a r i n g w h i c h o p e r a t e s by p e r m i t t i n g t h e two s u r f a c e s t o r u b t o g e t h e r , t h e p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s on performance a r e t h e r i s k o f o v e r h e a t i n g and s e i z u r e and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x c e s s i v e wear. The g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t a t t h e r u b b i n g s u r f a c e s a r i s e s f r o m t h e movement a g a i n s t t h e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e c o n t a c t , and t h i s h e a t has t o be cond u c t e d away a l o n g h e a t - f l o w p a t h s , o f which t h e a r e a w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r o j e c t e d b e a r i n g a r e a A. The r i s k o f o v e r h e a t i n g a t a s l i d i n g speed V i s t h e r e f o r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y proportional t o

-o r

'r

'PV

34

Pressure limit

PV limit

Fatigue limit

RPM

RPM

(al Rubbing bearings

(bl Rolling bearings

/-Available

pressure limits Fall due ta effect o f

of speed on vixosity

Fall d k t o effect

3
V
_1

Film thickness limit RPM

N

RPM

fcl Externally pressurized film

( d l Pressure fed film

Pressure limit

i0)i
limit

Film thickness limit

(rPV limit

8
RPM

RPM

(el Self- contained film

( f l Porous metal

FIGURE 2

Performance of various types of journal bearing flog W plotted against log N )

35
When two s u r f a c e s a r e i n r u b b i n g c o n t a c t , t h e volume o f m a t e r i a l worn f r o m the rubbing surfaces a f t e r s l i d i n g a distance x w i t h a load W i s approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o Wx. The wear volume i s , however, o f l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e performance o f a b e a r i n g , and t h e depth wear r a t e i s much more r e l e v a n t as a design f a c t o r , s i n c e t h i s i s a measure o f t h e r a t e a t which slackness i n t h e assembly i s l i k e l y t o be produced. The d e p t h wear r a t e w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o

- o r PV At
Thus b o t h t h e p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e performance o f r u b b i n g b e a r i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t ' t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e b e a r i n g o p e r a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o PV ( b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e x s l i d i n g speed). Fig.2a shows t h e shape o f t h e load-speed c u r v e f o r T h i s i s a composite c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n c l u d i n g

wx

a rubbing type o f journal bearing.

a PV l i m i t and a l s o a maximum a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e l i m i t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r i s k o f f a t i g u e o r e x t r u s i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l , which i s f r e q u e n t l y nonmetal 1 i c .

3.3.2

R o l l e r Bearings

Owing t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d c o n t a c t s t r e s s e s i n t h i s t y p e o f b e a r i n g t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t on performance a r i s e s from t h e p o s s i b l e f a t i g u e o f t h e r o l '"9 elements o r races, a l t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s o f t e n f a i l as we 1 from l a c k o f p r o p e r l u b r i c a t i o n , d i r t c o n t a m i n a t i o n and u n s u i t a b l e l o a d i n g . f

f a t i g u e i s taken as t h e performance l i m i t i t i s reasonable t o assume t h a t the l i f e o f a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t b e a r i n g measured i n r e v o l u t i o n s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o (l/W)3. Consequently f o r a g i v e n l i f e W

a

N-1'3

and t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s

shown i n Fig.2b.

As b e f o r e , t h e a c t u a l maximum l o a d i s a l s o l i m i t e d by t h e cap-

a c i t y o f t h e b e a r i n g t o c a r r y s t a t i c l o a d which i n t h i s case i s l i m i t e d by t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e races t o b r i n e l l i n g by t h e r o l l i n g elements.

3.3.3

F l u i d F i l m Bearings

I f these a r e o f t h e e x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i z e d o r h y d r o s t a t i c t y p e , t h e l o a d
c a p a c i t y i s p r i m a r i l y dependent on t h e a v a i l a b l e supply p r e s s u r e , and r u n n i n g speed has v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t , a l t h o u g h w i t h l i q u i d l u b r i c a t i o n a s l i g h t f a l l i n l o a d c a p a c i t y may o c c u r a t h i g h e r speeds owing t o t h e r e d u c t i o n i n l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y caused by h i g h e r temperatures. i s t h e r e f o r e as shown i n Fig.2c. With t h e hydrodynamic t y p e o f f l u i d f i l m b e a r i n g , t h e l o a d c a p a c i t y increases w i t h speed p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e f i l m i s k e p t adequately s u p p l i e d w i t h l u b r i c a n t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o r m a l l y a tendency w i t h l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t s f o r t h e l o a d capa c i t y t o f a l l away a t t h e h i g h e s t speeds owing t o t h e h e a t i n g o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . The r e s u l t i n g load-speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

36
T h i s g i v e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g en era l shape shown i n Fig.2d. I n o r d e r t o keep t h e f i l m f u l l y s u p p l i e d w i t h l u b r i c a n t , t h i s has t o be f e d

under p r e s s u r e , which i n t u r n r e q u i r e s some f o r m o f l u b r i c a n t supply system. I t i s n o t always co nve ni e nt o r economical t o h a v e t o i n c l u d e such a supply system and c o n s eq ue nt l y many hydrodynamic f l u i d f i l m b e a r i n g s a r e used w i t h self-contained l u b r i c a n t supplies. I n the l a r g e r sizes, the o i l i s g e n e r a l l y

c o n t a in e d i n a sump below t h e s h a f t and l i f t e d by a r i n g o r d i s c , w h i l e i n t h e s m a l l e r s i z e s i t may be f e d f r o m an o i l - s o a k e d pad o r r e t a i n e d i n t h e b e a r i n g s t r u c t u r e by making i t porous. These methods o f o i l f e e d i n g have a lower

e f f i c i e n c y than a p ressu re f e d arrangement and r e s u l t i n t h e b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g w i t h a l o a d - c a r r y i n g f i l m o f reduced c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l e n g t h and t h e r e f o r e o f reduced l o a d c a p a c i t y . I t i s a l s o u s u a l l y found w i t h these systems t h a t t h e

volume o f o i l d e l i v e r e d p e r r e v o l u t i o n of t h e s h a f t decreases w i t h speed and consequently t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a l s o decreases w i t h speed. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s e f f e c t , t h e absence o f a l u b r i c a t i o n system means t h a t a l l t h e h e a t g e ne rat ed has t o be d i s s i p a t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e surroundings, and w i t h a maximum a l l o w a b l e t e mpe rat ure f o r a l ong l i f e o f m i n e r a l o i l l u b r i c a n t s , p l a c e s a l i m i t on t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e speed. T,hese v a r i o u s e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n load-speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r b e a r i n g s o f t h i s t y p e which a r e o f t h e ge ne ral shape shown i n Figs.2e and 2 f .

3.3.4

F l e x i b l e Members

B e a r in g s o f t h i s t ype , wh i ch use e i t h e r el astomers i n shear o r h i g h t e n s i l e l i ga m e n t s i n bending t o a l l o w an o s c i l l a t i n g motion t o occur, a r e i n many cases p h y s i c a l l y l i m i t e d i n performance by t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l o r i t s bonding on t o th e a d j a c e n t components. The s t r e s s e s a r i s e b o t h from t h e

d e f l e c t i o n and f r o m t h e a p p l i e d l o ad and a r e u s u a l l y a d d i t i v e a t some c r i t i c a l r e g i o n o f t h e assembly, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e a l l o w a b l e loads tend t o decrease w i t h t h e p e r m i t t e d a n g l e o f movement. Blocks o f e l a s t o m e r i c m a t e r i a l used

i n compression do n o t have t h i s a d d i t i v e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n , b u t i n t h i s case t h e a l l o w a b l e d e f l e c t i o n i s l i m i t e d by t h e b l o c k t h i c k n e s s , which i n t u r n l i m i t s t h e maximum l o a d i f t h e assembly i s t o be s t a b l e a g a i n s t excessive b u l g i n g o r buckling. T h i s can be overcome t o some e x t e n t by t h e use o f s t i f f e n i n g p l a t e s

i n t h e e la s t o m e r a rran ge d t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e q u i r e d d i r e c t i o n o f motion, b u t even when these a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e maximum d e f l e c t i o n i s s t i l l l i m i t e d by t h e amount t h a t t h e l o a d can be p e r m i t t e d t o be o f f s e t .

I t can t h e r e f o r e be g e n e r a l l y assumed t h a t t h e l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f f l e x i b l e b e a r in gs w i l l g e n e r a l l y show a decrease i n a l l o w a b l e l o a d as t h e d e f l e c t i o n i s increased.

31

3.4

SELECTION O A SUITABLE BEARING F The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s between l o a d and'movement f o r t h e v a r i o u s

typ e s o f b e a r i n g s can be compared w i t h t h e b e a r i n g performance r e q u i r e d i n v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s and used as a g ui d e t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a s u i t a b l e t y p e o f bea r in g . Any p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a b e a r i n g i n a machine o r s t r u c t u r e w i l l have some f o r m o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t y p e o f l o a d t o be c a r r i e d and t h e movement t o be a l l owed . I n p r a c t i c e an important f e a t u r e i s whether

t h e l o a d and movement a r e n o m i n a l l y steady o r whether they v a r y i n some c y c l i c manner. T h i s can g i v e r i s e t o f o u r p o s s i b l e combinations o f l o a d and movement

as i n d i c a t e d w i t h examples i n Table 3.1. P r o b a b ly t h e g r e a t e s t number o f b e a r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e o f t h e u n i d i r e c t i o n a l l o a d and c o n t i n u o u s movement t y p e and i n t h i s c a t e g o r y t h e way i n which t h e b e a r i n g l o a d v a r i e s w i t h r o t a t i o n a l speed, d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e machine, i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n b e a r i n g s e l e c t i o n and design. u n i d i r e c t i o n a l load s have been su b-d i vi de d t h i s situation. Ta b le 3.1 Examples o f v a r i o u s t ype s o f l o a d and movement p a t t e r n s For t h i s reason t h e

i n Table 3.1 t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o

Type o f lo a d Unidirectional Cons t a n t Rising w i t h speed Falling with speed Un i d ir e c t iona 1

Type o f movement Continuous Continuous Continuous Osc i 1 l a t o r y

Examples

T urbine j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s Marine gearbox p i n i o n b e a r i n g s H y d r a u l i c motor b e a r i n g s B r i d g e support b e a r i n g s G r i n d i n g machine t a b l e s Pi st on-engine c r a n k s h a f t b e a r i n g s Linkage b e a r i n g s

M u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l Continuous Multidirectional Oscillatory

3.4.1

A p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h U n i d i r e c t i o n a l Load and Continuous Movement

T h i s i s t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y o f b e a r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s l i s t e d i n Table 3.1 and t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f b e a r i n g which c o u l d be used a r e t h e rubbing, r o l l i n g element and f l u i d - f i l m types. F i g . 2 shows t h a t these v a r i o u s types o f b e a r i n g

have q u i t e d i f f e r e n t load-speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I n f a c t , examples a r e g i v e n i n Table

3.1 o f v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s w hich a l s o
T h i s k i n d o f app-

have s e v e r a l forms o f r e l a t i o n s h i p between l o a d and speed, and i d e a l l y a b e a r i n g s h o u ld be s e l e c t e d w i t h a matching c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

roach t o t h e problem i n d i c a t e s t h a t t u r b i n e j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s should i d e a l l y be o f

38
the e x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i z e d o r h y d r o s t a t i c t ype, w h i l e an a p p l i c a t i o n such as marine gearbox p i n i o n b e a r i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e simple type o f hydrodynamic b e a ri ng . practice, W h i l e t h i s l a t t e r example i s i n l i n e w i t h c u r r e n t

t u r b i n e s a r e n o t a t p r e s e n t u s i n g t he h y d r o s t a t i c type o f b e a r i n g T h i s may be an example

except i n those used t o d r i v e high-speed d e n t a l d r i l l s .

o f a design s i t u a t i o n where a p a r t i c u l a r t yp e o f machine i s developed on the b a s i s o f a workable b u t n o t i d e a l f orm o f b e a r i n g design and i t then r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e commercial courage t o make t h e necessary change on a v i t a l component i n a machine o f such h i g h c a p i t a l val u e. From t h e economic p o i n t o f

view, however, h y d r o s t a t i c b e a r i n g s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e i n s i t u a t i o n s where a source of h i g h p r e s s u r e f l u i d i s a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e , and t h i s i s i n f a c t t h e case w i t h a steam t u r b i n e . Problems o f e r o s i o n may occur i f t h e steam i s

al lo we d t o condense i n t h e b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e b u t t h i s problem should n o t be

in supe r a b 1 e

.
For

H y d r a u l i c motors were suggested as an example o f an a p p l i c a t i o n i n w hich t h e l oa d decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g speed, a l t h o u g h t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c tends t o be common t o any machine d r i v e n by a source o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t power.

such an a p p l i c a t i o n , a r o l l i n g c o n t a c t b e a r i n g would appear t o be i d e a l i n t h a t

i t has a matching c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,

as w e l l as a low s t a r t i n g f r i c t i o n which i s

u s u a l l y a l s o r e q u i r e d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t yp e o f a p p l i c a t i o n .

A rubbing type o f

b e a r i n g would also appear t o be p o s s i b l e , b u t i n f a c t t h e loads and speeds a l l o w a b l e w i t h t h i s t y p e o f b e a r i n g a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y below t h e corresponding v a lu e s f o r t h e r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t t ype .

A lt h o u g h t h i s t ech ni q ue o f matching t h e f o r m o f t h e load-speed r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h t h a t o f v a r i o u s b e a r i n g s i s a u s e f u l guide i n b e a r i n g selection,

i t i s s t i l l necessary t o c o n s i d e r t h e a c t u a l values o f l o a d and

speed which can be c a r r i e d by d i f f e r e n t s i z e s o f b e a r i n g s o f t h e v a r i o u s types, i n o r d e r t o be c e r t a i n t h a t t h ey a r e s u i t a b l e .

A c o n v e n ie n t way o f d oi n g t h i s i s t o p l o t t h e performance o f t h e v a r i o u s
ty p e s o f b e a r i n g on one diagram so t h a t comparisons can be made, and i f t h i s i s done on l o g a r i t h m i c axes, t h e whole span o f e n g i n e e r i n g loads and speeds can be covered. T h i s t e c h n iq u e can be used t o show t h e performance o f s t e a d i l y loaded j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s w i t h c o n t i n u o u s l y r o t a t i n g s h a f t s , and Fig.3 shows t h e t y p e o f diagram which r e s u l t s . Fig.3 i s o n l y i nt en de d t o g i v e b roa d guidance b u t i t does show t h e general
I t indicates,

trends q u i t e c l e a r l y .

f o r example, t h a t f l u i d - f i l m p l a i n b e a r i n g s

a r e the b e s t ty p e t o use a t h i g h speeds and t h a t t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n th e case o f a l l s h a f t s g r e a t e r t h an about 100 mm diameter. This f i g u r e a l s o

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t he r u b b i n g t ype o f b e a r i n g i s o n l y r e a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r low

0.01
FIGURE 3

0.1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Shaft speed ,n ( rev/s) Indication of the performance of common types of journal bearings for shafts of various diameters

40 r o t a t i o n a l speeds, and a t a n y t h i n g more than one o r two hundred r e v o l u t i o n s p e r minute a r o l l ing bearing

s usually a better solution.

3.4.2

A p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h O s c i l l a t i n g Movement

The r u b b i n g t y p e o f b e a r i n g i s , however, p a r t i c u l a r l y good f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h o s c i l l a t i n g movement, s i n c e i t does n o t need t o b u i l d up an o i l f i l m each time i t s t a r t s t o move, and w i t h small a n g l e s o f o s c i l l a t i o n i t cannot b r i n e l l i n t h e same way as a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g can do under these circumstances.
I t i s t h e r e f o r e u s e f u l t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b a b l e performance o f t h e v a r i o u s

types o f r u b b i n g b e a r i n g under c o n d i t i o n s o f o s c i l l a t i n g movement.

As i n t h e

case o f c o n t i n u o u s r o t a t i o n , t h e performance w i l l be l i m i t e d by t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e l o a d p r e s s u r e and by t h e wear which w i l l occur as a r e s u l t o f t h e rubbing movement.

A convenient method o f showing a comparison between t h e

v a r i o u s types i s t o p l o t t h e i r a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e and s l i d i n g speed and t h i s been done i n Fig.4. The values g i v e n h e r e a r e o n l y approximate b u t should

h e l p t o g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s types o f m a t e r i a l which can be used i n any p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n . The f l e x i b l e member type o f b e a r i n g i s a l s o s u i t a b l e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h o s c i l l a t i n g motion, and Fig.5 g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a l l o w a b l e maximum l o a d i n g on f l e x i b l e b e a r i n g s which can be f i t t e d w i t h i n a g i v e n space. These

b e a r i n g s a r e commonly used i n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f l i n k a g e and t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area a v a i l a b l e a t t h e end o f a l e v e r which r e q u i r e s t o be connected t o a n o t h e r component i s g e n e r a l l y t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r on s i z e r a t h e r than t h e diameter of any c o n n e c t i n g p i n which c o u l d be regarded as t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e s h a f t i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s examined p r e v i o u s l y . For t h i s reason t h e l o a d i n F i g . 5 i s

p l o t t e d i n terms o f t h e a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e o u t s i d e diameter o f rubber bushes and e q u i v a l e n t shaped crossed f l e x u r e p i v o t s . T h i s diagram i n -

d i c a t e s t h a t f l e x i b l e member b e a r i n g s a r e o n l y usable up t o an a b s o l u t e maximum e q u i v a l e n t p r e s s u r e o f 14 MN/m*

2000 I b / i n 2 w i t h v e r y low a n g u l a r movements,

and w i t h much lower loads up t o a maximum p o s s i b l e a n g u l a r movement o f 30 degrees. Outside these c o n d i t i o n s , pin-and-bush
i t i s necessary t o r e v e r t t o t h e more c o n v e n t i o n a l

t y p e o f b e a r i n g design, f o r which t h e m a t e r i a l can then be s e l e c t e d

as i n d i c a t e d by Fig.4.

I t may appear from Fig.5 t h a t rubber bushes a r e always l i k e l y t o be s u p e r i o r

t o f l e x u r a l ligament b e a r i n g s . While t h i s i s t r u e i n terms o f compressive l o a d

and a l l o w a b l e d e f l e c t i o n , i t must be remembered t h a t f l e x u r a l l i g a m e n t s can be designed t o have a much lower s t i f f n e s s f o r a g i v e n l o a d c a p a c i t y compared t o a rubber bush, and they w i l l a l s o accept a much w i d e r range o f environmental conditions. The d a t a presented f o r f l e x u r a l l i g a m e n t s a r e based on crossed

f l e x u r e p i v o t s and i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t t h e design can be s i m p l i f i e d t o a much s i m p l e r s i n g l e l i g a m e n t , u s u a l l y i n t e n s i o n ,

i f the r o t a t i o n a l centre

41

Hard steel on ,hard steel

Q, c

.-

E!
X

0.01

0 01

0.1

10

100

Approximate maximum rubbing speed (m/sl

Fig.4

Indication of the performance of dry rubbing bearing with oscillating motion

42

.+ .C 3
.I

0
+

a l

3 0

C 0

Maximum deflection each way (degrees)

Fig.5

I n d i c a t i o n o f t h e performance o f f l e x i b l e member b e a r i n g s w i t h o s c i l l a t i n g motion

o f m o t i o n does n o t have t o be k e p t under c l o s e c o n t r o l .

3.4.3

A p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h M u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l Load and Continuous Movement

I n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d , o f which t y p i c a l examples a r e t h e c r a n k s h a f t b e a r i n g s o f p i s t o n engines and r e c i p r o c a t i n g compressors, t h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s used i n p r a c t i c e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r than those a p p l i e d t o u n i d i r e c t i o n a l l y loaded b e a r i n g s . T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because

( i ) t h e l o a d frequency changes i n d i r e c t i o n as w e l l as i n magnitude, and t h e s h a f t does n o t have t i m e t o squeeze t h e o i l f r o m t h e f i l m t o a s u f f i c i e n t e x t e n t t o make metal-to-metal t h e s h a f t away again. ( i i ) s i n c e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e b e a r i n g and s h a f t s u r f a c e c a r r y t h e minimum f i l m r e g i o n i n t u r n , t h e l o c a l thermal c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t as c o n t a c t b e f o r e t h e l o a d r e v e r s e s and l i f t s

severe as i n a s t e a d i l y loaded b e a r i n g where one r e g i o n o f t h e b e a r i n ?

43
metal i s c o n t i n u o u s l y s u b j e c t e d t o l o c a l h e a t i n p u t . As a r e s u l t lower

v a l u e s o f f i l m t h i c k n e s s may be p e r m i t t e d f o r a g i v e n r e v o l u t i o n speed and s h a f t s i z e , p r o v i d e d t h a t s h a f t s u r f a c e f i n i s h i s smooth enough. The methods o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e performance o f d y n a m i c a l l y loaded b e a r i n g s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y r a t h e r complex and t h e most comprehensive method o f assessing t h e i r p r o b a b l e performance i s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p r o b a b l e l o c u s o f t h e s h a f t w i t h a computer

.
i t can

From t h e p o i n t of view o f v e r y g e n e r a l design guidance, however,

p r o b a b l y be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t s i n c e much g r e a t e r b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e a l l o w a b l e , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e b e a r i n g m e t a l s becomes an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n b e a r i n g s e l e c t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e method o f f e e d i n g o i l t o t h e b e a r i n g s i n o r d e r t o ensure t h a t t h e b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e s a r e k e p t as f u l l o f o i l as p o s s i b l e i n readiness f o r c a r r y i n g t h e dynamic loads. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o quote p r e c i s e data f o r t h e a l l o w a b l e loads on v a r i o u s b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s s i n c e f a c t o r s such as s h a f t d e f l e c t i o n , e f f i c i e n c y o f l u b r i c a t i o n and t h e t y p e o f l o a d i n g p a t t e r n have a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t . Table 3.2

however, g i v e s some broad guidance on t h e t y p e o f m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o be s u i t a b l e . Table 3.2 P o s s i b l e m a t e r i a l s f o r p l a i n b e a r i n g s i n r e c i p r o c a t i n g machinery

Maximum b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e lb/in2 MN/m2 Below 2500 2500- 4000 2500- 5000 4000- 6000 6000-10000 10000-15000 17 17 17 28 41 70

Possible bearing material

Whitemetal

28

Copper leads Aluminium t i n s Low t i n l e a d bronzes High t i n l e a d bronzes Phosphor bronzes

34
41
70
100

The s t r o n g e r m a t e r i a l s a r e h a r d e r t h a n t h e weaker ones and i t i s t h e r e f o r e d e s i r a b l e t o p i c k a m a t e r i a l which i s o n l y j u s t adequately s t r o n g enough i n o r d e r t o have t h e maximum p o s s i b l e c o n f o r m a b i l i t y w i t h t h e s h a f t and embedda b i l i t y for d i r t . h a r d shaft, With h a r d e r b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s i t i s a l s o necessary t o u s e a

p a r t l y t o m a i n t a i n an adequate hardness d i f f e r e n t i a l w i t h t h e

b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l and p a r t l y because t h e h i g h e r b e a r i n g pressures which have c a l l e d f o r t h e h a r d e r m a t e r i a l a r e a l s o l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n lower f i l m t h i c k nesses and t h e r e f o r e g r e a t e r d i r t s e n s i t i v i t y .

As a v e r y g e n e r a l guide,
i t i s n o t u s u a l l y necessary t o harden t h e s h a f t a t

loads below 24 MN/m2

(3500 l b / i n Z ) b u t g e n e r a l l y d e s i r a b l e t o do so a t loads

44
above 31 MN/m2

(4.500 l b / i n 2 ) .

R o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s can a l s o be used f o r p i s t o n engine c r a n k s h a f t be a r in g s , a l t h o u g h i n most cases they o f f e r no b e t t e r performance than a f l u i d -

f , i l m b e a r i n g , a t t h e expense i n l a r g e r en gi n es o f a r a t h e r more c o m p l i c a t e d
design. R o l l i n g b e a r i n g s do have t h e p a r t i c u l a r m e r i t o f r e q u i r i n g much l e s s

o i l supply than f l u i d - f i l m b e a r i n g s and t h i s makes them a f i r s t c h o i c e f o r twos t r o k e engines o f t h e p e t r o i l type, and f o r o t h e r small cheap engines where t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t he y o f f e r o f e l i m i n a t i n g t h e o i l supply system r e s u l t s i n a more commercial design.

F i g u r e s were r e p r i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e C ouncil o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Mechanical Engineers f r o m t h e Proceedings o f 1967 I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on L u b r i c a t i o n and \!ear.

45

DESIGN OF PLAIN BEARINGS Use of Bearing Data Design Charts

F.A.

MARTIN and D.R.

GARNER

Research 8 Development O r g a n i s a t i o n The G l a c i e r Metal Company L i m i t e d .

4.1

INTRODUCTION The d e s ig n o f hydrodynamic b e a r i n g s can be a d a u n t i n g t a s k f o r t h e average

machinery d e s ig ner.

W i t h r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s t h e design process i s very

much b i a s e d towards b e a r i n g s e l e c t i o n d at a, where m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' catalogues g i v e t a b u l a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on s i z e , load, speed and l i f e . information, For p l a i n bearings

i t i s n o t so easy t o f i n d such ' p o t t e d '

and i n t h e p a s t t h e

de s ig n e r had e i t h e r t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e mathematical c o m p l e x i t i e s o f the hydrodynamics, o r r e l y on t h e v a g a r i e s o f ru l e-of-thumb guides. With the con-

t i n u a l u p r a t i n g o f machinery, t h i s l a t t e r approach i s seldom adequate, but i t can be d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n more d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n a r e a d i l y d i g e s t i b l e form. V a r io u s t e c h ni qu es f o r a n a l y s i n g and ch ecking t h e performance o f p l a i n j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s a r e p rese nt ed here, s o t h a t t h e designer has t h e means t o appr e c i a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e v a r i o u s parameters on b e a r i n g performance and design, w i t h o u t t he need f o r e x t e n s i v e mathematical m a n i p u l a t i o n .

4.1.1
b 'd
C

Notat ion
= a x i a l b e a r i n g l e n g t h (m) = b e a r i n g d i a m e t r a l c l e a r a n c e (m) = b e a r i n g r a d i a l cl e ara nce (m) = b e a r i n g d i ame t e r (m) = d i s t a n c e between b e a r i n g and s h a f t c e n t r e s (m) = minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s (m) = power loss (\I) = e f f e c t i v e r o t o r mass a t b e a r i n g (kg) = s h a f t r o t a t i o n a l speed ( r e v / s )

d e hmin

H
M

46
NL P
= r o t a t i o n a l speed o f l o a d v e c t o r ( r e v / s ) = b e a r i n g s p e c i f i c l o a d W/bd (Pa o r N/m2) = o i l f l o w req ui re men t (m3/s)
= a p p l i e d load

Q
W
6
I-

(N)

= j o u r n a l mi sa l i gn men t o ver b e a r i n g l e n g t h (m)

= e f f e c t i v e f i l m v i s c o s i t y (Ns/m2) = e f f e c t i v e t emp era t u re ("C) = maximum t emp era t u re ( " C ) = o i l d e n s i t y (kg/m3) = a n g u la r v e l o c t y ( r a d / s )

ee
emax
p w

Dimensionless Terms ( i n any c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f u n i t s eg. as g i v e n above)

load v a r i a b l e

W'

& [?I2
P
e/cr d2N2p

turbulence v a r i a b l e

=
E

[t]
- hmin/cr
including p l a i n

eccentricity r a t i o

= 1

di m e n s io n le s s c r i t i c a l mass c

w 2 M/W

4.2

JOURNAL BEARING D E S I G N LIMITS The t o t a l d e si gn p roce ss f o r most mechanical components,

be a r in g s ,

i n v o l v e s many stages, w i t h f u n c t i o n a l , economic and perhaps a e s t h e t i c I t i s t h e f i r s t o f these w hich n o r m a l l y

asp e c ts a l l needing t o be considered.

i n v o l v e s t h e d e si g ne r i n most e f f o r t and whi ch i s t o be considered i n d e t a i l here. For convenience we w i l l s p l i t t h i s f u n c t i o n a l design stage i n t o two:( i ) e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e b e a r i n g i s cap ab l e o f o p e r a t i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y under th e imposed c o n d i t i o n s , and t h a t i t i s n e i t h e r t o o c l o s e t o i t s l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i o n t o endanger r e l i a b i l i t y n o r so f a r away t h a t i t has p e n a l t i e s i n over-design, ( i i ) p r e d i c t i n g t h e performance o f t h e component as i t a f f e c t s the design o f i t s a s s o c i a t e d p a r t s o r t he o v e r a l l system. i n i t i a l l y , therefore, t h e l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i o n o f b e a r i n g s must be d e f i n e d .

4.2.1

L i m i t s o f Ope rat i on

Consider a b e a r i n g o f some g i v e n s i z e and geometry, w i t h a d e f i n e d l u b r i c a n t grade and f e e d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f load and speed w hich these l i m i t s w i l l now

t h i s b e a r i n g can s u c c e s s f u l l y a ccep t a r e shown i n Fig.1; be c o n s id e r e d i n more d e t a i l .

47
4.2.1.1 Thin O i l F i l m L i m i t c o n t a c t o f t h e surfaces, w i t h con-

The danqer h e r e i s o f met al -t o-me t a l

sequent severe wear (and perhaps o v e r h e a t i n g ) l e a d i n g t o a breakdown i n b e a r i n g op e r a t io n . There i s e vi de nce t o show t h a t t h i s c o n t a c t o c c u r s a t a p r e d i c t e d

f i l m t h i c k n e s s which i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e roughness [l], hich i n t u r n w

i s dependent upon machining process and b e a r i n g s i z e . T h i s has been considered

i n some d e t a i l i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 ] , and t h e c o n c l u s i o n reached t h a t a r e a l i s t i c ' f a i l u r e ' v a l u e o f t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s i s g i v e n by t h e p e a k - t o - v a l l e y surface

f i n i s h (Rmax) o f t h e j o u r n a l , assuming t h a t t h e s u r f a c e f i n i s h o f t h e b e a r i n g i s o f t h e same o r d e r . An a p p r o x im a te c o r r e l a t i o n between Ra and Rmax values i s a l s o g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 ] , e n a b l i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n i n Fig.2 t o be presented. The

s u r f a c e f i n i s h e s shown h ere a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f those w hich can be o b t a i n e d by normal m a n u f a c t u r i n g methods. f a i l u r e values, Since t h e Rmax values have been thought o f as

some a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r must be a p p l i e d i f we a r e t o s p e c i f y T h i s f a c t o r has t o a l l o w f o r s l i g h t u n i n -

s a f e v a lu e s o f o i l f i l m t h i ckne ss.

t e n t i o n a l m is a lignme nt which may t ake p l a c e between s h a f t and bearing, and f o r d i r t c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n t h e o i l supply. i n Fig.2 The a l l o w a b l e f i l m t h i c k n e s s values shown

a r e a f a c t o r o f t h r e e above t h e f a i l u r e values, and have been found by For v e r y h i g h standards o f b u i l d and o p e r a t i o n b u t i t i s considered t h a t t h e values shown

exp e r ie n c e t o be acce pt ab l e.

a f a c t o r o f two can be s a t i s f a c t o r y ,

BEARIN( LOAD

THIN OIL FILM LIMIT danger of metal -to - metal contact if load lies above this line

/..

HIGH BEARING TEMPERATURE LIMIT danger of lining material wiping if load lies above this h e

O :F /

SAFE OPERATION

)
I

OIL OXIDATION LIMIT danger of excessive oil oxidation if speed lies beyond OIL FILM WHIRL LIMIT this line

danger of unacceptable vibration if speed lies beyond this line

JOURNAL SPEED Fig.1 L i m i t s o f s a f e o p e r a t i o n f o r hydrodynamic j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s

48 i n Fig.2 should be used as a general g u i d e t o a v o i d w o r k i n g t o o c l o s e t o

I t must be emphasised t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Ra and

failure limits.

Rmax i s o n l y approximate,

as evidenced by t h e "spread o f r e s u l t s " band on t h e

f i g u r e , b u t i t i s adequate t o show t h e o r d e r o f r e d u c t i o n i n t h e a l l o w a b l e f i l m t h i c k n e s s t h a t can be p e r m i t t e d by improving s u r f a c e f i n i s h . To increase t h e

o p e r a t i n g o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s , f o r g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d and speed, t h e b e a r i n g s i z e must be increased, o r a t h i c k e r l u b r i c a n t and/or a reduced i n l e t temperature used (change i n o i l supply p r e s s u r e w i l l u s u a l l y have l i t t l e e f f e c t ) . An increase i n c l e a r a n c e may e i t h e r increase o r reduce t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s , depending upon t h e p r e c i s e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

6 810

20

LO

1inI

JOURNAL DIAMETER

Fig.2

Guidance on s h a f t s u r f a c e f i n i s h and a l l o w a b l e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s

4.2.1.2

High Bearing Temperature

The shearing which t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e space i s l s e e n ' e x t e r n a l l y as power d i s s i p a t i o n , and a l s o as an i n c r e a s e i n t h e temperature o f

s h a f t and b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s and o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . The l i m i t i n g a c c e p t a b l e temperature o b v i o u s l y depends upon t h e l i n i n g m a t e r i a l used, b u t whatever t h e m a t e r i a l t h e temperature must always be k e p t w e l l below
i t s theoretical melting point.

For example,

i n t i n based w h i t e metal t h e

m e l t i n g temperature o f 232OC cannot even be c l o s e l y approached due t o t h e s o f t e n i n g and subsequent p l a s t i c f l o w o f t h e m a t e r i a l which o c c u r s a t temper-

49
atures w e l l below 200C under the i n f l u e n c e o f hydrodynamic pressure. et al. Booser

[3]

observed l i m i t i n g whitemetal temperatures i n j o u r n a l bearings as low however, since o n l y c a l c u l a t e d temperatures are a v a i l a b l e a t the

as 130C;

design stage, and c u r r e n t methods o f e s t i m a t i o n are known t o be f a r from accurate,

i t i s s a f e r t o lower the l i m i t t o about 120'C.

I n machines i n which

some dynamic loading can occur on top o f the normal steady load, and where bearing f a t i g u e i s t h e r e f o r e a p o s s i b l e problem, keep the temperature below 100C.
i t i s customary t o t r y and

I f higher temperatures have t o be accomm-

odated then the use o f an aluminium t i n o r a copper lead m a t e r i a l must be considered. The former o f these, when c o n t a i n i n g about 40% t i n , can be used a t in i t s ability

temperatures up t o 15O-16O0C, and i s almost equal t o whitemetal t o withstand seizure c o n d i t i o n s and d i r t contamination.

Copper lead i s much t h i n overlay

less f o r g i v i n g i n t h i s respect, and i d e a l l y should have a s o f t , p l a t e t o a i d i n bedding-in,

but i t can be used a t temperatures o f 200C plus.

I t r e q u i r e s a hardened s h a f t (about 300 HV) and very good l u b r i c a n t f i l t r a t i o n .

I t i s worth n o t i n g t h a t i f a h i g h temperature c o n d i t i o n i s present i n a bearing t h e r e i s u s u a l l y n o t h i n g t h a t can be done t o the o i l feeding c o n d i t i o n s t o improve the s i t u a t i o n , a p a r t from changing the o i l grade. The oft-used

' p a l l i a t i v e s ' o f increasing o i l feed pressure o r grooving area i n order t o f o r c e more o i l through the bearing a r e u s u a l l y n o t successful since they o n l y reduce the b u l k temperature o f the o i l passing through the bearing (see section 4.2.1.3).The bearing m a t e r i a l temperature i s c o n t r o l l e d by the amount o f luband t h i s i s very i n -

r i c a n t passing through the a c t i v e p a r t o f the o i l f i l m , s e n s i t i v e t o feeding conditions, starved.

provided t h a t the bearing i s n o t grossly the maximum bearing temperature w i l l be i e a 10C

As a rough approximation,

dropped by about a h a l f o f any decrease i n o i l i n l e t temperature,

reduction i n i n l e t temperature may be expected t o decrease the maximum bearing temperature by about 5C. The bearing temperature may a l s o g e n e r a l l y be de-

creased by increasing the bearing s i z e o r clearance, o r by using a t h i n n e r grade o f o i l . One f u r t h e r p o i n t on bearing temperatures which i s sometimes ignored i s the n e c e s s i t y o f considering the influence o f machine temperatures on the bearings.

I f t h e r e can be appreciable heat soak along the s h a f t , o r ( l e s s o f t e n ) through

the bearing housing, then the design must a l l o w f o r adequate o i l f l o w t o deal w i t h it. Additionally, i n some machinery, the worst temperature c o n d i t i o n s a t

t h e bearing can occur a f t e r shut down when heat soak r a i s e s temperatures w e l l above peak running values, and the choice o f m a t e r i a l should then be d i c t a t e d by c o n d i t i o n s which a r e o f t e n n o t drawn t o the a t t e n t i o n o f the bearing designer.

50
4.2.1.3 O i l Oxidation L i m i t

S t r a i g h t mineral o i l s i n a normal (oxygen c o n t a i n i n g ) atmosphere can be r a p i d l y o x i d i s e d a t the order o f temperatures t h a t we have been discussing above. There i s no p r e c i s e 'go/no-go'

l i m i t f o r t h i s process, r a t h e r the r a t e
I n d u s t r i a l mineral o i l s

o f degradation i s a f u n c t i o n o f temperature [4].

u s u a l l y c o n t a i n a n t i - o x i d a n t s which r e t a r d t h i s process, b u t f o r comnonly used t u r b i n e o i l s , f o r l i v e s i n the order o f thousands o f hours, r e s t r i c t b u l k temperatures o f o i l i n tanks, r e s e r v o i r s etc.
i t i s necessary t o

t o about 75-80C.

Thus a b u l k d r a i n temperature from a bearing a t a higher value than t h i s i s u n l i k e l y t o be acceptable.

As mentioned above, t h e d r a i n temperature can u s u a l l y be reduced by i n creasing o i l supply pressure o r p r o v i d i n g bleed grooves i n the bore, and thereby h e l p i n g t o avoid the o x i d a t i o n l i m i t . I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t the b u l k o u t l e t

temperature i s o f t e n used t o judge bearing performance, presumably because i t i s the e a s i e s t temperature t o measure, since t h i s j u g g l i n g w i t h supply cond i t i o n s can r a d i c a l l y a l t e r d r a i n temperatures w i t h o u t appreciably a f f e c t i n g m a t e r i a l temperatures. The o u t l e t temperature can be used as a long-term f o r months

monitoring device ( i e a temperature which has been steady a t 70-75'C should n o t suddenly r i s e t o 80-85C) misleading,

b u t i t i s n o t s u i t a b l e , and may indeed be

i f used for ' s e t t i n g up' o i l feed c o n d i t i o n s on a new machine.

4.2.1.4

O i l F i l m Instability

Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , normally a t low load and/or h i g h s h a f t speeds, a s e l f e x c i t e d and s e l f s u s t a i n i n g motion can occur i n which the s h a f t c e n t r e precesses around the bearing c e n t r e a t something s l i g h t l y l e s s than h a l f s h a f t speed, t y p i c a l l y 0.42-0.47 o f s h a f t speed. Under these c o n d i t i o n s the hydro-

dynamic a c t i o n o f the bearing i s a l l but l o s t , and metal-to-metal contact can occur; i n practice,

i f l e f t f o r long periods, a f a t i g u e type damage i s proThere can a l s o be a large, and Guidance on

duced due t o t h e h i g h temperatures generated.

perhaps unacceptable, v i b r a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d through the machine.

the l i k e l i h o o d o f i n s t a b i l i t y i n c y l i n d r i c a l bore bearings i s given i n Fig.3. This c h a r t i s s t r i c t l y o n l y a p p l i c a b l e t o r i g i d , simply supported s h a f t s [ 5 ] , but experience has shown i t t o g i v e a f a i r guide f o r o t h e r systems, f o r example overhung rotors.

I t can be seen t h a t i f the o p e r a t i n g e c c e n t r i c i t y r a t i o i s

then the bearing i s stable. This i s the reason why

g r e a t e r than about 0.8 d e r a t i n g a bearing thinner

- adding e x t r a grooving i n the loaded region, using a grade o f o i l etc. - can sometimes cure h a l f speed w h i r l problems.
such as gearboxes,

A d d i t i o n a l l y , whatever t h e o p e r a t i n g e c c e n t r i c i t y r a t i o there i s some value o f the dimensionless c r i t i c a l mass below which the bearing w i l l always be stable. I n h e a v i l y loaded a p p l i c a t i o n s , the a p p l i e d load i s normally

51
o f a much higher magnitude than the s h a f t mass and i n s t a b i l i t y , a t any r e a l i s t i c speed, i s n o t a problem. However there may well. be some p a r t load

c o n d i t i o n , f o r example a s p i n t e s t , a t which s t a b i l i t y needs t o be c a r e f u l l y checked.

1
I
~
0

C radial clearance r shaft angular velocity M effective rotor mass at bearing

W bearing load
With consistent units e.g. m, radls, kg. N.

- 100
-80

60

4 0V3 1 ~ L

-20 length diamotrr

2 4

I
I

UNSTABLE

-10 - 8
-6

3
w 4

4: g

. . 1.0

0.1 0.5

2
v)

-4

1.5

STABLE
- 2

z W

'
0.2

"

"
0-4

'

"
0.6

'
0-8

1.0

ECCENTRICITY RATIO
Fig.3 O i l f i l m w h i r l i n s t a b i l i t y o f c y l i n d r i c a l bore j o u r n a l bearings L i m i t i n g dimensionless mass

4.2.2

Region o f Safe Operation The

The l i m i t s j u s t defined serve t o bound a region o f safe operation.

simplest approach t o design i s merely t o c a l c u l a t e such o p e r a t i n g parameters as f i l m thickness and temperatures and t o compare them against the defined limits. t o Fig.1,

If b o t h the l i m i t s and the design p o i n t a r e p l o t t e d , i n a form s i m i l a r

then judgements on the degree o f s a f e t y can e a s i l y be made.

There a r e various methods o f t a c k l i n g t h i s , and the most comnon w i l l now be described; the f i n a l design c h a r t s presented enable very r a p i d and accurate

estimates o f bearing o p e r a t i o n t o be made w i t h minimal e f f o r t .

52
4.3 CALCULATION AND D E S I G N PROCEDURES The a n a l y s i s o f o i l f i l m c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n a b e a r i n g , desc ibed by t h e Reynolds e q u a tio n, i s a v e r y i n v o l v e d mathematical e x e r c i s e . The e q u a t i o n i s

d e c e p t i v e l y s im p l e, b u t an a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n cannot be o b t a ned f o r any b u t th e s i m p l e s t o f arrangements. I nst ea d re cou rse must be made t o numerical

techniques, u s u a l l y i n v o l v i n g computer s o l u t i o n s .

A f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n i n o i l l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g s i s t h e need t o make a
r e a l i s t i c estimation o f the o i l v i s c o s i t y w i t h i n the f i l m . normal m i n e r a l o i l s is v e r y dependent on temperature, The v i s c o s i t y of

and a r e l a t i v e l y a c c u r a t e One method o f This

assessment o f t h e l a t t e r must be made f o r r e a l i s t i c design.

do in g t h i s i s t o s o l v e t h e Reynolds and energy equations simultaneously.

c o n s i d e r a b l y in c rea ses t h e comp ut at i on al e f f o r t and t h e r e s u l t i n g s o l u t i o n s a r e somewhat r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r g e n e r a l i t y . I n s te a d i t i s u s u a l l y more co nve ni e nt t o s o l v e t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n assuming a s i n g l e , g l o b a l , e f f e c t i v e be determined a t a l a t e r stage. v i s c o s i t y value, which then can, and must,

T h i s i s done by e q u a t i n g t h e work done i n

s h e a r in g t h e o i l w i t h i n t h e b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e space t o t h e amount o f h e a t c a r r i e d away, b o t h by t h e o i l ( t h e predominant mechanism) o r through t h e b e a r i n g and housing.

It i s , unfortunately,

n o t uncommon t o see design methods i n w hich t h i s h e a t

balance i s o m i t t e d ,

t h ere by assuming t h a t t r e n d s i n dimensionless groups accT h i s can l e a d t o i n c o r r e c t con-

u r a t e l y p o r t r a y t r e n d s i n r e a l performance. clusions;

f o r example an i n crea sed c l e a r a n c e may a p p a r e n t l y reduce f i l m

thickness i f the v i s c o s i t y i s a r t i f i c i a l l y h e l d constant, b u t i n p r a c t i c e the o p e r a t i n g v i s c o s i t y may i ncre ase and p o s s i b l y r e v e r s e t h e trend. Whatever c a l c u l a t i o n method i s chosen, t h e r e s u l t s must then be compared a g a i n s t t h e e s t i m a t e d o r known l i m i t s o f s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n . Fig.4 Stage 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e v a r i o u s stages i n p r oducing design data:i s t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e Reynolds e q u a t i o n t o g i v e dimensionless data. ta k e s t h i s d a t a and d et ermi n es a r e a l i s t i c o i l v i s c o s i t y t o g i v e s p e c i f i c answers. Stage I l l uses t h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s two stages t o produce 'easy-to-use' d esi g n c h a r t s .

Stage I I

4.3.1

Dimensionless Data

- Stage

I
shows a t y p i c a l c h a r t r e l a t i n g a

Dimensionless d esi g n d a t a have been p u b l i s h e d f o r t h e most commonly used b e a r i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s [6,7,8,9] and Fig.5

l o a d v a r i a b l e t o a f i l m t h i c k n e s s r a t i o f o r a c y l i n d r i c a l bore j o u r n a l b e a r i n g w i t h a steady ( o r p ure r o t a t i n g ) load. T h i s may be used f o r b e a r i n g s w i t h two

a x i a l o i l f e e d grooves (l oa de d midway between them), w i t h a s i n g l e f e e d groove

53

I Fundamental theory

program e.g. solution to

StageI- Dimensionless groups StagelI-Specific answer for selected input Stagem- Infinite number of answers (certain restrictions usually necessary)

Fig.4

Stages in design

54
i n th e unloaded h a l f o r w i t h a c e n t r a l c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l groove; w i t h the l a t t e r

the l e n g t h i s t h a t of one l an d and t h e l o a d i s h a l f t h e t o t a l a p p l i e d load. The c e n t r a l c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y grooved b e a r i n g i s g e n e r a l l y used i n a p p l i c a t i o n s where th e l o a d i s r o t a t i n g o r where an unknown l o a d d i r e c t i o n has t o be c a t e r e d for. When a b e a r i n g has t o c a r r y a r o t a t i n g l o a d t h e l o a d c a p a c i t y i s p r o -

p o r t i o n a l t o ( 1 - 2 N ~ / N l , as shown i n Fig.5 where NL i s t h e a n g u l a r r o t a t i o n a l speed o f t h e l o a d measured i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as s h a f t r o t a t i o n (N). i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.6, forma t ion. This

which shows d i a g r a m n a t i c a l l y t h e o i l f i l m

FILM THICKNESS RATIO

hmin/cr

Fig.5

B e a r in g l o a d c a p a c i t y for steady and p u r e r o t a t i n g l o a d cases

55

An examination of dimensionless data can also be instructive where gross effects on performance are apparent. For instance the position of oil feed Such a derating effect is grooves in a steadily loaded bearing is very important, since they can seriously derate the load-carrying capability of the bearing. clearly demonstrated in Fig.7. Case (a) shows a n uninterrupted coverging oil film which generates a substantial hydrodynamic pressure to support the load ( W ) . Case (b) shows the same converging oil film a s (a) but interrupted by an oil groove. This will only support a very reduced load because of the smaller integrated pressure. Case (c) shows an uninterrupted film with the same load a s (a) which needs a smaller oil film thickness to generate sufficient pressure.

hmin position oheod of pressure region

+
I

ongulor velocity of load ongulor velocity of shaft

mL

hmin position logs behind pressure region

Analogous

DRAGGING OIL

SQUEEZING

PUSHING OIL

Fig.6

Film formation and relative load capacity under rotating load conditions.

56

E;

Cr

I
min

groove

me min smaller load

I
I
(b)

(a)

Fig.7

The derating effect of grooving positioned in a converging oil film

- 0.1

Fig.8

Variation o f load capacity with direction of load for a bearing with two axial grooves

67
The d im e n s io n le s s l o a d and f i l m t h i c k n e s s c h a r t , Fig.8, shows more p r e c i s e l y

th e v a r i a t i o n i n l o a d c a p a c i t y w i t h any l o a d d i r e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e grooves. In t h i s f i g u r e a b e a r i n g w i t h a l e n g t h equal t o h a l f the diameter i s cons id e r e d , h a v i n g two a x i a l grooves d i s p l a c e d 180" a p a r t , each groove e x t e n d i n g

30"

around t h e b e a r i n g .

These a r e t y p i c a l groove arrangements.

Wit h t h e l o a d d i r e c t i o n e x a c t l y between two grooves t h e l o a d c a p a c i t y shown i n Fig.8 i s t h e same as t h a t i n F i g . 5 and v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e angle w i t h i n As t h e l oa d l i n e g e t s near t o a groove p o s i t i o n

f 20" cause l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e .
load v a r i a b l e ( W ' / T )

th e lo a d c a p a c i t y d r a s t i c a l l y reduces as seen by the r e d u c t i o n i n t h e m o d i f i e d f o r t h e same f i l m t h i c k n e s s . I t can be seen t h a t t h e load where

v a r i a b l e i s h a l v e d when g o i n g f rom p o i n t (a) t o p o i n t (b) i n Fig.8, p o i n t s (a), (b) and ( c ) can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h cases (a),

(b) and ( c ) i n Fig.7.

S i m i l a r l y f o r t h e same v a l u e o f l o a d parameter t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s f o r case (c) i s much s m a l l e r t ha n case ( a ) . I t s h o u ld be n ot ed t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n o f l o a d i n g d i r e c t l y i n t o a groove does n o t n o r m a l l y produce t h e l owest o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s ; t h e l o a d i s d i r e c t e d j u s t b e f o r e t h e groove. i n s t e a d t h i s occurs when

T h i s i s because t h e peak o i l f i l m

pre s s u r e o c c u r s j u s t beyond t h e l o a d l i n e ( f o r a steady l o a d c o n d i t i o n ) , and a groove i n t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e r e f o r e more s e v e r e l y d e r a t e s t h e b e a r i n g .

4.3.2

Design Procedures w i t h Heat Balance

Stage I I

The h e a t b a lan ce procedure can be c a r r i e d o u t by hand c a l c u l a t i o n i n a r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d manner, b u t i s i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o simple computer techniques.

A p a r t i c u l a r l y co nve ni e nt and we1 1 documented procedure f o r

c y l i n d r i c a l bore b e a r i n g s i s g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e a computer programme [ l o ] . The procedure

[9] which [9] enables t h e

can form t h e b a s i s o f influence o f a very

wide range o f v a r i a b l e s t o be co nsi d ere d and i s an extremely v a l u a b l e design t o o l , e s p e c i a l l y when i n t h e f orma t o f a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l type computer programme.

4 . 3 . 3 Improvement i n Design A i d s
w i t h ' s i n g l e s h o t ' answers,

Stage I l l

W h i l s t t h e above arrangement i s s u i t a b l e f o r p r e d i c t i n g b e a r i n g performance

i t does n o t p r o v i d e a ' f e e l '

for how near a Therefore, t h e r e i s

p a r t i c u l a r d e s ig n i s t o t h e v a r i o u s s a f e o p e r a t i n g l i m i t s .

a need f o r s t a g e I l l where t h e 'computed answers' f o r b e a r i n g cases a r e repres e n t e d i n d e s ign c h a r t form. q u e s t i o n s as:These e na bl e t h e designer t o answer such

- W i l l t h i s bearing operate s a f e l y ? - How n e a r i s i t t o t h e l i m i t s of o p e r a t i o n ?

What changes can be made t o improve t h e design?

58
When assessing safe l i m i t s o f o p e r a t i o n many f a c t o r s a r e involved, f o r example the bearing data considered must include diameter, length, o i l grade, load and speed. The various permutati.ons,for a range o f these f a c t o r s r e s u l t s I f such data were represented i n

i n many thousands o f cases t o be considered.

conventional graphical form, a t h i c k volume o f unmanageable design a i d s would result. The ' s l i d e c h a r t ' obviates the need f o r t h i s and gives a d i r e c t and

i n s t a n t f e e l f o r the e f f e c t o f changing any o f t h e v a r i a b l e s , thus b r i n g i n g the power o f the computer t o the designers' desk top.

4.4
4.4.1

DESIGN PROCEDURE

FOR CYLINDRICAL BORE BEARINGS

Method o f Approach

The procedure d e t a i l e d here presents design a i d s which a l l o w f o r l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f o p e r a t i o n and t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f bearing performance i n c y l i n d r i c a l bore j o u r n a l bearings which have two a x i a l grooves spaced 180" a p a r t . type o f bearing, w i t h a steady l o a d midway between the grooves, most common i n use. This

i s one o f the

A l l the tedious heat balance c a l c u l a t i o n s have already

been c a r r i e d o u t by computer, based on the design procedure given i n ESDU Data Item

66023 [ g ] ,

and a r e consequently inherent i n the design aids.

Comparison of experimental work w i t h r e s u l t s from t h i s theory i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h i l s t c o r r e l a t i o n was good . f o r most v a r i a b l e s , the p r e d i c t e d maximum tempe r a t u r e could, i n many circumstances, be considerably i n e r r o r .

A new method

was evolved based on considerable experimental evidence which r e l a t e s the maximum bearing temperature t o the c a l c u l a t e d e f f e c t i v e temperature [ l l ] . The r e s u l t i n g procedure was used t o c a l c u l a t e bearing performance over a wide range o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . However, t o keep the problem t o a manageto

able s i z e i t was decided t h a t c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s should be f i x e d throughout, values commonly found i n c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e . These were:-

(i) o i l groove dimensions:

a x i a l l e n g t h = 0.8 o f bearing l e n g t h c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l width = 0.25 o f bearing diameter. ( i e 150" between the edges o f grooves, i n top and bottom o f bearing). Grooves w i t h 'square' ends

(ii) o i l feed c o n d i t i o n s a t the bearing:

pressure 0.1 MP (approx 15 I b f / i n Z ) a temperature 50C

59
( i i i ) o i l grades: i n o r d e r t h a t t h e o i l grade c o u l d be d e f i n e d s i m p l y , a t r e n d i n viscosity-temperature characteristics typical o f industrial m i n e r a l o i l s was assumed t o a p p l y throughout. The d e f i n i t i o n o f

an o i l grade can t h en be made by q u o t i n g one v i s c o s i t y a t a certain (arbitrary) temperature;

40C was used ,here t o d e f i n e

t h e o i l grade, t h i s b e i n g t h e same b a s i c r e f e r e n c e as f o r IS0 v i s c o s i t y grades. Fig.9 shows t h e v i s c o s i t y t r e n d s considered.

I n a d e s ig n problem t h e b e a r i n g d i ame t e r and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f speed and l o a d a r e g e n e r a l l y determined p r i o r t o t h e b e a r i n g design stage, s i n c e they u s u a l l y f o r m p a r t o f an o v e r a l l system. For s i m i l a r reasons t h e l u b r i c a t i n g

o i l grade t o be used i s o f t e n a l s o imposed l e a v i n g c l e a r a n c e and b e a r i n g l e n g t h as t h e two dimensions s t i l l t o be determined.

Fig.9

Viscosity

Temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e range o f o i l s co nsi d ere d i n t h e design c h a r t s

60

Several authors have considered optimising on clearance [12,13] to give the largest possible oil film thickness in the bearing or the lowest power loss. Unfortunately these two optima do not coincide and a compromise solution is usually required. Indeed when the problem is treated purely as a mathematical exercise there is a danger of having excessively slack clearances for optimum power loss and, in some instances, very tight clearances for optimum film thickness, especially if the effect of change in clearance on viscosity is ignored.

4.4.2 Guidance for Safe Operation 4.4.2.1 Oil Film Thickness and Temperatures
It is appropriate to consider the tight clearance end of the tolerance range

when examining conditions at h i g h temperature.

These tight clearances may also

be used when making judgements on safe operation relating to small oil films since the variation of clearance throughout m s t practical tolerance ranges generally has little effect on oil film thickness. The design aids, Figs.lO(a), These

(b) and (c), associated with both temperature and film thickness limits, have
been developed using the minimum clearance values shown in Fig.11. clearance will be larger. values relate to an extreme of the tolerance range; average manufactured These clearances are based on many years' expe.rience with much 'feed-back' relating to the performance of practical designs. With clearances known it is possible, for any particular values of diameter, length and lubricant grade, to plot limiting lines of load against speed, representing film thickness limit and temperature limits (as in Fig.1). The design aids, in 'slide chart' form, enable the designer to 'plot' these limiting lines
in a matter of seconds, not just for a discrete number of variable combinations, b u t for an infinite number of cases.

In fact the designer merely has to move

an already drawn curve to its correct position relative to the axes, the bearing conditions dictating exactly where this position is. Fig.lO(a) is used to 'plot' the film thickness limit lines, and Fig.lO(b) is used to 'plot' the temperature limit lines, both on the grid of load and speed given in Fig.lO(c).
A transparent version of the chart in question,

Fig.lO(a) or (b), should be placed on the backing sheet, Fig.lO(c) using the guide lines on the top (transparent) sheet to keep the two sheets square. transparency should then be moved to a position where a point in its grid, defined by the diameter and oil grade values, is coincident with the cross on the backing sheet. The relevant length/diameter line then shows the limit of load against speed for the conditions considered.
By using the two transparencies the relative position of a design point

The

(defined by its speed and load values) to the limiting lines can be seen.

If

this point is within the limits then the bearing, under reasonable environmental

61

Fig.lO(a)

Load c a p a c i t y s l i d e c h a r t :

Thin o i l f i l m l i m i t (transparency)

62

This chart may not be applicable at high speeds if non laminar conditions prevail.

U
C

L C

5
e E
2
C

a
I

C .-

K .C

lest at LO'C I

Ensure that the design point of speed and load lies to the left of the appropriate guidance curve, otherwise full lines -there is a danger of EXCESSIVE OIL OXIDATION broken lines - the BEARING MATERIAL may be TOO HOT

0' 3

)
0 %

guide line -keep square with backing sheet

Fig.lO(b)

Load c a p a c i t y s l i d e c h a r t :

High temperature 1 i m i t s (transparency)

63

such that appropriate DIAMETER and OIL GRADE are coincident with this point Bearing load

length diameter

Ices

Journal weed Irev/minl

Fig.lO(c)

Load c a p a c i t y s l i d e c h a r t :

Load-speed g r i d (backing s h e e t )

64
c o n d i t i o n s , should o pe rat e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
I f i t i s c l o s e t o o r outside the

l i m i t s t h e n t h e s l i d e c h a r t s p r o v i d e a q u i c k method o f d e t e r m i n i n g which v a r i a b l e o r v a r i a b l e s can be changed t o improve t h e design. For i n s t a n c e

increasing the bearing length w i l l r a i s e the l i m i t l i n e f o r f i l m thickness, b u t may worsen a h i g h temperature s i t u a t i o n . e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by Brown and Newman [ 1 4 ] . The l a t t e r e f f e c t was n o t e d

A t these h i g h speeds the c h a r t s demI f t h e use o f t h i c k o i l s

o n s t r a t e and q u a n t i f y t he advantage o f t h i n n e r o i l s .

i s u n a v o id a b le t he n an i n crea sed cl e ara nce , above t h e v a l u e s g i v e n by Fig.11, may h e l p a t h i g h speeds. The s l i d e c h a r t s a r e then n o t a p p l i c a b l e , b u t a

s u i t a b l e d e s ig n method i s d e t a i l e d i n s e c t i o n 4.4.3. Finally,

i t i s advisable,

wherever p o s s i b l e , t o work away from t h e a c t u a l

l i m i t i n g lines;

t h i s a l l o w s an e x t r a s a f e t y margin f o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l adverse

c o n d i t i o n s such as small mi sa l i gn men t (see s e c t i o n

4 . 4 . 3 1 , contaminated o i l , etc.

I t i s a l s o a d v i s a b l e t o work w e l l w i t h i n t h e l i m i t i n g l i n e s where t h e r e i s a

chance o f h a v in g two modes o f f a i l u r e a t t he same t i m e ( i e . a t t h e d o t t e d apex i n Fig.1). C u r r e n t p r a c t i c e i s t o q u a n t i f y t h i s a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t i n terms o f s p e c i f i c l oa d ( l o a d d i v i d e d by p r o j e c t e d area, W/bd). For hydrodynamic b e a r i n g s i t i s usual t o keep t h e s p e c i f i c l o a d below about 4 MPa, s t i l l checking t h a t f i l m t h i c k n e s s and t e mp era t u res are-acceptable. However, t h e l o a d on a b e a r i n g a t

s t a r t - u p o r r u n down must be c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, no more than 1 t o 1.3 MPa o t h e r w i s e h i g h p re ssure j a c k i n g o i l must be s u p p l i e d . Fig.12 has been developed t o g i v e t he maximum s p e c i f i c l o a d r a t i n g based on the t h i n o i l f i l m l i m i t ; t h i s assumes t h e same geometry and o i l feed c o n d i t i o n s

as c o n s id e r e d i n t h e s l i d e c h a r t .

4.4.2.2

O i l Film I n s t a b i l i t y

T h i s i s o n l y l i k e l y t o be a problem i n l i g h t l y loaded b e a r i n g s a t h i g h speeds. As a f i r s t check c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e dimensionless c r i t i c a l mass parameter shown i n Fig.3.

I f t h i s i s l e s s t ha n the minimum v a l u e on t h e p a r t i c u l a r

b/d c u r v e , t h e n t h e b e a r i n g sh ou l d be s t a b l e .

I f n o t , then s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n
is The
,

may s t i l l be p r e d i c t e d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y r a t i o (l-hmin/cr) l a r g e enough; s e c t i o n 4.4.3 g i v e s a method for o b t a i n i n g t h i s value.

r e s i s t a n c e t o i n s t a b i l i t y i s r a i s e d by any e x t e r n a l damping w i t h i n the system, f o r example gear meshing, so t h a t t h e l i m i t s can be unduly p e s s i m i s t i c .

I f i n s t a b i l i t y i s a problem t h e b ore p r o f i l i n g can o f t e n p r o v i d e t h e s o l u t i o n ;

s e c t i o n 5. c o n s i d e r s t h i s i n some d e t a i l .

65

MINIMUM

MINIMUM DIAMETRAL CLEARANCE

(in.]

0.02

0.016

0.012

0.008

SPEED I rcv/min 1

Fig. 11

Recommended minimum c l e a r a n c e

4.4.3

Performance P r e d i c t i o n

Having determined t h a t a g i v e n b e a r i n g i s l i k e l y t o o p e r a t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , t h e d e s ig n e r t h e n o f t e n needs t o know t h e power loss and o i l f l o w requirement o f t h e b e a r in g .

As w e l l as b e i n g o f i n t e r e s t as f a r as t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y

o f a machine i s concerned, these q u a n t i t i e s have a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on the l u b r i c a n t s u p p ly system coolers etc.

t h e s i z e o f o i l pump and supply l i n e s , t h e need f o r

T h i s system must be ca pa bl e o f adequately s u p p l y i n g s u f f i c i e n t

c o o l e d o i l (heat i s t h e t a n g i b l e f o rm o f b e a r i n g power l o s s ) f o r any b e a r i n g w i t h i n t h e spread o f t h e man uf act uri n g t o l e r a n c e on clearance. When d e t e r m i n i n g

t h e o i l pump c a p a c i t y , t h e b e a r i n g f l o w a t maximum p o s s i b l e c l e a r a n c e ( w i t h i n t h e t o l e r a n c e range) sho ul d be co nsi d ere d s i n c e t h i s has the maximum f l o w req u ir e m e n t . Maximum power l o s s on t h e o t h e r hand, i m p o r t a n t when c o n s i d e r i n g

t h e h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n from t h e o v e r a l l system. can occur anywhere w i t h i n t h e t o l e r a n c e range o f cl e ara nce . The cl e ara nce has t h e r e f o r e been l e f t as a

v a r i a b l e i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n c h a r t s f o r power l o s s , o i l f l o w and temperature. However, t h e c l e a r a n c e range sh ou l d p r e f e r a b l y s t i l l have a minimum v a l u e c o r r e s p o n d in g w i t h Fig.11, s i n c e t h e s l i d e c h a r t s (which i n h e r e n t l y c o n t a i n

these c l e a r a n c e s ) can t h en be used t o check f o r safe o p e r a t i o n p r i o r t o p r e d i c t i n g b e a r i n g performance.

66

Fig.12

Maximum specific load rating for a two axial groove bearing based on thin oil film limit

67
Under some c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e need t o c o n t r o l t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n f i l m t h i c k n e s s , power loss o r o i l f l o w m i g h t r e g u l a t e t h e range o f t h e c l e a r a n c e t o l e r a n c e s , b u t u s u a l l y p r e d e f i n e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g d e t a i l s w i l l impose a g i v e n c l e a r a n c e range which t h e d e s i g n e r must c a t e r f o r adequately. The s i z e o f t h i s

t o l e r a n c e range i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and may t h e r e f o r e vary considerably. However, a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e i s t h a t t h e t o l e r a n c e (mm)

on d i a m e t r a l c l e a r a n c e l i e s w i t h i n t h e range (2.10 -6 x d i a ) l l 3 t o (5.10 -6 x d i a ) 1/3

depending on t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process; ' d i a ' i s t h e nominal s h a f t diameter i n

mn.
The minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s r a t i o (hmin/cr) i s a s i g n i f i c a n t term when p r e Using t h i s

d i c t i n g t h e power loss, o i l f l o w and maximum b e a r i n g temperature.

r a t i o , p r e d i c t i o n c h a r t s i n nomograph f o r m have been d e v i s e d which p e r m i t q u i c k and a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s parameters w i t h v e r y l i t t l e calculation.

4.4.3.1

Minimum O i l F i l m Thickness

The f i l m t h i c k n e s s r a t i o may be o b t a i n e d f r o m Fig.13 f o r known o p e r a t i n g conditions. B a s i c a l l y t h r e e g r i d s a r e used t o d e f i n e t h e problem, and by

l i n k i n g these a l o n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e g u i d e l i n e s , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrows on the chart, a p o i n t i n the fourth, 'answer' g r i d i s o b t a i n e d .

T h i s c h a r t i s a l s o u s e f u l f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s i n a b e a r i n g which has a d i f f e r e n t c l e a r a n c e t o t h e minimum v a l u e shown i n Fig.11, i e a b e a r i n g which cannot be c o n s i d e r e d on t h e s l i d e c h a r t s . The a c c e p t a b i l i t y

o f any f i l m t h i c k n e s s can be checked on Fig.2.

4.4.3.2

Misalignment

Good a l i g n m e n t between s h a f t and b e a r i n g can be c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t because o f t h e d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s which misalignment causes. There a r e many ways i n which misalignment can o c c u r , f r o m poor b u i l d o f t h e machine t o mechanical d i s t o r t i o n s due t o l o a d o r temperature, and each o f them produces d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e o i l f i l m . However, a g e n e r a l guide t o T h i s shows t h e r e for a

t h e d e r a t i n g e f f e c t o f misalignment i s g i v e n i n Fig.14.

d u c t i o n i n o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s from t h e p e r f e c t l y a l i g n e d case (Fig.13) g i v e n misalignment a c r o s s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e b e a r i n g (6).

The r e s u l t i n g minimum

f i l m t h i c k n e s s , which o c c u r s a t one a x i a l end o f t h e b e a r i n g , s h o u l d be checked

on Fig.2 f o r a c c e p t a b i l i t y .

4.4.3.3

Power Loss and O i l Flow The method

Power l o s s and o i l f l o w may be determined f r o m Figs.15 and 16.

o f use i s shown on each c h a r t and i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e example i n s e c t i o n 4.6.The f l o w g i v e n i s t h e b e a r i n g requirement f l o w , and should be

68

Fig.13

P r e d i c t i o n o f minimum o i l f i l m thickness

Fia.14

The d e r a t i n g e f f e c t o f mi sa l i gn men t on f i l m t h i c k n e s s unequal f l o w

increased when d e t e r m i n i n g pump c a p a c i t y t o a l l o w f o r b e a r i n g wear, t o m u l t i - s u p p l i e d bearings etc.

T y p i c a l l y t h e f i g u r e s sho u ld be incre a se d by

20-25%, and a pump chosen which can a de qu at el y su ppl y t h i s amount.

4.4.3.4

Temperatures

The v a l u e o f t h e o i l o u t l e t temp era t u re may be e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e power l o s s and o i l f l o w v al ues, as read f r o m t h e c h a r t s , u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n : O u t l e t tem perature = i n l e t temperat ure

+
+

t e mpera t ure r i s e

A = 5

50

A H/Q ( " C )

where A = 0 . 0 0 0 5 f o r H k and Q m3/s W f o r H hp and Q gal / mi n.

(A = 6 f o r hp and US gal /mi n)

The maximum b e a r i n g temperature may be determined f r o m Fig.17; ag a in an example o f use i s shown on t h e c h a r t and i s f u r t h e r a m p l i f i e d i n s e c t i o n 4.6. I t s houl d be noted t h a t t h i s temp era t u re o c c u r s a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e l i n i n g m a t e r i a l and a t some c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l p o s i t i o n w hi ch i s n o t w e l l d e f i n e d ; r o u g h l y c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s .
it

69
90

70

so
20 LO

EO

L.

I0

POWER LOSS

UUD IN1 11 U

Fig.15

P r e d i c t i o n of b e a r i n g power loss

L FLOW REQUIREMENTS 70 :

1w:
200. OM (mn 500 400 3w

2w
/

7000 10000 20000 30000

Fig.16

P r e d i c t i o n o f b e a r i n g o i l f l o w requirement

71

here

Fig.17

P r e d i c t i o n of maximum b e a r i n g temperature

72
Unless a great deal o f thought and care i s taken i n determining the p o s i t i o n o f temperature instrumentation then the recorded temperature w i l l be less than the a c t u a l maximum value.

4.5

H I G H SPEED APPLICATIONS
The general t r e n d towards l a r g e r sizes and f a s t e r o p e r a t i n g speeds i n equip-

ment such as compressors and t u r b i n e s has caused d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h both the design and the o p e r a t i o n o f conventional c y l i n d r i c a l bore bearings. The design

d i f f i c u l t y occurs when the o i l f l o w w i t h i n the bearing clearance space becomes non-laminar, and the information presented so f a r ceases t o be v a l i d . The

operational d i f f i c u l t i e s concern p o s s i b l e i n s t a b i l i t y o f e i t h e r the o i l f i l m (see Sect ion 4.2.1.4) or of the complete r o t o r system.

4.5.1

Non-Laminar Operation

C o l l o q u i a l l y i t i s common t o r e f e r t o e i t h e r laminar o r t u r b u l e n t o p e r a t i o n , but i n p r a c t i c e there i s a wide o p e r a t i n g band separating the two regimes i n which o t h e r forms o f f l u i d motion, eg Taylor v o r t i c e s , occur, Since the design

methods d e t a i l e d i n the previous sections a r e f o r laminar operation o n l y i t i s necessary t o have some check on whether laminar o r non-laminar c o n d i t i o n s apply. Fig.18 i s a quick way o f performing t h i s check; note t h a t i t uses the value o f I f non-

f i l m thickness r a t i o (hmin/cr) obtained from the laminar c h a r t Fig.13.

methods and procedures [ 1 5 ] .

laminar operation i s p r e d i c t e d then recourse must be made t o a l t e r n a t i v e design

I t should be emphasised t h a t turbulence per se i s n o t a problem as f a r as safe bearing operation i s concerned, merely a d i f f i c u l t y ( a l b e i t a r e l a t i v e l y major one) w i t h the design process. l a r g e clearances o r t h i n o i l s . Turbulence i s increased by h i g h speeds,

Bearings o p e r a t i n g i n the t u r b u l e n t regime can

have s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher power losses and temperatures than p r e d i c t e d by

I ami nar theory.

4.5.2

P r o f i l e Bore Bearings

A c y l i n d r i c a l bore bearing has a s i n g l e converging clearance space (which

may i n some circumstances be i n t e r r u p t e d by a groove) i n which o i l f i l m pressure i s generated t o support the e x t e r n a l load. I n c o n t r a s t the bore o f a p r o f i l e

bearing i s arranged so t h a t two o r more separate converging regions a r e present under normal operation, each developing f i l m pressures which a c t i n various d i r e c t i o n s around the bearing. The s t a b i l i t y o f such a bearing i s b e t t e r than a

c y l i n d r i c a l bore, b u t t h e r e a r e u s u a l l y p e n a l t i e s t o be p a i d i n terms o f reduced load c a p a c i t y o r increased power loss and l u b r i c a n t f l o w requirement.

73

Fig.18

Guidance on t h e 1 i k e l ihood o f l a m i n a r o r non-laminar o p e r a t i o n i s almost i n f i n i t e b u t t h e more common forms

The range o f poss b l e p r o f i l e s a r e shown i n Fig.19,

t o g e t h e r w i t h an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e m e r i t s i n
O f n e c e s s i t y these comparisons a r e

terms o f v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g parameters.

approximate o n l y , s i n c e minor changes t o e i t h e r o f t h e two c l e a r a n c e s i n v o l v e d i n p r o f i l e b o r e b e a r i n g s ( t h e so c a l l e d 'shake c l e a r a n c e ' which i s a measure o f p o s s i b l e s h a f t movement and t h e hydrodynamic c l e a r a n c e which i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between r a d i i o f formance. i n d i v i d u a l lobes and t h e s h a f t ) can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r p e r -

Experience has shown t h a t as a general r u l e t h e 'shake c l e a r a n c e ' , should be no t i g h t e r than 0.001 mm/mrn. T h i s then a v o i d s

as a r a t i o ( i e c d / d ) ,

p o s s i b l e problems w i t h l o s s o f c l e a r a n c e on s t a r t - u p due t o d i f f e r e n t i a l

74
thermal expansion o f t h e s h a f t r e l a t i v e I n f o r m a t i o n on s t i f f n e s s and damping
o t h e b e a r i n g and housing.

s i m p o r t a n t when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

dynamics o f t h e machine as a whole, w i t h s t i f f n e s s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c r i t i c a l speeds o f t h e r o t o r , and damping c o n t r o l i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e s when running through t h e c r i t i c a l s .

In o r d e r t o g i v e a f e e l f o r i n s t a b i l i t y t h r e s h o l d speeds f o r r e a l i s t i c

clearances,

Fig.20,

has been prepared.

T h i s shows t h e minimum speed a t which

o i l f i l m i n s t a b i l i t y can o c c u r f o r a h o r i z o n t a l , w e i g h t loaded, r o t o r system ( i e where t h e b e a r i n g l o a d i s p u r e l y due t o t h e mass).

Fig.19

Comparison o f s t a t i c and dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f commonly used journal bearing types

15

Comprehensive and d e t a i l e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e d e s i g n o f p r o f i l e b o r e b e a r i n g s have n o t been p u b l i s h e d , and c u r r e n t l y t h e d e s i g n e r must e i t h e r r e s o r t t o a f u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y o r seek a d v i c e , u s u a l l y on a s p e c i f i c c a s e basis, f r o m s p e c i a l i s t s [16].

OIL:

LOO.

IS0 VG L6 @, 50' INLET 1 MEDIUM TURBINE GRADE 1 b/d : 0.5

CLEARANCE VARIED

300-

TO MAINTAIN : DRAIN TEMPERATURE < 7' 5C MATERIAL TEMPERATURE < 100C

LL

4 LL 9 m

200-

100-

LEMON BORE

10000 20000 30000 JOURNAL SPEED I revlmin 1

LOO00

F 9.20

O i l f i l m whirl

i n s t a b i l i t y of various types of journal bearings L i m i t i n g speeds f o r h o r i z o n t a l r o t o r s

4.6 4.6.

EXAMPLE OF USE OF DESIGN AIDS Problem

A g e a r b o x b e a r i n g 200 m d i a m e t e r and 50 mm l o n g h a s t o c a r r y a l o a d o f m
20 kN a t 3600 r e v / m i n .

The b e a r i n g has t w o a x i a l g r o o v e s e x t e n d i n g 0.8 o f t h e The o i l i s w i t h i n t h e IS0

bearing length,

s i t u a t e d a t ? 90" t o t h e l o a d l i n e .

VG 32 s p e c i f i c a t i o n ( a c t u a l t y p i c a l v i s c o s i t y v a l u e s a r e g i v e n a s 30 c S t a t
40C and 5.2 c S t a t l O O " C , temperature t h e o i l d e n s i t y b e i n g 880 kg/m3). The o i l f e e d

i s 50C and t h e o i l f e e d p r e s s u r e 1 b a r (0.1 MPa).

Check t h a t t h i s b e a r i n g w i l l o p e r a t e s a f e l y and e s t i m a t e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s , power l o s s , o i l f l o w r e q u i r e m e n t , maximum b e a r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e and o i l o u t l e t temperature.

76
4.6.2 Procedure

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x a m p l e h a s been i n c o r p o r a t e d o n t h e d e s i g n a i d s a s dashed

1 ines.

4.6.2.1

Diametral Clearance t h e minimum d i a m e t r a l c l e a r a n c e , f o r a 200 mm d i a m e t e r b e a r i n g i s 0.26 mm.

From F i g . 1 1 ,

o p e r a t i n g a t 3600 r e v / m i n ,

4.6.2.2

Maximum S p e c i f i c Load R a t i n g t h e maximum s p e c i f i c l o a d r a t i n g ( b a s e d o n t h i n o i l f i l m

From F i g . 1 2 , limit),

i s o b t a i n e d by f o l l o w i n g t h e g u i d e l i n e s , through t h e r e l e v a n t o i l grade, The a l l o w a b l e l i m i t i s seen t o be 4.3 MPa, w e l l

l e n g t h , speed and d i a m e t e r .

above t h e a c t u a l s p e c i f i c l o a d o f 2 MPa.

4.6.2.3

Region o f Safe O p e r a t i o n transparent copy, w i t h Fig.lO(b), backing sheet. Mark p o i n t

Use F i g . l O ( a ) , on g r i d , (200 mm). Fig.lO(a),

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o o i l g r a d e (30 c S t a t 40C)

and d i a m e t e r

Place transparency on backing sheet,

l i n i n g u p marked p o i n t w i t h

datum p o i n t ( s e e F i g . 2 l ( a ) ) . equal t o 0.25,

The l i m i t i n g l i n e f o r s a f e o p e r a t i o n , w i t h b / d The t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t t r a n s -

c a n t h e n e a s i l y be i n t e r p o l a t e d .

parency, F i g . l O ( b ) ,

i s p o s i t i o n e d i n a n i d e n t i c a l manner ( s e e F i g . 2 1 ( b ) ) .

BACKING SHEET TRANSPARE,NT OVERLAY r - - - - - - --1

I
I

I
I

I I

I
I
b" /

I
I

I
I<
1;

'

I I

I I
I
$1
SI

HIGH

A\

I
I

DESIGN POINT IS WITHIN LIMITS \

o/ '\
/ '

THIN FILM LIMIT

I
I
J

TEMPERATURE LIMITS

i __----SPEED

I I I

J
SPEED

1 0

3600 rei/rnin

I
SPEED
(C)

( a1

Fig.21

Example use o f s l i d e c h a r t s

These t w o c o m b i n e d g i v e g u i d a n c e t o a r e g i o n o f s a f e o p e r a t i o n o n a l o a d , speed f r a m e w o r k a s shown i n F i g . Z l ( c ) . well within t h i s l i m i t i n g region, The a c t u a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e

i n d i c a t i n g a r e l i a b l e design.

4.6.2.4

P r e d i c t i o n o f Minimum O i l F i l m T h i c k n e s s

F i g . 1 3 p r e d i c t s minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s a n d i s v e r y e a s y t o u s e , a l t h o u g h looking f a i r l y formidable. F i r s t mark p o i n t s on t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e g r i d s .

1) C l e a r a n c e r a t i o and speed (0.0013 and 3600 r e v / m i n )

2 ) l e n g t h t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o and o i l ( 0 . 2 5 a n d 30 c S t a t 40C)
3) s p e c i f i c l o a d a n d o i l

( 2 MPa a n d 30 c S t a t 40C)

J o i n t h e s e p o i n t s a s shown, f o l l o w i n g t h e g u i d e l i n e s , and c o n t i n u e t o t h e answer g r i d i n t h e t o p r i g h t hand c o r n e r ; ness r a t i o ( h m i n / c r ) a t b/d equal t o 0.25 t h e f i l m t h i c k -

i s r e a d o f f d i r e c t l y a s 0.16.
=

Minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s hmin

0.16

x 0 . 1 3 = 0.021

mm

4.2.6.5

Check f o r L a m i n a r O p e r a t i o n

Fig.18 g i v e s guidance on whether l a m i n a r , as p r e s e n t e d h e r e , o r non-laminar d e s i g n methods [ l 5 ] s h o u l d be used.

In consistent units
P = 2 . 1 0 6 N/m2

0.2rn,

60 rev/s,

ti

880 kg/m3,

and c i d = G . 0 0 1 3 d
=

I n F i g . 1 8 mark p o i n t where Y

g=

f r o m w h i c h Y = 48.74.

1.76 and b / d

= 0.25

(on lower g r i d ) .

P r o j e c t v e r t i c a l l y upwards a s i n d i c a t e d b y dashed l i n e t o f i l m t h i c k n e s s r a t i o

o f 0.16.

The r e s u l t i n g p o i n t a p p e a r s i n t h e l a m i n a r r e g i o n ,

therefore the

design a i d s presented here a r e s u i t a b l e .

4.6.2.6

P r e d i c t i o n o f Power L o s s using the value of hmin/cr a l r e a d y obtained (0.16), j o i n up t h e

On F i g . 1 5 ,

a p p r o p r i a t e p o i n t s on t h e s c a l e s a s shown. Power l o s s = 5.3 kW

4.6.2.7

P r e d i c t i o n o f O i l Flow s t a r t i n g a t t h e s p e e d - c l e a r a n c e r a t i o g r i d , j o i n up t h e a p p r o p -

On F i g . 1 6 ,

r i a t e p o i n t s a s shown.

O i l f l o w r e q u i r e m e n t = 0.00021 m 3 / s

(0.21

1/51

78
4.6.2.8 P r e d i c t i o n o f Maximum Bearing Temperature t h e maximum b e a r i n g temperature i s o b t a i n e d by f o l l o w i n g t h e

From Fig.17,

numbered steps s h o w n ~ i n t h e sketch i n t h e lower l e f t hand c o r n e r .

Ca 1 c u 1a t e

rd

lo3

(=o.oao47) (=0.136)

M u l t i p l y t h i s by t h e m o d i f i e d s p e c i f i c l o a d P

S t a r t i n g a t hmin/cr equal t o 0.16 f o l l o w t h e g u i d e l i n e s as shown, through values o f b/d r a t i o , o i l grade, and t h e two terms c a l c u l a t e d above. e f f e c t i v e temperature ( O e ) , value o f

A v a l u e of

can be o b t a i n e d a t t h e end o f s t e p 3 (=65"C), and a

emax/ee

(=1.55)

f r o m s t e p 5 (which completes t h e pentagon).

Maximum temperature = l 0 l ' C

4.6.2.9

P r e d i c t i o n o f O i l O u t l e t Temperature

From e q u a t i o n (1)

Section

4 4.1.4.
H Q

O i l o u t l e t temperature = 50 + 0.0005

= 50

+ 0.0005 x 5.3
0.00021

= 63C

REFERENCES 1 2 Elwel1,R.C. and Booser,E.R., 'Low Speed L i m i t o f L u b r i c a t i o n P a r t 1, What i s a "Too Slow" B e a r i n g ? ' , Machine Design, 15 June, 1972. Martin,F.A., 'Minimum A l l o w a b l e O i l F i l m Thickness i n S t e a d i l y Loaded Journal B e a r i n g s ' , Proc. L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear Convention 1964 ( I n s t . Mech. Engrs. London), V01.178, P t . 3 N pp. 161-167. Booser,E.R., Ryman,F.D. and Linkinhoker,C.L., 'Maximum Temperature f o r Hydrodynamic Bearings under Steady L o a d ' , ASLE Trans. 1970, Vol.26, No.7. T r i b o l o g y Handbook, 1973, S e c t i o n B1, B u t t e r w o r t h s . Lund,J.W., ' S e l f - e x c i t e d S t a t i o n a r y W h i r l O r b i t s o f a Journal i n a Sleeve B e a r i n g ' , Thesis, 1966, Rensselaer P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e , N Y . Pinkus,O. and S t e r n l i c h t , B . , 'Theory o f Hydrodynamic L u b r i c a t i o n ' , 1961, Chapter 4, McGraw-Hi 11. Cameron ,A. ' P r i n c i p l e s o f L u b r i c a t i o n I , 1966, Chapter 13, Longmans. Lund,J.W. and Thomsen,K.K., 'A C a l c u l a t i o n Method and Data f o r t h e Dynamic C o e f f i c i e n t s o f O i l - L u b r i c a t e d J o u r n a l B e a r i n a s ' f r o m 'TODiCS i n F l u i d F i l m Bearings and Rotor B e a r i n g System Designland O p t i m i z a t i o n ' , 1978, ASME. ' C a l c u l a t i o n Methods f o r S t e a d i l y Loaded Pressure Fed Hydrodynamic Journal B e a r i n g s ' , Engineering Sciences Data U n i t Item 66023, Sept. 1966 ( I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London). 'Computer S e r v i c e f o r P r e d i c t i o n o f Performance o f S t e a d i l y Loaded Pressure Fed Hydrodynamic Journal B e a r i n g s ' , Engineering Sciences Data U n i t , Item 69002, Sept. 1972, Amendment B. Martin,F.A. and Garner,D.R., ' P l a i n Journal Bearings under Steady Loads Design Guidance f o r Safe O p e r a t i o n ' , F i r s t European T r i b o l o g y Congress, 1973 ( I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London) paper C313/73.

3
4 5
6

7
8

10

11

79
12 Blok,H., D i s c u s s i o n t o Conference. Proc. Conf. L u b r i c a t i o n and \.!ear, 1957 ( I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London), pp. 745-747. Moes,H. and Bosma,R., ' D e s i g n C h a r t s f o r Optimum B e a r i n g C o n f i g u r a t i o n 1 . The F u l l J o u r n a l B e a r i n g ' A p r i l 1971, ASME Trans. Vol.93, S e r i e s F, No.2, pp. 302-306. Brown,T.W.F. and Newman,A.O., 'High-speed H i g h l y Loaded B e a r i n g s and T h e i r Development', Proc. Conference on L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear, 1957 ( I n s t . Mech. E n g r s ) , pp. 20-27. Garner,D.R., Jone5,G.J. and Martin,F.A. ' T u r b u l e n t J o u r n a l B e a r i n g s Design C h a r t s f o r Performance P r e d i c t i o n ' , J u l y 1977, ASLE Trans. V01.20, No.3, pp. 221-232. Garner,O.R., Lee,C.S, and Martin,F.A., ' S t a b i l i t y o f P r o f i l e Bore B e a r i n g s : I n f l u e n c e o f B e a r i n g Type S e l e c t i o n ' , October 1980, T r i b o l o g y I n t e r n a t i o n a l , pp. 204-210.

13 14
15

16

80

5
R.W.

THE DIAGNOSIS

OF PLAIN BEARING FAILURES

WILSON and E . B .

SHONE
Thornton Research Centre, P.O. Box 1, C h e s t e r CH1 3SH

S h e l l Research L t d . ,

5.1

I NTRODUCT I ON

A f e w y e a r s ago t h e c a s u a l o b s e r v e r m i a h t have c o n c l u d e d t h a t b o t h t h e
m e t a l l u r g y o f b e a r i n g s a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r f a i l u r e mechanisms h a d r e a c h e d a s e t t l e d s t a g e i n w h i c h b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s were a v a i l a b l e t o meet a l m o s t every requirement and t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a i l u r e s were well-documented. most b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d q u i t e a d e q u a t e l y f r o m a s t r i c t l y metallurgical o r s t r i c t l y engineerins viewpoint. only i n passing; The l u b r i c a n t was m e n t i o n e d Thus,

a s l o n g a s i t had t h e r i q h t v i s c o s i t y , p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e i t gave l i t t l e c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n .

c o o l i n g and d i d n o t c o r r o d e t h e b e a r i n o a l l o y ,

O p e r a t o r s f r e q u e n t l y blamed l u b r i c a n t s f o r b e a r i n q f a i l u r e s , b u t b e a r i n g manu f a c t u r e r s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t v e r y f e w f a i l u r e s c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o i n f e r i o r lubricants. T h e r e was n o s p e c i a l p r e s s u r e o n l u b r i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o q i s t s t o i n any case, b e a r i n g manufacturers g e n e r a l l y However, e n g i n e e r i n g

become e x p e r t s o n b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s ;

provided e x c e l l e n t t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e t o t h e i r customers.

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n r e c e n t y e a r s have made i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e demands o n p l a i n b e a r i n g s and have g i v e n r i s e t o r a t h e r more c o m p l i c a t e d f a i l u r e mechanisms. Many o f t h e s e f a i l u r e s c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s t r i b o l o g i c a l f a i l u r e s ; they cannot

be a s c r i b e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r d e f e c t i n t h e d e s i g n o r i n t h e m e t a l l u r g y o f t h e bearing or t o a shortcoming i n t h e l u b r i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n o f a number o f f a c t o r s . Before i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t a l k about p l a i n bearing f a i l u r e s it i s essential t o

t h e y a r e t h e consequence of

the

have an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d , how t h e y a r e made a n d t h e r e q u i r e ments t h a t must be met. T h e r e a r e a number o f v e r y good p u b l i c a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s of p l a i n b e a r i n g s and we i n t e n d t o b r i e f l y summarise t h e s e .

5.2

PROPERTIES R E Q U I R E D OF BEARING MATERIALS

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a b e a r i n g must w i t h s t a n d a v a r i e t y o f imposed c o n d i t i o n s .
No b e a r i n g i s e q u a l l y good w i t h r e s p e c t t o a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s , and t h e s e l e c t i o n

o f t h e most s u i t a b l e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f circumstances r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e most c r i t i c a l o p e r a t i n g f a c t o r s . t h e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n s 5.2.1 Some o f

5.2.8.

81
5.2.1

Fatigue Resistance However, fatigue failure in bearings is frequently associated with some The fatigue strength of a fund-

This is the most important property in those applications where the load varies. other factor, such a s corrosion, which reduces the strength o f the bearing, or wear, which reduces the load-carrying area.

amentally weak bearing alloy can be increased by making the bearing alloy thin and bonding i t firmly to a bronze or steel backing.
5.2.2

Compressive Strength

This is the steady load that the bearing alloy can support without extruding. There is little correlation between compressive strength and fatigue resistance when a single class o f bearing material is considered.

5.2.3

Conformability

This is the ability t o compensate for misalignment that occurs a s a consequence o f bad design or manufacture or that may develop in service.

5.2.4

Embeddabil ity

This i s the ability to tolerate and absorb foreign particles, thereby avoiding scoring or wear.

5.2.5

Strength at Elevated Temperatures One of the main functions of the lub-

High sliding speeds and heavy loads can generate considerable heat, even when a bearing is operating hydrodynamically.

ricant and the bearing alloy i s t conduct heat away from the sliding surfaces; o even so, bearings are often required to operate at elevated temperatures, and a lack o f high-temperature strength may result in extrusion of the bearing alloy and/or fatigue failure.

5.2.6 Compa t i b i 1 i ty All bearing assemblies experience some metal-to-metal contact at some stage
i n their lives;

the resistance of the bearing metal/journal combination to However some of the harder bearing alloys do

seizure is therefore important.

not function satisfactorily against unhardened steel journals.

5.2.7

Corrosion Resistance They may also be subject to corrosion

Bearings may be exposed to weak organic acids formed a s a result of the oxidation of lubricating oils in service.

by weak organic acids and strong mineral acids derived from fuel combustion products. Sometimes the operating environment is corrosive

for example. on many

chemical plants and marine installations.

a2
5.2.8

cost

I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t b e a r i n g a l l o y s a r e cheap and easy t o manufacture.

5.3

TYPE, CONSTRUCTION AN0 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLAIN BEARING MATERIALS Some o f t h e more w i d e l y used b e a r i n g a l l o y s a r e l i s t e d i n Table 5.1; the

more commonly used o v e r l a y s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Table 5.2. Sections 5.3.1

5.3.7

o u t l i n e t h e methods by which b e a r i n g s a r e u s u a l l y

manufactured f r o m these a l l o y s and d e s c r i b e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s bearing materials. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e

summarised i n Table 5.3 and t h e g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s b r i e f l y discussed i n Section 5.3.8.

5.3.1

White M e t a l s ( B a b b i t s )

These a r e t i n - b a s e d o r lead-based a l l o y s , t h e o r i g i n a l t i n - b a s e d w h i t e metal being invented by Isaac B a b b i t t i n 1839. t h e manufacture o f b o t h t h i c k , large, T h i s a l l o y i s w i d e l y used today f o r

i n d i v i d u a l l y manufactured b e a r i n g s and

t h i n - w a l l e d b e a r i n g s made f r o m c o n t i n u o u s s t r i p . The coated s t r i p i s c u t i n t o s e c t i o n s o f a s u i t a b l e s i z e which a r e p r e s s formed t o shape. Newer m a n u f a c t u r i n g techniques p e r m i t t h e use of b e a r i n g

metal combinations and c o n t r o l l e d m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s t h a t c o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e be produced. Another i n n o v a t i o n i s t h e three-component (or tri-metal) bearing, i n which

one o f t h e harder b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s such as bronze, a l r e a d y bonded t o a s t e e l backing, i s covered w i t h a t h i n (20-200 urn), e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d o r c a s t o v e r l a y

o f white metal. The t i n - b a s e d a l l o y c o n s i s t s of a t i n - r i c h m a t r i x , w i t h some antimony and copper i n s o l i d s o l u t i o n ; needles o f Cu6Sn5. d i s p e r s e d i n t h e m a t r i x a r e cuboids o f SbSn and

T h i s m i c r o s t r u c t u r e l e d t o t h e erroneous b e l i e f t h a t In

b e a r i n g a l l o y s must c o n s i s t o f h a r d c r y s t a l s d i s p e r s e d i n a s o f t m a t r i x .

f a c t , t h e i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds i n w h i t e m e t a l s appear t o serve no purpose o t h e r than t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e a l l o y s . White m e t a l s a r e o u t s t a n d i n g l y good b e a r i n g a l l o y s i n many r e s p e c t s , t h e i r main d e f e c t b e i n g l a c k o f l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t e l e v a t e d temperatures. The c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f lead-based w h i t e m e t a l s i s i n f e r i o r nevertheless, lead-based a l l o y s a r e q u i t e

t o t h a t o f t i n - b a s e d w h i t e metals;

w i d e l y used, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e U.S.A.

TABLE 5.1 Some l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s Bearing m a t e r i a l 1. Lead-based w h i t e metal ( lead-Babb i t t ) 2. Tin-based w h i t e metal ( t i n Babbitt) Major a l l o y i n a elements 8-16% antimony 5-11% t i n Remainder Lead Tin Copper Copper Copper A l umi n i um G e n e r a l l y used w i t h 90% lead-10% t i n o r 96% lead-4% i n d i u m e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d o v e r l a y , 25 urn t h i c k ; l e a d bronzes can a l s o have t h i n - B a b b i t t o v e r l a y s Spec i a 1 f e a t u r e s

7-14% a n t imony 3- 9% copper

20-50% l e a d 20-30% l e a d 20-30% l e a d 3- 5% t i n

3. S i n t e r e d c o p p e r - l e a d 4. Cast c o p p e r - l e a d

5. Lead-bronze
6. Aluminium-low t i n

6% t i n , 1.5% s i l i c o n
20% t i n , 1.0% copper 11% s i l i c o n ,

7. Aluminium-high t i n 8. A l uminium-si 1 i c o n
(overlay plated) 9. A l umin i um-Babb i t t 10. Phosphor-bronze ( c a s t ) 11. S i l icon-bronze 12. Lead-bronzes ( g e n e r a l l y s t e e l -backed) 13. S i l v e r

A l umi n i um

1 % copper

A l umin i um A l umi n ium

Copper Copper Copper

10% lead, 2% t i n 8-12% t i n , 0.2-1.0% phosphorous

1
1

Hardened j o u r n a l s p r e f e r r e d

S t i l l under development

1.5-4% s i l i c o n
5-10% t i n 8-12% l e a d

P r i m r i 1 y bush i ng mate r ia 1 a

E l e c t r o p l a t e d , 2 5 0 - 5 0 0 ~ 1t h i c k , o f t e n used w i t h l e a d - i n d i u m o v e r l a y Self-lubricating, impregnated w i t h o i l

14. Porous bronze

15. B r o n z e - g r a p h i t e composites
16. Laminated r e s i n s

8-12% t i n 5-40% g r a p h i t e F i b r e - r e i n f o r c e d phenol i c s o r epoxies PTFE and l e a d Bronze and g r a p h i t e Nylon o r p o l y a c e t a l Metal PTFE T i n , bronze

Can be used d r y Usually water-lubricated

17. PTFE and f i 1 l e r i n

metal m a t r i x

Good under c o n d i t i o n s o f m a r g i n a l lubrication

18. PTFE m a t r i x and metal

fillers 19. Metal-backed thermoplastics

TABLE 5.2 Commonly used overlays Overlay type

~~ ~

Major alloying elements

8-12% tin 0.001

Special features Simultaneously precision-plated, about inch thick (25 urn)

A B

lead-tin, electroplated Lead-tin-copper, electroplated Lead-indium, electroplated

8 - 1 2 % tin 1% copper

0.001

Simultaneously precision-plated, about inch thick (25 urn) about thick)

4-8% indium

Precision-plated, first lead then indium, then alloyed by diffusion; 0.001 inch thick (25 urn)
0.005-0.015

Lead-Babbitt, cast Tin-Babbitt, cast

Antimony-tin Antimony-copper Lead, with 2% tin and 0.5% calcium

inch thick (125-375

E Satco alloy, cast

TABLE 5 . 3 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b e a r i n g rnater i a l s M a t e r i a l (see Table 1) Relative load-carrying capacity MN/m2 Ib/in2 Embeddabil i t y S e i z u r e resistance (tolerance for dirt) Excellent Excellent Very good Very good Maximum operating temp. "C Tolerance f o r Corrosion r e s i s t a n c e m i s a l i g n m e n t Organic a c i d s M i n e r a l a c i d s Spec i a 1 features

1
2

2000 2000 3000-5000 4000-6000 5000-8000

8000

14 14 20-35 28-41 35-55 55 35 55 35 55+ 55+ 41 55+ 14-28

130 130 150 160 170 180 170 180 160 220 220 180 180 130

Very good Very good Good Moderate Fair Poor Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Poor Moderate Poor Fa i r

Moderate Excel l e n t Fair Poor Fa i r Good Good Good Poor ? Fa i r Moderate Fa i r Good e x c e p t f o r sulphur Poor Fa i r

Fair Very good

3
4 5 6

Moderate with-Moderate w i t h out overlay; out overlay; good w i t h good w i t h o v e r Iay o v e r I ay Poor Poor Poor Poor ? Poor Poor Moderate Poor Moderate Fair Fa i r Moderate Moderate Moderate Fa i r Moderate Poor Good Good

Poor Fa i r Fa i r Moderate Fair ? Fa i r Fa i r Moderate Moderate Fa i r Fa i r

7 8
9 10

5000
8000

Resistance t o organic acids g r e a t 1 y improved by o v e r l a y

5000
8000+

Excellent for high loads a t low speeds

11
12

8000+

6000
8000+

13
14 15

2000-4000
Very v a r i a b l e

Withstands Fair occasional very h i g h temp.

16

High

Moderate

Good

100-300
depending on resin

Moderate

Good

17 18 19

Comparat i v e l y poor; depends on o p e r a t i n g conditions

Fair Fa i r Fair

Very Good Very Good Good

250 250 100-350

depending on

Good Good Good

Good Good Good

Good Good Good Very Good

Some p l a s t i c s a r e damaged by t h e s o l v e n t a c t i o n of 1 ubricants

86
5.3.2
Copper-lead A l l o y s They a r e blanked

These can be regarded as t h e f i r s t o f t h e modern a l l o y s .

from c o n t i n u o u s l y c o a t e d s t e e l s t r i p , t h e b e a r i n g a l l o y b e i n g a p p l i e d e i t h e r by c a s t i n g or by s i n t e r i n g . the l i q u i d s t a t e , and, Lead and copper a r e i m m i s c i b l e i n b o t h t h e s o l i d and

i n o r d e r t o a v o i d complete s e g r e g a t i o n when c a s t i n g , t h e

moving s t e e l s t r i p i s c h i l l e d immediately a f t e r c a s t i n g by a w a t e r spray on t h e underside. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a pronounced d e n d r i t i c s t r u c t u r e , w i t h c r y s t a l s o f

copper and l e a d normal t o t h e s t e e l backing and t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e . I n t h e s i n t e r i n g process t h e copper-lead powder i s compacted a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n and then s i n t e r e d . T h i s method o f manufacture g i v e s good c o n t r o l o f l e a d d i s t -

r i b u t i o n and r e s u l t s i n a homogeneous and e q u i a x i a l s t r u c t u r e . Both types o f copper-lead b e a r i n g a r e s a i d t o r e l y on a t h i n , e x t r u d e d s u r f a c e f i l m o f l e a d f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y performance. I n many ways they a r e

s i m i l a r , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n t methods o f manufacture g i v e r i s e t o i m p o r t a n t d i f f erences i n performance i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s . I n t h e c a s t a l l o y t h e l o n g copper

d e n d r i t e s enhance t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y and f a c i l i t a t e h e a t f l o w away from t h e b e a r i n g surface. distribution.

I t i s , however, d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y l e a d
i t i s much e a s i e r t o ensure a u n i f o r m l e a d

O t h e o t h e r hand, n

d i s t r i b u t i o n by s i n t e r i n g techniques, and t h e s i n t e r e d a l l o y i s t h e r e f o r e less susceptible t o corrosion. Copper-lead b e a r i n g s have g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h and b e t t e r h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e performance than w h i t e m e t a l s , b u t i n most o t h e r r e s p e c t s t h e y a r e i n f e r i o r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , they a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o c o r r o s i o n , cannot t o l e r a t e as much d i r t and g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e hardened j o u r n a l s . I n o r d e r t o overcome these d i s a d a thin
(%

vantages, copper-lead b e a r i n g s a r e g e n e r a l l y o v e r l a y - p l a t e d , e l e c t r o d e p o s i t o f a 90% l e a d

25 urn)

1 0 % t i n o r a 95% l e a d

5% indium a l l o y b e i n g
t h e a l l o y i s co-

applied t o the bearing surface. plated;

I n t h e case o f l e a d - t i n ,

i n t h e case o f lead-indium,

t h e l e a d i s p l a t e d f i r s t and then t h e
It i s often stated that t h i s

indium, which i s f i n a l l y d i f f u s e d i n t o t h e lead. o v e r l a y i s merely a r u n n i n g - i n a i d .

T h i s i s n o t t h e case;

the overlay i s

expected t o l a s t t h e l i f e o f t h e b e a r i n g .

It provides a seizure-resistant

surface, a l l o w s s o f t s h a f t s t o be used, increases t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e b e a r i n g t o absorb d i r t and combats c o r r o s i o n o f t h e pure l e a d i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g copperlead. Since i t i s so t h i n i t d e r i v e s c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e u n d e r l y i n g

b e a r i n g a l l o y , and t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f t h e composite i s h a r d l y impaired.

5.3.3

Lead Bronzes

The h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e performance and l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f copper-lead a l l o y s can be improved by t i n a d d i t i o n s . copper, t h e r e b y s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e b e a r i n g ; subject t o corrosion. The t i n d i s s o l v e s c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e t h e l e a d remains u n a l l o y e d and

L i k e copper-lead b e a r i n g s , lead-bronze b e a r i n g s can be

c a s t o r s i n t e r e d , and show t h e same disadvantages. usually overlay-plated.

For t h i s reason they a r e

L a r g e r - s i z e b e a r i n g s may have a t h i n l a y e r (100-200 pin) such b e a r i n g s a r e sometimes c a l l e d

o f tin-based w h i t e metal c a s t on them; micro-Babbitt o r tri-metal This m i c r o - B a b b i t t bearings.

l a y e r should always be separated from t h e lead-bronze by

a d i f f u s i o n b a r r i e r , o t h e r w i s e t h e bronze w i l l a l l o y w i t h t h e t i n - r i c h B a b b i t t t o form a hard, i n t e r m e t a l l i c phase which can damage t h e s h a f t .

Lead-bronzes a r e o f t e n used f o r l i t t l e - e n d bushes i n p i s t o n s f o r t u r b o charger bearings.

5.3.4
20% t i n .

Aluminium A l l o y s

Two a l l o y s a r e i n widespread use, one c o n t a i n i n g about 6% t i n and t h e o t h e r The 6% t i n a l l o y may be used i n massive f o r m o r bonded t o s t e e l , b u t ,
i t r e q u i r e s hardened j o u r n a l s i f wear i s t o be

unless i t i s o v e r l a y - p l a t e d ,

kept w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s .

The 20% t i n a l l o y i s a more r e c e n t development

and i t s method o f manufacture p r o v i d e s a good example o f t h e advanced t e c h n o l ogy a p p l i e d t o b e a r i n g manufacture. H i g h - t i n aluminium a l l o y s , as c a s t , have v e r y poor mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , because t h e t i n forms a c o n t i n u o u s network e n c l o s i n g t h e p r i m a r y aluminium crystals. By c o l d - w o r k i n g and low-temperature h e a t t r e a t m e n t t h i s continuous t h e so-

phase can be broken up t o produce an i n t e r l o c k i n g network s t r u c t u r e ,

c a l l e d r e t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e which has g r e a t l y improved mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . However, t h e a l l o y i s s t i l l i n s t r i p form and must be bonded t o a t h i n , s t e e l s t r i p backing. T h i s i s achieved by a c o n t i n u o u s p r e s s u r e - w e l d i n g o p e r a t i o n

c a r r i e d o u t between r o l l e r s , t h e bonding between t h e two s t r i p s b e i n g promoted by a v e r y t h i n sheet o f p u r e aluminium. T h i s t y p e o f b e a r i n g has a h i g h e r l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y than copper-lead a l l o y s and y e t can be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s o f t j o u r n a l s . f o r d i r t i s n o t good and i t i s o c c a s i o n a l l y o v e r l a y - p l a t e d . The l a t e s t development i n aluminium b e a r i n g s i s t h e a l u m i n i u m - B a b b i t t a l l o y .
A t l e a s t t h r e e s u p p l i e r s a r e known t o be a c t i v e i n t h i s f i e l d , each u s i n g a

I t s tolerance

d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g technique.

I n one case t h e method o f manufIn

a c t u r e i s n o t u n l i k e t h a t used f o r t h e 20% t i n - 8 0 % aluminium b e a r i n g s . another, a c o n t i n u o u s s i n t e r i n g process i s used.

The B a b b i t t a l l o y i s about

90% lead-10% t i n , and s i n c e t i n i s o n l y s p a r i n g l y s o l u b l e i n aluminium, t h e t i n

remains i n s o l u t i o n i n t h e lead. T h i s means t h a t t h e l e a d - r i c h phase ( t h e B a b b i t t ) should remain c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t copper-lead and lead-bronze a l l o y s .

i n contrast t o the s i t u a t i o n w i t h

88

5.3.5

Phosphor and S i l i c o n Bronzes

These a l l o y s a r e c a s t as e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l b e a r i n g s o r tubes from which be a r in g s can be machined. I n r e c e n t yea rs, c e n t r i f u g a l and semi-continuous M a t e r i a l s o f t h i s t y p e a r e used m a i n l y f o r

c a s t i n g procedures have been used.

bushes, p a r t i c u l a r l y l i t t l e - e n d bushes, where heavy loads and h i g h temperatures a r e encountered. The presence o f phosphorus a t about t h e 0.5% l e v e l has a i.e. the a l l o y has o u t s t a n d i n g r e s -

marked e f f e c t on r e s i s t a n c e t o pounding,

i s t a n c e t o wear when s u b j e c t t o heavy l oa ds a t low s l i d i n g speeds.

5.3.6

Silver

S i l v e r b e a r in gs, sometimes p l a i n , sometimes w i t h a t h i n o v e r l a y o f leadindium, have been adopted by t h e a i r c r a f t i n d u s t r y and a r e used on one w e l l known make o f d i e s e l engine. and i s about 0.5 mm t h i c k . The s i l v e r i s e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d on a s t e e l backing E l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d s i l v e r i s much harder than c a s t

s i l v e r , and s i l v e r b e a r i n g s a r e un eq ua l l ed w i t h respect t o l o a d - c a r r y i n g capa c i t y and f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e . add i t ives . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , they a r e prone t o s e i z u r e and a r e

v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and t o c e r t a i n l u b r i c a t i n g - o i l

5.3.7

Porous and S e l f - L u b r i c a t i n g Bearings

Most porous b e a r i n g s c o n s i s t o f s i n t e r e d bronze o r i r o n powders w i t h i n t e r c on n e c t in g pores. operation, These p ore s may t ake up 10-30% o f t h e t o t a l volume and, i n

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i s s t o r e d i n them and i s subsequently f e d t o t h e Any o i l e scap i ng f ro m t h e loaded zone i s reabsorbed by cap-

bearing surface. i l l a r y action.

A t y p i c a l bronze c o n t a i n s 90% copper and 10% t i n ;

1-4% g r a p h i t e
H igh light-

may be added t o t h e mi x t o enhance t h e s e l f - l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s . p o r o s i t y and h i g h l u b r i c a t i n g - o i l

c o n t e n t a r e r e q u i r e d f o r high-speed,

l oa d a p p l i c a t i o n s , whereas a l o w - p o r o s i t y m a t e r i a l w i t h a h i g h g r a p h i t e c o n t e n t i s b e t t e r f o r o s c i l l a t o r y and r e c i p r o c a t i n g movement, where i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h an o i l f i l m .

5.3.8

Dis c u s s io n on M e t a l l i c Be ari n g M a t e r i a l s However, t h e One

No b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l combines a l l t he d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s .
includes surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

i m p o r ta n t p r o p e r t i e s o f b e a r i n g s can be grouped i n two main c a t e g o r i e s .

such as wear r e s i s t a n c e , j o u r n a l c o m p a t a b i l i t y ,

c o n f o r m a b i l i t y and e m b e d d a b i l i t y , t h e o t h e r i n c l u d e s mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , such a f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . are divergent, Since these two c a t e g o r i e s

t o have optimum s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s t r e n g t h must be sacHowever, by u s i n g modern manufacturing methods,

it i s

r i f i c e d and v i c e versa.

g e n e r a l l y p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e a t a good compromise s o l u t i o n as, f o r example, the case o f t r i - m e t a l b ea ri ng s.

in

89
There i s n o c l e a r u nd erst an di n g o f t h e way i n which b e a r i n g a l l o y s f u n c t i o n , and general t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r b eh avi o ur can almost always be d i s c r e d i t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o some p a r t i c u l a r b ea ri ng . p r a c t i c e has always been ahead o f t he ory. In the formulation o f bearing a l l o y s , T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t b e a r i n g i n f a c t , t h e manufacturing

design and manufacture i s a backward i n d u s t r y ;

techniques d e s c r i b e d p rove t h e o p p o s i t e , and b e a r i n g manufacturers can p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n s t o a l most any b e a r i n g problem. N evertheless, many

be a r in g s s t i l l f a i l pre mat ure l y i n s e r v i c e and t h e r e i s a g r e a t need t o t e l l designers about t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e o r under development.

5.4

BEARING FAILURES

S e c tio n s 5.1

5.3 have p r o v i d e d t h e reader w i t h a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the

s u b je c t, and i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e and d i s c u s s some o f t h e l i k e l y causes o f b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s , g i v i n g p a r t i c u l a r emphasis t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f factors that give r i s e t o failures.

5.4.1

M e t a l l u r g i c a l Def ect s i n New Be ari n gs

Modern p l a i n b e a r i n g s can be v e r y complex c o n s t r u c t i o n s and much may go wrong d u r i n g t h e i r manufacture. Neve rt h el e ss, v e r y few d e f e c t i v e b e a r i n g s e n t e r

s e r v i c e , s i n c e t h e ma j or b e a r i n g man uf act ure r s m a i n t a i n a h i g h standard o f quality control. bea r in g s , e.g. Def ect s a r e more l i k e l y t o occur on i n d i v i d u a l l y manufactured

l a r g e , whi t e-me t a l b e a r i n g s , t han on mass-produced bearings o f varieties. 5.4.1.5. D efects t h a t may be encountered a r e

the c o p p e r - le a d o r a l u m i n i u m - t i n described i n S e ct i on s 5.4.1.1

5.4.1.1

Bad Bonding

Bonding i s s t i l l a ma j or problem on l a r g e , w hite-metal bearings, a l t h o u g h poor bonds a r e e xt re mel y r a r e on o t h e r t ype s o f bearing. white-metal Bearing s h e l l s f o r

b e a r i n g s must be t i n n e d b e f o r e t h e w h i t e metal i s c a s t i n place,

and t h e te m p e r a tu re o f b o t h t h e s h e l l and t h e w h i t e metal must be c a r e f u l l y controlled.

A m e t a l l u r g i c a l bond between t h e b e a r i n g and t h e s h e l l strengthens

the w h i t e metal and f a c i l i t a t e s t he f l o w o f heat away from the b e a r i n g surface. In t h e p a s t , some "wh i t e m e t a l l e r s " have argued t h a t i f they machined d o v e t a i l grooves i n t h e s h e l l , these h e l d t h e w h i t e metal i n p l a c e and t h e r e was no need t o i n s i s t on good bonding. sighted p o l i c y ; Experience p rove s t h a t t h i s i s an extremely s h o r t in

d o v e t a i l grooves a r e no s u b s t i t u t e f o r good bonding and,

a d d i t i o n , t h e sharp edges a t t h e sh ou l de rs o f t h e grooves a c t as l o c a l i s e d s t r e s s r a i s e r s and can i n i t i a t e c r a c k s ( F i g . 1 ) .

A general v ie w o f a cop pe r-l ea d b e a r i n g which f a i l e d due t o bad bonding, t h e

copper-lead b e a r i n g a l l o y h a v i n g separated c l e a n l y from t h e s t e e l s h e l l , shown i n Fig.2. is

90

Fig.1

Dovetail in white-metal thrust pad bearing.

Fig.2

Bad bonding:

copper-lead bearing.

91
Bad bonding on new b e a r i n g s can be d e t e c t e d r e a d i l y u s i n g u l t r a s o n i c o r e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e measuring techniques, and t h e r e a r e a number o f commerci-

a l l y a v a i l a b l e t e s t i nst rume nt s.

O a f a i l e d bearing, bad bonding can be n

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r om f a t i g u e f a i l u r e because w i t h t h e former, t h e b e a r i n g metal detaches c l e a n l y f ro m t h e s h e l l (Fig.3).

5.4.1.2

Gas C a v i t i e s

I n l a r g e , wh ite -met al b e a r i n g s , t o o l ow a c a s t i n g temperature o r i n s u f f i c i e n t p r e h e a t i n g o f t h e s h e l l can g i v e r i s e t o gas c a v i t i e s near t h e s h e l l s u r f a c e . Such c a v i t i e s weaken t h e b e a r i n g metal and a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t heat f l o w ; (F ig s . 4 and 5). Cast c o p p e r - le ad a l l o y s sometimes e x h i b i t c a s t i n g p o r o s i t y , w hich i n t h i s i n s ta n c e i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t o be due t o hydrogen e v o l u t i o n from t h e copper. This p o r o s i t y due t o o u t - g a s s i n g must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from c o r r o s i o n o f t h e lead phase by o i l - o x i d a t i o n pro du ct s. Cast i ng p o r o s i t y i s sub-surface, whereas some-

times, t h e h y d r o s t a t i c pre ssure above t h e c a v i t i e s may cause t h e i r c o l l a p s e

w i t h corrosion, the lead i n the surface l a y e r s i s p r e f e r e n t i a l l y dissolved (F ig .6 ) .

5.4.1.3

Ov e r s ize Cuboids I n l a r g e r b e a r i n g s , slow

T h i s p r o b le m i s s p e c i f i c t o wh i t e -met al b earings.

c o o l i n g t h r o u g h t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n range can g i v e r i s e t o o v e r s i z e (> 0 . 1 mm) t i n - a n t i m o n y c u b o i ds (F i g. 7). T h i s i n t e r m e t a l l i c compound i s b r i t t l e and the

l a r g e c u b o id s can c r a c k and break-up i n s e r v i c e , causing s c o r i n g o f t h e j o u r n a l s and damage elsewhere i n t h e o i l system ( F i g . 8 ) . a r e r e a d i l y v i s i b l e t o t h e naked eye t h e y a r e t o o b i g . I n general,

i f cuboids

5.4.1.4

Excessive Lead Content \ i n Tin-Based White Metals

The le a d c o n t e n t o f t i n-b ase d w h i t e me t a l s should be below 0.5% t o prevent th e f o r m a t i o n o f a l o w - m e l t i n g , l e a d - t i n e u t e c t i c i n t h e g r a i n boundaries. For

The e u t e c t i c weakens t h e a l l o y and makes i t more s u s c e p t i b l e t o w i p i s g . s i m i l a r reasons,

i t i s bad p r a c t i c e t o mix lead-based and t i n - b a s e d w hite-metal

h a l f - b e a r i n g s , as i s sometimes done t o save i n i t i a l c o s t s , t i n b e i n g used on t h e loaded h a l f and l e a d on t h e unloaded h a l f . Carry-over o f l e a d from one

h a l f - b e a r i n g t o t h e o t h e r can r e s u l t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e l o w - m e l t i n g - p o i n t eutect ic.

5.4.1.5

Uneven Lead D i s t r i b u t i o n i n Copper-Lead and Lead-Bronze A l l o y s

Copper-lead and lead-bronze b e a r i n g a l l o y s can be manufactured by m e l t i n g and c a s t i n g o r by s i n t e r i n g techniques. Lead d i s t r i b u t i o n i s more r e a d i l y

c o n t r o l l e d by p o wde r-met al l u rgy t e chn i qu es, so uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n i s m a i n l y

92

Fig.3

Micro-sections.

93

Fiq.4

Cross-section o f White-metals Showing Gas Cavities

Fig.5

Collapsed surface o f white-metal thrust pad bearing.

94

Fig.6

C a s t i n g p o r o s i t y i n c a s t copper-lead big-end b e a r i n g .

Fiq.7

O v e r s i z e t i n - a n t i m o n y cuboids i n w h i t e - m e t a l steam t u r b i n e

t h r u s t pad from

95

Fig.8

S i n g l e cuboids showing c r a c k s .

Fig.9

Bad l e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n .

96
encountered on c a s t b e a r i n g s . Copper and l e a d a r e i m m i s c i b l e and good l e a d in

d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c a s t a l l o y s depends on s p e c i a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g techniques, p a r t i c u l a r on r a p i d c o o l i n g o f t h e a l l o y a f t e r c a s t i n g .

This r a p i d cooling

r e s u l t s i n a h i g h l y o r i e n t e d s t r u c t u r e w i t h l o n g copper and l e a d d e n d r i t e s normal t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b e a r i n g s h e l l . laxed, t h e l e a d can be unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d ;

If manufacturing c o n t r o l s are ref o r example,

i t may be p r e s e n t i n

l a r g e s l u g s , normal o r p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e ( F i g . 9 ) .

5.4.2

F a i l u r e s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Design, F i t t i n g o r O p e r a t i n g Environment

The f i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f f a i l u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m adverse o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s type i s generally fatigue. The l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s and tem-

p e r a t u r e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t y p i c a l b e a r i n g a l l o y s a r e i n d i c a t e d i n Table 5 . 2 . However, these depend on a number o f f a c t o r s , such as t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e b e a r i n g a l l o y and t h e support i t g e t s f r o m i t s s u b s t r a t e o r s h e l l .

Also, the

s t r e n g t h o f b e a r i n g a l l o y s decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g temperature, and b e a r i n g s u r f a c e temperatures a r e g e n e r a l l y a t l e a s t 2OoC i n excess o f measured o i l temperatures. The design o f b e a r i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e l o c a t i o n o f o i l feeds and o i l grooves, i s o u t s i d e t h e scope o f t h i s paper. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t should be em-

phasised t h a t l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i s r a r e l y enhanced by a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of o i l grooves.

5.4.2.1

Bad F i t t i n g

Modern b e a r i n g s a r e manufactured t o v e r y c l o s e t o l e r a n c e s and s h o u l d be assembled w i t h g r e a t care.

I f t h e y a r e n o t a c c u r a t e l y a l i g n e d , t h e l o a d i n g w i l l be I f t h e b e a r i n g does n o t

uneven and premature f a i l u r e due t o f a t i g u e may o c c u r .

f i t p r o p e r l y i n i t s housing, s l i g h t movement may o c c u r , which can r e s u l t i n

severe f r e t t i n g on t h e back o f t h e b e a r i n g .

Loose f i t t i n g and/or f r e t t i n g can

a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t h e a t t r a n s f e r and can g i v e r i s e t o e x c e s s i v e b e a r i n g - s u r f a c e temperature (Fig.10).

D i r t p a r t i c l e s trapped between a b e a r i n g and i t s housing c o n s t i t u t e a n o t h e r

cause o f poor heat t r a n s f e r .

Such p a r t i c l e s can a l s o cause h i g h spots on t h e

b e a r i n g s u r f a c e , which may g i v e r i s e t o l o c a l i s e d w i p i n g and f a t i g u e (Fig.11).

I t w i l l be c l e a r f r o m t h e above t h a t e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e back o f a f a i l e d

b e a r i n g can p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g i t s mode o f f a i l u r e . comment has been made t h a t t h e b e s t way t o e v a l u a t e "experts" as t h e sl i d i n g surface. on b e a r i n g

The

f a t i g u e s i s t o n o t e whether t h e y examine t h e backs o f b e a r i n g s w i t h as much c a r e

91

Fig.10

F r e t t i n g and d i s t o r t i o n due t o bad f i t t i n g .

5.4.2.2

Extraneous P a r t i c l e s The more e x p e r t

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y t h e m s t common cause o f b e a r i n g f a i l u r e .

we become a t d e t e c t i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l , t h e more obvious i t i s t h a t c l e a n l i n e s s on assembly and good l u b r i c a n t f i l t r a t i o n i n s e r v i c e a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r lo ng, t r o u b l e - f r e e s e r v i c e l i v e s .

A l l too frequently, engineering

components a r e assembled w i t h o u t adequate c l e a n i n g i n d i r t y environments, w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t machining swarf , moulding sand and o t h e r k i n d s o f d e b r i c c i r c u l a t e w i t h the l u b r i c a t i n g o i l . Large p a r t i c l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y removed by t h e

o i l f i l t e r s , b u t medium-sized p a r t i c l e s may embed i n t h e b e a r i n g s and v e r y small p a r t i c l e s c o n t i n u e t o c i r c u l a t e w i t h t he o i l . F o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s and wear

d e b r i s can a l s o accumulate d u r i n g s e r v i c e , and v e r y l o n g o i l - c h a n g e p e r i o d s , now much i n f a v o u r , ag gra vat e t h e s i t u a t i o n .

98

Fig.12

Shaft wear due t o embedded p a r t i c l e s i n bearinq.

99
B e a r in g a l l o y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h i t e met al s, have a c o n s i d e r a b l e c a p a c i t y f o r abrasive materials. When t h i s c a p a c i t y i s exceeded, t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e can a c t

as a l a p , a b r a d i n g away t h e j o u r n a l s u r f a c e , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g clearances and leading t o f a t i g u e f a i l u r e . T h i s l a p p i n g a c t i o n by embedded p a r t i c l e s i s t h e

prime cause o f j o u r n a l wear (F i g. 12 ).

In most in s t a nces, t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e w i l l be i n r e l a t i v e l y good c o n d i t i o n

(unless complete f a i l u r e has o c c u r r e d ) , a l t h o u g h t h e o v e r a l l t h i c k n e s s o f t h e be a r in g can a c t u a l l y i n crea se owing t o t h e amount o f embedded m a t e r i a l . P a r t i c l e s embedded i n b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s d i s p l a c e metal and t h e r e f o r e a r e o f t e n surrounded by a r a i s e d , b urn i she d h a l o (F i g. 13).

I f t h e c o m p o si t i o n o f embedded p a r t i c l e s can be determined, t h e i r o r i g i n may

be e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t e p s taken t o e l i m i n a t e them.

A v a r i e t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t ech ni q ue s a r e now a v a i l a b l e .
X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n o r X-ray sp ect rome t ry. el e c tr o n - p r o b e . recommend them; Alternatively,

For example, t h e

p a r t i c l e s may be e x t r a c t e d c h e m i c a l l y o r m e c h a n i c a l l y f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by They can be examined i n s i t u u s i n g an

chemical e x t r a c t i o n techniques have much t o

t h e amount o f d e b r i s g e n e r a l l y o b t a i n e d i s enough t o h o r r i f y

most p l a n t o p e r a t o r s (F i g . 1 4). P a r t i c l e s i n e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d l e a d o v e r l a y s can be e x t r a c t e d w i t h an a c e t i c acid/hydrogen p e r o x i d e m i x t u r e , which d i s s o l v e s t h e o v e r l a y ; - t i n b e a r i n g s can be e x t r a c t e d w i t h c a u s t i c soda. p a r t i c l e s i n t i n - b a s e d w h i t e met al s. Embedded f e r r o u s p a r t i c l e s ( t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e group) can be q u i c k l y i d e n t i f i e d by " i r o n p r i n t i n g " (Fig.15). T h i s i n v o l v e s so aki n g an unglazed paper i n a 5 % s~ l u t i o n o f potassium f e r r i o cyanide t o wh ic h a few drops of h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and w e t t i n g agent have been added. The s u r p l u s l i q u i d i s d r a i n e d o f f t h e paper, w hich i s then p l a c e d i n conThe paper The Similar those i n aluminium

Both m i x t u r e s can loosen

t a c t w i t h t h e degreased surf ace o f t h e b e a r i n g f o r about 30 seconds. p a r t i c l e s t h a t remain i n t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e a r e a l s o s t a i n e d b l u e .

i s then removed, and b l u e sp ot s i n d i c a t e t h e presence o f f e r r o u s p a r t i c l e s .

techniques a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s o f most common nonf e r r o u s m e t a ls . Since f e r r o u s p a r t i c l e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e most common t y p e o f a b r a s i v e wear p a r t i c l e , t h e use o f magnetic f i l t e r s , recommend i t. Fin e p a r t i c l e s , s m a l l e r t ha n normal b e a r i n g clearances, can c i r c u l a t e w i t h the l u b r i c a n t and erode t h e b e a r i n g s u i f a c e . Hard p a r t i c l e s erode deep, w e l l -

i n a d d i t i o n t o o r d i n a r y f i l t e r s , has much t o

d e f i n e d channels, w h i l e s o f t p a r t i c l e s g i v e r i s e t o more general e r o s i o n (Fig.16), p a r t i c u l a r l y on s o f t e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d o v e r l a y s . E r o s io n by f i n e p a r t i c l e s i s most p r e v a l e n t on high-speed b e a r i n g s and may be associated w i t h c a v i t a t i o n erosion.

100

Fig.13

P a r t i c l e s embedded i n b e a r i n g s u r f a c e .

Fig.14

Steel p a r t i c l e s e x t r a c t e d from b e a r i n g .

101

Fig.16

Erosion damage.

102

5.4.2.3

Cor r o s i o n

L u b r i c a n t s d e t e r i o r a t e i n s e r v i c e i n two ways

they become contaminated and I n engines, the

th e y undergo p h y s i c a l and chemical changes due t o o x i d a t i o n .

common contaminants a r e a i r b o r n e du st and wear products, unburnt f u e l , f u e l combustion p r o d u c t s and wat er. e r i a l s and a s p h a l t e ne s. sludges and lacquers. The o x i d a t i o n p r o d u c t s a r e m a i n l y a c i d i c mat-

Asphaltenes i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h f u e l contaminants form The a c i d i c m a t e r i a l s - r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e o x i d a t i o n o f

l u b r i c a n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y weak o r g a n i c a c i d s , a l t h o u g h i n extreme cases s t r o n g m i n e r a l a c i d s may be produced. However, a l most a l l s t r o n g m i n e r a l a c i d contami

n a t i o n i n l u b r i c a n t s i s d e r i v e d f rom f u e l combustion p r o d u c t s , s u l p h u r i c a c i d b e i n g a major contaminant i n d i e s e l e ng i ne s and halogen a c i d s i n g a s o l i n e eng ines. Since b e a r i n g s a r e o f complex c o n s t r u c t i o n , the way i n w hich t h e i r s t r u c t u r e

and c o m p o s i t i o n a f f e c t s t h e i r c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e w i l l be discussed w i t h r e f erence t o v a r i o u s c o r r o s i o n mechanisms. I t s h o u ld be emphasised t h a t b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s t h a t a r e p r i m a r i l y due t o any form o f c o r r o s i o n a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e and t h a t b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s caused by i n h e r e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s on t h e p a r t o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a r e extremely r a r e . Never-

t h e l e s s , c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c forms o f c o r r o s i o n , such as t i n o x i d e f o r m a t i o n on ti n- b a s e d white-metal b e a r i n g s and sul p hu r c o r r o s i o n o f phosphor-bronze a l l o y s ,

A l s o , as w i l l be apparent i n S e c t i o n

have a t t r a c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n .

5.4.2.3

( c o r r o s i o n by weak o r g a n i c a c i d s ) and 5 . 4 . 2 . 4

( c a v i t a t i o n and e r o s i o n ) , periods,

i n c r e a s i n g l y severe o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,

such as longer-oil-change

v e r y h i g h o p e r a t i n g temperatures and i n crea sed speeds, can g i v e r i s e t o p a r t i c u l a r problems. These a r e problems i n which c o r r o s i o n p l a y s a p a r t , b u t i n

which o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e also o p e r a t i v e . ( i ) Co r r o s io n by weak o r g a n i c a c i d s Weak o r g a n i c a c i d s a r i s e e i t h e r f r o m prolonged exposure o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a t e l e v a t e d temperatures o r by c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t w i t h p a r t i a l l y b u r n t combustion p rod uct s. These a c i d s a t t a c k l e a d f a r more

r e a d i l y t h an o t h e r met al s, and can d i s s o l v e t h e lead phase i n copper-lead and lead-bronze b e a r i n g s (F i g . 1 7). Some e n g in e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e t e s t s t o determine t h e c o r r o s i v i t y o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s towards copper-lead bearings. The loss

o f le a d i s assessed b y we i gh i ng t h e b e a r i n g s h e l l s b e f o r e and a f t e r t e s t . I n s e r v i c e f a i l u r e s , where t h e wei g ht s o f new b e a r i n g s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , le a d c o r r o s i o n can be d e t e c t e d by m e t a l l u r g i c a l s e c t i o n i n g (Fig.18). Copper-lead and lead-bronze b e a r i n g s may be manufactured by s i n t e r i n g o r casting. I n s i n t e r e d a l l o y s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o ensure t h a t t h e lead

103

Fig.17

Corroded copper-lead b e a r i n g

Fig.18

Corroded s i n t e r e d copper-lead b e a r i n g

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phase i s w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d and d i s c o n t i n u o u s , s o t h e c o r r o s i o n w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o the surface layers. O t h e o t h e r hand, w i t h c a s t a l l o y s , n This

s a t i s f a c t o r y l e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n depends on h i g h l y s p e c i a l i s e d manufactur i n g techniques and r a p i d c o o l i n g o f t h e a l l o y a f t e r c a s t i n g . rapid cooling gives r i s e t o a h i g h l y o r i e n t e d structure, w i t h long copper and l e a d d e n d r i t e s normal t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b e a r i n g s h e l l . The l o n g l e a d d e n d r i t e s p r o v i d e an easy p a t h f o r t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f a corrosive lubricant. I n these circumstances i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r almost

a l l o f t h e l e a d phase t o be leached o u t o f a c a s t copper-lead a l l o y (Fig.19).

Fig.19

Corroded c a s t copper-lead b e a r i n g .

Most copper-lead b e a r i n g s now have a p r e c i s i o n e l e c t r o d e p o s i t e d o v e r l a y o f a l e a d - t i n o r lead-indium a l l o y . the c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e lead. The indium o r t i n a d d i t i o n s improve
W have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t about e

3%

t i n o r 4 . 8 % indium i s r e q u i r e d t o render t h e o v e r l a y c o m p l e t e l y r e s i s t a n t t o c o r r o s i o n (Fig.20). Bearing manufacturers g e n e r a l l y p r o v i d e o v e r l a y s w i t h about 5% indium o r 10% t i n . However, a t t h e h i g h temperatures t h a t b e a r i n g s can e x p e r i e n c e i n s e r v i c e , t h e indium o r t i n d i f f u s e s q u i t e r a p i d l y and m i g r a t e s i n t o

105

Average w t loss m 9.

200Indium alloys
150-

100

Tin alloys

A Lead-tin alloys
X Lead- indium alloys

50

1.0

3.0 4.0 Percentage alloying element

2.0

5.0

- 60 .

Fig.20

Corrosion of l e a d - t i n and lead-indium a l l o y s . This d i f f u s i o n can r e a d i l y be observed both

the u n d e r l y i n g copper-lead.

on bearings removed from s e r v i c e and on bearings t e s t e d i n the laboratory. I n the case o f t i n , the t i n a l l o y s w i t h the copper t o form c o p p e r - t i n i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds. I n the case of indium, enrichment occurs ad-

j a c e n t t o t h e copper, but we have no evidence o f compound formation. S i m i l a r e f f e c t s can be observed on s i l v e r bearings w i t h l e a d - r i c h e l e c t r o deposited overlays. This m i g r a t i o n o f indium and t i n from the surface l a y e r s o f the o v e r l a y leaves them s u s c e p t i b l e t o c o r r o s i o n (Figs.21-23). I t i s s a i d t h a t one

way t o prevent t h i s d i f f u s i o n i s t o interpose a dam between the overlay and the u n d e r l y i n g copper-lead Very t h i n n i c k e l , (Fig.24). However,

i r o n o r brass l a y e r s have been used as dams.

many bearings users a r e u n w i l l i n g t o face the increased cost associated w i t h the use o f dams and, questioned. There i s another way i n which the indium i n lead-indium overlays may be depleted. i n any case, t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s being

I f the indium content f a l l s t o below about 3%, i n t e r n a l

The

o x i d a t i o n o f the indium can occur i n the g r a i n boundaries (Fig.25).

indium oxide formed i n t h i s way e m b r i t t l e s the a l l o y and renders i t very susceptible t o f a t i g u e f a i l u r e as w e l l as t o c o r r o s i v e a t t a c k (Fig.26).

106

Fig.21

Corrosion o f b e a r i n g o v e r l a y .

Fig.22

E l e c t r o n probe micrographs showing indium d i s t r i b u t i o n .

107

A f t e r 13,000 h r s . Fig.23

A f t e r 200 h r s . a t f u l l l o a d .

l n t e r m e t a l 1 i c compound f o r m a t i o n i n o v e r l a y b e a r i n g s ( c o p p e r - l e a d ) .

Fig.24

O v e r l a y b e a r i n g w i t h dam.

108

Fig.25

Internal oxidation o f lead indium overlay.

Fig.26

Corrosion o f lead indium overlay.

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Another consequence o f t h e d i f f u s i o n o f t i n f r o m l e a d - r i c h o v e r l a y s i s t h e roughening o f t h e o v e r l a y s u r f a c e (Fig.27). Although copper

has a much h i g h e r a f f i n i t y f o r t i n t h a n has lead, t i n d i f f u s e s much more r a p i d l y i n l e a d than i n copper. T h i s means t h a t where t h e l e a d the t i n and

phase i n copper-lead a l l o y i s continuous w i t h t h e o v e r l a y ,

can p e n e t r a t e deeply i n t o t h e a l l o y i n t h e l e a d phase (Fig.28) cause s i n k i n g o f t h e o v e r l a y .

T h i s movement o f t i n away f r o m t h e

o v e r l a y can g i v e t h e o v e r l a y a roughened appearance, which may be mistaken f o r c o r r o s i o n . ( i i ) C o r r o s i o n by s t r o n g m i n e r a l a c i d s The main source o f s t r o n g m i n e r a l a c i d s i n l u b r i c a n t s i s c o n t a m i n a t i o n by f u e l combustion p r o d u c t s . Diesel fuels, p a r t i c u l a r l y marine t h i s sulphur

diesel f u e l s , contain s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f sulphur;

i s t h e source o f s u l p h u r i c a c i d , which may f i n d i t s way i n t o t h e lubricant. Gasolines, on t h e o t h e r hand, c o n t a i n v e r y l i t t l e s u l p h u r ,

b u t do c o n t a i n c h l o r i n e and bromide compounds which a r e added t o scavenge t h e l e a d a n t i k n o c k compounds. Thus, l e a d h a l i d e compounds in

may accumulate i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i n g a s o l i n e engines and, c e r t a i n circumstances, halogen a c i d s can form.

The s t r o n g a c i d s g e n e r a l l y a t t a c k bare s t e e l s u r f a c e s r a t h e r than bearing a l l o y s . T h i s u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n j o u r n a l s b e i n g roughened by

c o r r o s i o n , and b e a r i n g s t h e n f a i l e i t h e r because o f t h i s o r as a r e s u l t o f damage by c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s ( r u s t ) . I n t h e presence o f aluminium and m o i s t u r e , l e a d h a l i d e s can d e l i q u e s c e , g i v i n g r i s e t o halogen a c i d s , which c o r r o d e aluminium. This corrosion

r e a c t i o n was f i r s t observed on a l u m i n i u m - a l l o y p i s t o n s and can r e a d i l y be d u p l i c a t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . F o r t u n a t e l y , examples o f t h i s t y p e

o f a t t a c k on a l u m i n i u m - t i n b e a r i n g s i n engines a r e e x t r e m e l y r a r e , a l t h o u g h b e a r i n g s a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o h a l i d e c o r r o s i o n a f t e r removal f r o m engines. Halogen a t t a c k has a l s o been observed on l e a d o v e r l a y b e a r i n g s o p e r a t e d a t v e r y h i g h engine temperatures, when mixed b r o m i d e / c h l o r i d e l a y e r s can f o r m on t h e o v e r l a y s u r f a c e and cause b l a c k e n i n g ( F i g s .

29 and 30).

E l e c t r o n - p r o b e s t u d i e s o f t h e r e a c t i o n l a y e r show t h a t

i t c o n t a i n s indium a t t h e same c o n c e n t r a t i o n as i n t h e b e a r i n g , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e l e a d h a l i d e s have been formed i n s i t u as a r e s u l t o f c o r r o s i o n and have n o t been d e r i v e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f u e l . ( i i i ) Sulphur c o r r o s i o n T h i s i s a general d e s c r i p t i o n which i s a p p l i e d t o most forms of c o r r o s i o n encountered on s i l v e r - r i c h o r c o p p e r - r i c h b e a r i n g a l l o y s .

110

Fig.27

Roughening o f overlay due t o d i f f u s i o n .

Fig.28

' S i n k i n g ' o f overlay.

111

Fig.29

Blackened b i g - e n d b e a r i n g s .

Fig.30

Lead h a l i d e l a y e r .

112
There i s no doubt t h a t sulphur compounds i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s can promote the corrosion of these p a r t i c u l a r a l l o y s . O the o t h e r hand, b o t h n

n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g sulphur compounds i n l u b r i c a n t s and sulphur-containing a d d i t i v e s (e. g. z i n c d i a l k y l d it h iophosphates) confer b e n e f i c i a l p r o p e r t i e s on l u b r i c a n t s . Thus, the dithiophosphates show considerable a,ntioxidant With regard t o n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g sulphur com-

and anti-wear e f f e c t s .

pounds, modern r e f i n i n g techniques can remove them completely, b u t experience shows t h a t t h i s i s most unwise, since some o f these compounds p l a y a l a r g e p a r t i n i n h i b i t i n g the c o r r o s i o n o f many metals, p a r t i c u l a r l y lead. O s i l v e r bearings the problem, n i n theory, i s f a i r l y simple. S i l v e r has

a h i g h a f f i n i t y f o r sulphur, and dithiophosphate-type a d d i t i v e s cannot be used. However, a s m a l l amount o f e.p. (extreme-pressure) a c t i v i t y on the

p a r t o f the l u b r i c a n t i s necessary, and the n a t u r a l sulphur can sometimes meet t h i s requirement. be used. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a c h l o r i n e - c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e may

A s i l v e r bearing a f t e r s e r v i c e would be expected t o show a

c e r t a i n amount o f d i s c o l o r a t i o n due t o the formation o f s i l v e r sulphide o r s i l v e r c h l o r i d e , which have a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on the f r i c t i o n a l characteristics. corrosion. However, too much r e a c t i v e sulphur can cause severe

I t can be concluded t h a t the f o r m u l a t i o n o f o i l s t o l u b r i c a t e

s i l v e r bearings r e q u i r e s t h e e x p e r t i s e o f an o i l chemist. The c o r r o s i o n problems o f copper a l l o y s a r e more complex because the a l l o y s themselves a r e complex. phase MY O simple copper-lead a l l o y s the copper n

be attacked by sulphur, but t h i s i s a comparatively r a r e

occurrence, the problem o f sulphur c o r r o s i o n being much more acute on phosphor-bronze a1 loys (Fig.31). This i s because phosphor-bronze a1 loys,

which a r e very popular f o r l i t t l e - e n d bushes i n d i e s e l engines, a r e expected t o operate a t considerably higher temperatures than copper-lead bearings. use today. There i s no general agreement about the c o r r o s i o n mechanism. Some I n any case, t h e r e a r e very few bare copper-lead bearings i n

engine manufacturers and users h o l d dithiophosphate a d d i t i v e s e n t i r e l y responsible, but t h i s o p i n i o n cannot be substantiated, f o r severe c o r r o s i o n can occur when o i l s c o n t a i n i n g o n l y n a t u r a l sulphur compounds a r e used.
TWO important f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g the s e v e r i t y o f c o r r o s i o n a r e the

amount o f a l l o y i n g element i n s o l u t i o n i n the copper-rich phase and the p o r o s i t y o f the a l l o y . I n phosphor bronzes,

i f the amount o f t i n i n

s o l u t i o n can be increased by special c a s t i n g techniques, such as continuous c a s t i n g , o r by s o l u t i o n treatment a f t e r manufacture, the resistance t o c o r r o s i o n i s g r e a t l y increased. The presence o f z i n c

113
and/or s i l i c o n as a l l o y i n g elements i n copper a l l o y s a l s o increases t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f these a l l o y s t o su l ph ur c o r r o s i o n . c u l t t o make sound s i l i c o n - b r o n z e c a s t i n g s . However,
it is d i f f i -

I f t h e a l l o y i s porous, t h e l u b r i c a n t i s drawn i n t o the pores, where i t

s ta g n a t e s and, i f o p e r a t i n g temperatures a r e h i g h , can become very c o r r o s i v e (F i g. 32 ). The p a r t i c u l a r temperature a t which c o r r o s i o n bevery a c t i v e

comes severe depends on t h e t ype o f d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e used;

v a r i e t i e s can s t a r t t o co rrod e a t about 1 3 O o C , whereas o t h e r v a r i e t i e s may be c o mp ara t i ve l y s t a b l e up t o 180C. l i t t l e t r o u b l e below 1 7 O O C . N a t u r a l sulphur compounds g i v e

Most phosphor-bronze c a s t i n g s a r e micro-

porous, and t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o r o s i t y t he g r e a t e r the r i s k o f c o r r o s i o n . Cases a r e known where o n l y c e r t a i n bushes corroded i n a p a r t i c u l a r engine, and m e t a l l u r g i c a l e xami n at i on showed t h a t the bushes which c o r roded were porous. Co nt i nu ou s-cast i ng techniques g i v e sounder a l l o y s i n addition, a greater proportion o f

t h a n o t h e r c a s t i n g t ech ni q ue s and,

t i n s t a y s i n s o l u t i o n , t h ere by improving t h e i n t r i n s i c c o r r o s i o n resistance. However,

i f t h e problem i s t o be c o n t r o l l e d , t h e o n l y s a t -

i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n i s t o use an a l l o y t h a t i s r e s i s t a n t t o sulphur corrosion. L ab ora t o ry t e s t s f o l l o w e d by e x t e n s i v e f i e l d experience extype, i.e.

t e n d i n g o v e r t e n yea rs have shown t h a t a l l o y s o f t h e gun-metal corrosion.

c o p p e r - t i n a l l o y s w i t h 2-4% z i n c , a r e completely immune f r m sulphur These gun-metal a l l o y s a r e r a t h e r s o f t e r than t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

phosphor bronzes, and n i c k e l may a l s o be added t o compensate f o r the reduced hardness. The importance o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r e i n t h i s type o f c o r r o s i o n was r e c e n t l y demonstrated by some phosphor-bronze bushes which corroded i n r e g u l a r l y spaced bands, d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey were f r e e from p o r o s i t y and had been o p e r at ed on a l u b r i c a n t c o n t a i n i n g o n l y a small amount o f a very s t a b l e d it hi o ph osp ha t e . M e t a l l u r g i c a l examination showed t h a t they had

been manufactured by a semi-continuous c a s t i n g process, which gave r i s e t o marked s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e a l l o y , making i t v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o c o r r o s i o n i n c e r t a i n are as (F i g. 33 ). Re c e n t ly some cases o f what i s cl a i med t o be sulphur c o r r o s i o n have been encountered on t i n - b a s e d whi t e-me t a l b e a r i n g a l l o y s . I t appears t h a t very copper-

a c t i v e s u l p hu r compounds can s e l e c t i v e l y a t t a c k t h e c o p p e r - r i c h ,

t i n i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds i n t h e w h i t e metal, and t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s , r i c h i n Cu2S, can spread over t h e b e a r i n g surface. The d a r k e ni n g caused by these c o r r o s i o n products should n o t be confused w i t h t h e d arke ni n g due t o t i n o x i d e f o r m a t i o n .

114

Fig.31

Corrosion o f phosphor bronze.

Fig.32

Subsurface a t t a c k on phosphor-bronze.

115
( i v ) C o r r o s io n o f t i n - b a s e d w h i t e m e t a l s : t i n oxide formation

I n r e c e n t ye ars t h e f o r m a t i o n o f hard, b l a c k l a y e r s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t i n based wh ite -met al b e a r i n g s i n s h i p s ' t u r b i n e s has a t t r a c t e d a l o t o f attention. Yet t h i s i s by no means a new problem;
i t has been encoun-

t e r e d i n t h e main d i e s e l e ng i ne s o f s h i p s f o r many years.

Some t u r b i n e

b u i l d e r s and s h i p owners have blamed t h e c o r r o s i o n on t h e i n c r e a s i n g use o f a d d i t i v e s i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t d i e s e l engine bearings o p e r a t i n g on base o i l s have s u f f e r e d f r o m t h i s c o r r o s i o n f o r many years throws some doubt on t h e i r assumptions. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o r r o s i o n a r e as f o l l o w s .
A hard,

b l a c k l a y e r forms on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e bearings, sometimes o n l y on the wo r k in g s u r f a c e s b u t g e n e r a l l y on a l l t h e exposed s u r f a c e s (Fig.34). The presence o f t h i s l a y e r i s e xt re mel y harmful f o r two reasons:
i t i s v e r y h a r d and may damage t h e a d j a c e n t s t e e l surfaces,

firstly,

and secondly,

i t s f o r m a t i o n decreases normal b e a r i n g clearances.

M e t a l l u r g i c a l sections

f r o m f a i l e d b e a r i n g s show t h a t t h e h a r d l a y e r i s formed from t h e t i n - r i c h m a t r i x o f t h e b e a r i n g a l l o y (F i g . 3 5). The c o p p e r - t i n and a n t i m o n y - t i n Microhardness t e s t s

i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds a r e c o m p l e t e l y unattacked.

show t h a t t h e hardness o f t h e b l a c k m a t r i x i s between 200 and 600 DPN, and u s u a l l y between 400 and 500 DPN. m a t r i x i s about 25 OPN. X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n e xami n at i on shows t h a t t h e b l a c k l a y e r c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f c a s s i t e r i t e , Sn02, u s u a l l y w i t h a l i t t l e stannous o x i d e , SnO, associated with it. Dn t h r u s t pads, where b e a r i n g clearances a r e l a r g e , the The hardness o f t h e untransformed

b l a c k l a y e r can grow t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i c k n e s s , b u t e v e n t u a l l y i t d i s i n t e g r a t e s and t h e h a r d d e b r i s c i r c u l a t e s w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t . Some y e a r s ago, Bryce and Roehner d i scussed t h i s problem i n d e t a i l , b u t f a i l e d t o a r r i v e a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y explanation. However,
i t has been

e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e c o r r o s i o n o ccurs o n l y when aqueous e l e c t r o l y t e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l u b r i c a n t , which suggests t h a t t h e t i n d i o x i d e i s formed by an e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l mechanism.

Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s c l a i m t o have r e -

produced t h e c o r r o s i o n i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y by making a p i e c e o f w h i t e metal t h e anode i n sea-water b u t , a l t h o u g h t h i s produces a b l a c k l a y e r , the l a y e r i s s o f t and amorphous.

W have found t h a t t h e n a t u r a l c u r r e n t e

between p i e c e s o f w h i t e metal ( t i n - b a s e d t o B.S.S.

3332/2) and copper,

p a r t i a l l y immersed i n f u l l - s t r e n g t h o r d i l u t e d s y n t h e t i c sea-water under o i l a t 60"C, w i l l cause t h e w h i t e me t a l t o corrode, f o r m i n g t h i c k , hard, adherent sta nn ic oxide. The b l a c k l a y e r s formed i n t h i s way have the c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c and metall o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l a y e r s found i n engines. s i m p l e set-up With t h i s

i t has been p o s s i b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o r r o s i o n mechanism

116

Fig.33

Effect o f micro-structure on corrosion.

fig.34

T i n oxide on t h r u s t bearing

117
and t o s t u d y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f v a r i o u s o i l a d d i t i v e s on t h e c o r r o s i o n r a t e . Some a d d i t i v e s reduced o r p r e v e n t e d t i n d i o x i d e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e s t cells; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , almost a l l t h e a d d i t i v e s t h a t behaved i n t h i s way For example,

would have an adverse e f f e c t on o t h e r components i n engines.

one a d d i t i v e t h a t c o m p l e t e l y prevented c o r r o s i o n o f t h e t i n was c o r r o s i v e t o copper a l l o y s . The mechanism o f t i n o x i d e f o r m a t i o n on b e a r i n g s i s s t i l l n o t f u l l y understood. However, i t has been d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t c o r r o s i o n

occurs o n l y when e l e c t r o l y t e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l u b r i c a n t and when t h e r e

i s a r e s t r i c t e d supply o f oxygen.

The f a c t t h a t b e a r i n g s on bronze

supports appear t o e x p e r i e n c e more t r o u b l e than b e a r i n g s on s t e e l supports suggests t h a t t h i s i s p r i m a r i l y g a l v a n i c c o r r o s i o n . T h i s i s n o t a problem

t h a t can be e a s i l y overcome by changes i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l c o m p o s i t i o n o r changes i n a l l o y composition. o f t h e system. ( v ) C o r r o s i o n o f c o p p e r - l e a d a l l o y s by water p r e s e n t i n t h e o i l T h i s f o r m o f c o r r o s i o n i n uncommon and i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f water a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l system. Analysis The b e s t remedy i s t o keep e l e c t r o l y t e s o u t

may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e o i l i s i n e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n and t h a t t h e water c o n t e n t i s n o t abnormal. However, t h e water c o n t e n t o f a sample taken f o r

I f sub-

a n a l y s i s can depend v e r y much on when and where i t was taken.

s t a n t i a l amounts o f water a r e p r e s e n t i t c o u l d be e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e need t o change f i l t e r s f r e q u e n t l y w i t h water. The damage a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e presence o f water i n t h e o i l takes t h e f o r m o f removal o f t h e lead-based o v e r l a y m a t e r i a l and severe l o c a l i s e d c o r r o s i o n o f t h e l e a d phase i n t h e c o p p e r - l e a d b e a r i n g a l l o y (Figs. and 3 7 ) .

as t h e y s w e l l and b l o c k when i n c o n t a c t

36

The o v e r l a y i s even removed f r o m t h e unloaded shoulders o f t h e

b e a r i n g , and t h e i n t e n s i v e l o c a l i s e d n a t u r e o f t h e a t t a c k i s i n d i c a t i v e o f galvanic corrosion, attacked t h e l e s s - n o b l e ( a n o d i c ) l e a d being p r e f e r e n t i a l l y

5.4.2.4

C a v i t a t i o n and E r o s i o n

C a v i t a t i o n and e r o s i o n a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a cause o f f a i l u r e on b e a r i n g s , owing t o i n c r e a s i n g l y h i g h and v a r i a b l e loads and speeds. these terms. I t i s important t o define

Two t y p e s o f c a v i t i e s can form i n l u b r i c a n t s , vaporous c a v i t i e s Gaseous c a v i t i e s , which a r e formed by o u t g a s s i n g o f t h e

and gaseous c a v i t i e s .

l u b r i c a n t , can f o r m and c o l l a p s e o n l y s l o w l y and cannot cause any mechanical damage d i r e c t l y . However, t h e i r presence reduces t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e r e b y p r o m o t i n g o t h e r k i n d s o f f a i l u r e , such as f a t i g u e .

the l u b r i c a n t f i l m ,

118

Tig.35

General o x i d a t i o n o f white-metal.

Fig.36

Damage associated w i t h the presence o f water i n o i l .

119
Vaporous c a v i t i e s , which c o n t a i n vapour o f t h e no gas, can f o r m and c o l l a p s e e x t r e m e l y r a p i d l y i q u i d concerned, and l i t t l e o r and t h e v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r c o l l a p s e can cause mechan c a l ( i m p a c t ) damage on metal surfaces. Both t y p e s o f c a v i t y can be generate by t h e p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f l o w o f l u b r i c a n t through a b e a r i n g and t h e f l u c t u a t i n g loads imposed on i t . Vaporous c a v i t a t i o n can a l s o be caused by t h e v i b r a t i o n

o f a metal s u r f a c e i n c o n t a c t w i t h a l u b r i c a n t , as i n an u l t r a s o n i c c l e a n e r . The damage a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h types o f c a v i t a t i o n may be aggravated by t h e presence o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e l u b r i c a n t ;

i t i s i n such circumstances t h a t

i t may be j u s t i f i e d t o t a l k o f e r o s i o n damage and c a v i t a t i o n e r o s i o n .

However,

i t should be emphasised t h a t vaporous c a v i t a t i o n can cause severe damage even i n

the absence o f sol i d p a r t i c l e s . U n l i k e o t h e r types o f damage, vaporous c a v i t a t i o n damage i s g e n e r a l l y encount e r e d on t h e unloaded areas o f b e a r i n g s , where o i l - f i l m pressures a r e low, and t h i s p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l means o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( F i g . 3 8 ) . Microsections o f When t h e

damaged areas show s i g n s o f l o c a l work-hardening and f a t i g u e c r a c k i n g .

damage i s due s o l e l y t o c a v i t a t i o n , t h e t e x t u r e i n t h e damaged areas i s rough (Fig.39); when p a r t i c l e s a r e p r e s e n t ( c a v i t a t i o n e r o s i o n ) , t h e damaged surfaces

a r e smooth (Fig.40). Vaporous c a v i t a t i o n can remove p r o t e c t i v e f i l m s , and i n i t i a t e c o r r o s i o n . such as o x i d e s , from m e t a l s

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e r y h i g h l o c a l pressures and temp-

e r a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f i n a l stage o f c a v i t y c o l l a p s e can induce chemical r e a c t i o n s which would n o t n o r m a l l y t a k e p l a c e . There i s some evidence t h a t

c e r t a i n o i l a d d i t i v e s a r e u n s t a b l e under c a v i t a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t h a t t h e decomposition p r o d u c t s can be c o r r o s i v e . I n such circumstances, b e a r i n g s u r -

faces can be s u b j e c t e d t o t h e combined e f f e c t s o f c a v i t a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n . Work c a r r i e d o u t a t Thornton Research Centre i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e one can do t o a commercial l u b r i c a n t t o e l i m i n a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f c a v i t a t i o n , and c a v i t a t i o n must be regarded p r i m a r i l y as a d e s i g n problem.

5.4.2.5

E l e c t r i c a l Discharge Damage

On e l e c t r i c a l machinery, and o c c a s i o n a l l y on o t h e r types o f machinery, p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s can be b u i l t up and e l e c t r i c a l discharges may o c c u r across the b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s . Each d i s c h a r g e g i v e s r i s e t o a small p i t , and a l a r g e number o f discharges can e v e n t u a l l y cause damage o f t h e t y p e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.41. This type o f

damage i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p i t t i n g o c c u r s on b o t h b e a r i n g and j o u r n a l surfaces.

120

Fig.37

Section showing the i n t e n s i v e l o c a l i s e d n a t u r e o f the a t t a c k .

Fig.38

C a v i t a t i o n damage.

121

Fig.39

C a v i t a t i o n of w h i t e m e t a l .

Fig.40

Cavitation erosion o f white metal.

122

Fig.41

E l e c t r i c a l p i t t i n g i n l e a d base b a b b i t t b e a r i n g .

5.4.2.6

Wire-wool

Failures

T h i s i s th e name g i v e n t o a c a t a s t r o p h i c t y p e o f f a i l u r e t h a t has been enc ou n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t 10 ye ars on t i n-b ased j o u r n a l and t h r u s t b e a r i n g s on b o t h land-based and mari n e t u r b i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

A hard, b l a c k scab (Fig.421,

which i n some cases has been shown t o be an amorphous m i x t u r e o f i r o n and t i n c o n t a i n i n g d i s p e r s e d i r o n c a r b i d e s and p o s s i b l y n i t r i d e s , forms on t h e surfaces o f t h e t i n - b a s e d whi t e-me t a l b e a r i n g s and proceeds t o machine-away t h e a d j a c e n t s t e e l s u r fa c e s . S t e e l s l i v e r s a r e u s u a l l y found i n and around t h e b e a r i n g , The

sometimes i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y t o g i v e t h e appearance o f w ire-w ool. f a i l u r e s a lm o s t always occu r w i t h i n a few hours o f s t a r t - u p ,

e i t h e r f r o m new o r

a f t e r an o v e r h a ul , and a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a v e r y h i g h wear r a t e (sometimes c e n t i m e t r e s o f s t e e l may be l o s t ) w i t h o u t h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n o r much temperature r i s e . ium-steel The f a i l u r e s have been a t t r i b u t e d b o t h t o t h e use o f chromThere i s no c l e a r understanding o f t h e

r o t o r s h a f t s and t o e . ~ . o i l s .

sequence o f e v e n t s l e a d i n g t o f a i l u r e , and i n p a r t i c u l a r o f t h e r o l e s p l a y e d by metal s u r fa c e s , t h e base o i l and t h e a d d i t i v e s p r e s e n t i n t h e base o i l . can be s a i d i s t t i a t t h i s i s indeed a t r i b o l o g i c a l f a i l u r e .

A l l that

However, v a r i o u s

i n v e s t i g a t o r s have e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e t r i g g e r i n g agent r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w i r e -

wool f a i l u r e s i s a d i r t p a r t i c l e , p a r t i a l l y embedded i n a w hite-metal b e a r i n g .

I t i s n o t c e r t a i n what causes p a r t i c u l a r p a r t i c l e s t o t r i g g e r t h e sequence o f events l e a d i n g t o f a i l u r e , b u t whether o r n o t a b l a c k scab "machine t o o l " develops depends v e r y much on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and the composition o f

123
the r o t o r s t e e l . O i l a d d i t i v e s (e.g. sulphur-containing e.p. additives) that r o t o r s may

can p r e v e n t b l a c k scab f o r m a t i o n w i t h ch romi um-containing-steel

a c t u a l l y promote scab f o r m a t i o n when used w i t h o t h e r r o t o r s t e e l s such as m i l d s t e e l and

4% molybdenum

steel. e.p.

With these l a t t e r s t e e l s i t has been claimed

a d d i t i v e s a l s o increase t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o

that chlorine-containing failure, Centre.

b u t t h i s i s n o t supported by o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t Thornton Research What i s more pro ba bl e i s t h a t some l u b r i c a n t s a r e more l i k e l y t o a l l o w agent becomes depleted. The system from

f a i l u r e when t h e i r s p e c i f i c a n t i - r u s t / a n t i - w e a r The b e s t way t o a v o i d wire-wool

f a i l u r e s i s t o avoid d i r t .

t h e o u t s e t must be as c l e a n as p o s s i b l e . be a t l e a s t 7 I b f / i n 2 (48 kN/m2).

The o i l should be c o n t i n u o u s l y f i l t e r e d

and t h e oil p r e ssu re i n t he t h r u s t ho usi n g under r u n n i n g c o n d i t i o n s should always

Now t h a t b l a c k scab f a i l u r e s have been w i d e l y p u b l i c i s e d , may have been encountered p r e v i o u s l y b u t passed unrecognised.

i t appears t h a t they

For example,

severe wear o f n i t r i d e d s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l s h a f t j o u r n a l s on power-recovery t u r b i n e s o f a i r c r a f t p i s t o n engines has been observed from t i m e t o t i m e and these appear t o have s u f f e r e d severe ma chi n i ng -t yp e wear.

It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f -

i c a n t t h a t t h e b e a r i n g s i n c o n t a c t w i t h these f a i l e d j o u r n a l s a r e i n g e n e r a l l y q u i t e good c o n d i t i o n , showing much l e s s damage than would be expected from the s t a t e o f the j o u r n a l s . T h i s i s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f b l a c k scab f a i l u r e s .

However, t h e a i r c r a f t b e a r i n g s were s i l v e r w i t h lead-indium o v e r l a y s .

I f these

f a i l u r e s a r e o f t h e b l a c k scab t yp e, then b l a c k scab i s n o t p e c u l i a r t o w h i t e metal b e a r in g s .

5.4.2.7

Fatigue

A p l a i n b e a r i n g may f a i l by f a t i g u e when i t has achieved i t s designed l i f e

expectancy; however, i f f a i l u r e occu rs p rematurely, t h i s w i l l be because e i t h e r

an i n c o r r e c t b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l has been used o r t h e b e a r i n g has been i n c o r r e c t l y fitted. I n f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s t h e c r a c k s s t a r t a t t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e , propagate n o r mal t o t h e s u r f a c e u n t i l t he y approach t h e s h e l l , then t u r n through 90" and exte n d p a r a l l e l t o t h e bond between t h e b e a r i n g metal and the s h e l l l e a v i n g a t h i n l a y e r o f b e a r i n g metal a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h e l l (Fig.43). Bad bonding and f a t i g u e a r e s u p e r f i c i a l l y similar. However, w i t h bad bonding

th e b e a r i n g m e ta l separates c l e a n l y f r o m t h e s h e l l , whereas w i t h f a t i g u e the c r a c k s s t a r t a t t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e , propagate normal t o t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e u n t i l t h e y approach t h e s h e l l and t h en ext en d p a r a l l e l t o the bond between t h e b e a r i n g m e ta l and t h e s h e l l , always l e a v i n g a l a y e r o f b e a r i n g metal a t t a c h e d t o the s h e l l . For a comparison o f t h e two t ypes o f f a i l u r e see Fig.44.

124

Fig.42

Black scab formation on a thrust bearing.

Fi9.43

F a t i g u e of lead b r o n z e bearing.

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Fig.44

White met al b e a r i n g s

5.4.2.8

Thermal C y c l i n g Damage The thermal expansion

T h i s i s o n l y a problem on t i n - r i c h b e a r i n g a l l o y s . o f t i n crystals i s anisotropic, i.e.

t h e l i n e a r c o e f f i c i e n t o f thermal expansion Consequently,

i s d i f f e r e n t a l o n g t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c axes. ti n - b a s e d w h ite - met al

b e a r i n g s exposed t o c o n s i d e r a b l e thermal c y c l i n g can exBad bonding f a c i l -

p e r i e n c e g r a in - b o un da ry d i s t o r t i o n and c r a c k i n g (Fig.45). i t a t e s t h i s type o f f a i l u r e .

5.4.2.9

A l l o y i n g i n Service

T h i s can be a problem on e l e c t r o p l a t e d l e a d - a l l o y o v e r l a y b e a r i n g s and on micro-Babbitt b eari n gs. I n b o t h cases t h e t i n i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r m i g r a t e s

towards and a l l o y s w i t h t h e c o p p e r - r i c h phase o r s i l v e r phase i n t h e underlay. Hard, i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds a r e formed which, i f they a r e exposed, can score

the j o u r n a l surfaces.

T h i s p rob l em i s most a c u t e on m i c r o - B a b b i t t bearings,

where complete a l l o y i n g o f t h e 200-pm t h i c k , t i n - r i c h s u r f a c e has been observed i n s e r v i c e (Fig.46). ti me and temperature; 150C ( Fig .4 7 ) . Ob vi ou sl y, t h e a l l o y i n g r e a c t i o n i s dependent on b o t h e xpe ri men t s show t h a t i t can proceed v e r y r a p i d l y a t

126

Fig.45

D i s t o r t i o n s i n t i n due t o thermal c y c l i n g .

5.4.2.10

Inadequate V i s c o s i t y and Lack o f L u b r i c a n t

Should t h e s up pl y o f l u b r i c a n t t o a b e a r i n g be i n t e r r u p t e d , even f o r a m a t t e r o f seconds, c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e can occu r. The damage u s u a l l y takes t h e form

o f complete s e i z u r e and e x t e n s i v e m e l t i n g o f t h e b e a r i n g a l l o y .

I f the f l o w o f

a l u b r i c a n t i s l i a b l e t o i n t e r r u p t i o n , some degree o f temporary p r o t e c t i o n can

be p r o v i d e d by t h e use o f s p e c i a l s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s on t h e s t e e l surfaces, by
using p l a s t i c o r plastic-impregnated b e a r i n g s and by t h e use o f g r a p h i t e o r molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e i f t h e l a t t e r i s c o r r e c t l y a p p l i e d . Some f a i l u r e s due t o o i l s t a r v a t i o n a r i s e because o f l a c k o f l u b r i c a n t on start-up, and on many items o f heavy machinery i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o have a means

of c i r c u l a t i n g t he o i l p r i o r t o s t a r t - u p t o p r o v i d e l u b r i c a t i o n and c o o l i n g .

127

Fig.46

I n t e r m e t a l l i c compound f o r m a t i o n on m i c r o - B a b b i t t b e a r i n g .

D i l u t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t by f u e l can o c c u r i n b o t h g a s o l i n e and d i e s e l engines. I t i s most f r e q u e n t l y encountered on l i g h t l y loaded, c o o l - r u n n i n g The presence o f

engines, e s p e c i a l l y those w i t h poor combustion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . fuel

i n t h e l u b r i c a n t lowers i t s v i s c o s i t y ,

thereby r e d u c i n g i t s l o a d - c a r r y i n g

capacity.

I f t h e r e d u c t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y i s m a r g i n a l , premature f a i l u r e by however, i f t h e r e d u c t i o n i s severe, then sudden, c a t a s t -

f a t i g u e may o c c u r ;

r o p h i c f a i l u r e may t a k e p l a c e .

5.5

CONCLUS IONS
I n t h e p r e c e d i n g pages we have attempted t o d e s c r i b e t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l

f e a t u r e s o f some o f t h e b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s t h a t we have i n v e s t i g a t e d i n r e c e n t years. Bearing f a i l u r e mechanisms a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y complex and i t i s diagnosis. Metallo-

no l o n g e r always p o s s i b l e t o g i v e r e l i a b l e , on-the-spot

graphic examination o f sections from f a i l e d bearings w i l l o f t e n provide the necessary i n f o r m a t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h t h e cause o f t h e t r o u b l e . For t h e more

d i f f i c u l t and complex cases t h e r e i s a wide v a r i e t y o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l t e c h niques t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o t h e problem.

To a s s i s t o t h e r s i n t h e d i a g n o s i s

o f p l a i n b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s we have compiled Table 5.4, v a r i o u s f a i l u r e s a r e described.

i n which t h e f e a t u r e s o f

W h i l s t t h i s i s n o t a s u b s t i t u t e f o r experience,

we b e l i e v e t h a t , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e accompanying b i b l i o g r a p h y , i t may be an a i d t o e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e cause o f f a i l u r e s .

128

on

Electro deposited t i n lead overlay

25pm

After 2 h r s at 130'C

A f t e r 2 hrs. a t 170C

After 2 hrs.at

150C

Fig.47

Electron-probe micrograph showing rate of diffusion o f tin.

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TABLE 5.4 Cause o f f a i 1 ure Extraneous matter c i r c u l a t i n g i n 1 ubr icant Typical f e a t u r e s S o f t p a r t i c l e s , e.g. carbonaceous matter, can erode w h i t e metals and overlays. Hard p a r t i c l e s , e.g. m e t a l l i c wear d e b r i s c u t s w e l l - d e f i n e d channels. Burnished spots round embedded p a r t i c l e s . Wear o f j o u r n a l - can lead t o f a t igue. Cracks, i n i t i a t e d a t bearing surface, propagate normal t o surface; then, near backing, t u r n and run p a r a l l e l w i t h bearing surface. Bearing a l l o y l i f t s c l e a r l y away from no evidence o f a l l o y i n g . backing Comnon on l a r g e , white-metal bearings.

Extraneous matter embedded i n bearing Fatigue

Bad bonding

The rma 1 cyc 1 ing Surface p i t t i n g o f tin-based w h i t e metals Hard, black surface l a y e r s a l l over tin-based white-metal bearings Sudden c a t a s t r o p h i c wear o f a s i n g l e t u r b i n e j o u r n a l o r t h r u s t bearing shortly after start-up Electrical p i t t i n g Cavitation i n lubricant f i l m Corrosion by weak o r g a n i c a c i d s

Can cause roughening o f tin-based whitemetal bearing surfaces Cracking o f o v e r s i z e tin-antimony cuboids T i n - r i c h m a t r i x o f a l l o y transformed t o hard t i n oxides. Antimony-tin and c o p p e r - t i n phases unchanged. Black scab formation i n white-metal bearing, which "machines" s h a f t , producing wire-wool. Fine p i t s on both bearing surface and journal. Local ised metal removal, g e n e r a l l y i n unloaded areas o f bearing. Surface roughening and f i l l i n g . I n copper-lead and lead-bronze, pure lead phase i s leached o u t and surface may d i s i n t e g r a t e . Lead overlays d e f i c i e n t i n t i n o r indium may be corroded. Takes a v a r i e t y o f forms; bearing metal o r j o u r n a l may be attached. See t e x t . D i s c o l o r a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n o f copper and s i l v e r - r i c h a l l o y s . Can be very severe i n phosphor bronzes. Takes t h e form o f removal o f the o v e r l a y and l o c a l i s e d i n t e n s i v e a t t a c k o f the lead phase o f copper-lead bearing a l l o y s . \ t i p i n g o f surface layers. Fatigue f a i l u r e .

Corrosion by s t r o n g a c i d s "Sulphur" a t t a c k

Corrosion by water i n the o i l

Excessive o p e r a t i n g temperatures Inadequate v i s c o s i t y o f l u b r i c a n t

If marginal, may g i v e r i s e t o premature f a i l u r e by f a t i g u e . I f severe, f o r example due t o excessive f u e l d i l u t i o n , can g i v e sudden c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e .

Complete seizure. Extensive m e l t i n g o f bearing a l l o y . F r e t t i n g o f backs o f bearing. Lack o f thermal c o n t a c t w i t h housing may cause bearing t o bow. Uneven c o n t a c t and wear across bearing surface. Requires expert. m e t a l l u r g i c a l examinat ion. Cracking o f o v e r l a y , wear of j o u r n a l . Corrosion and f a t i g u e o f o v e r l a y .

Lack o f l u b r i c a n t Bad f i t t i n g

Misalignment Manufacturing defects, e.g. poor lead d i s t r i b u t i o n i n copper-lead alloys Surface hardening o f t i n B a b b i t t overlay m I n t e r n a l o x i dat i o n o f lead- i n d i u over I ays

130
REFERENCES

2 3

4 5
6

7 8
9

Sleeve Bearing M a t e r i a l s , 1949, ASM Cleveland, Ohio. Metals Handbook, 1961, 8 t h e d i t i o n , Vol.1, p.843-863, ASM Cleveland, Ohio. ( 3 ) , p.29, "The Modern Bus and Truck - Fuels and L u b r i c a t i o n , 1953, Lubricants". ( 5 ) , p.57, "Some Problems A s s o c i a t e d w i t h L u b r i c a t i o n L u b r i c a t i o n , 1953, o f Large Engines". L u b r i c a t i o n , 1953, 8, I ( l l ) , p.45, "Automotive Engine Bearings". L u b r i c a t i o n , 1955, 10, ( 4 ) , p.37, " I n d u s t r i a l B e a r i n g L u b r i c a t i o n " . L u b r i c a t i o n , 1957, ( 8 ) , p.85, "Abrasives and Wear". L u b r i c a t i o n , 1958, 13, ( 9 ) , p.245, "Petroleum L a b o r a t o r y I n v e s t i g a t i o n s " . ( 6 ) , p.81, "Diesel Power Plants". L u b r i c a t i o n , 1963, ( 7 ) , p.77, " P l a i n Bearing F a i l u r e s " . L u b r i c a t i o n , 1964, F o r r e s t e r , P.G., Modern M a t e r i a l s , 1964, 4, p.173, Academic Press, New York and London, " M a t e r i a l s f o r P l a i n BeaTings". " E l e c t r o - g r a p h i c Methods o f Hunter,M.S., C h u r c h i l l , J.R. and Mear, R.B., Surface A n a l y s i s " , Metal Progress 1942, 42, p.1070. Crooks, C.S. and Eastham, D.R. " P l a t i n g z r Bearing A p p l i c a t i o n s " . Trans. I n s t . o f Metal F i n i s h i n g 1982 v01.60. Rafique, S.O., I n s t . Mech. Eng. L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear, Second Convention " F a i l u r e s o f P l a i n Bearings and t h e i r Causes". 1964, p.180. Love,P.P., Forrester,P.G. and Burke,A.E., I n s t . Mech. Eng. Auto. D i v . p.29. "Function o f M a t e r i a l s i n Bearing Operation". Proc., 1953-54, L u b r i c a n t s and L u b r i c a t i o n ( e d i t o r B r a i t h w a t e , E.R.) E l s e v i e r , London,

8, 8,

E,

5, z,

2,

1967.
M o r r i s , J.A., Ch.7. p.310, " M e t a l l i c Bearing M a t e r i a l s " . P r a t t , G.C., Ch.8, p.377, " P l a s t i c - b a s e d Bearings". 10 Pratt,G.C. and Perkins,C.A., " S i l i c o n Aluminium Bearings f o r High-speed Diesels", D i e s e l and Gas T u r b i n e Worldwide Vol. X I I I , No.10, p.76-78. 1 1 Davis,T.A., " P l a i n b e a r i n g wear i n IC Engines", Automotive Engineer, Aug./Sept. 1981. 12 P r i n c i p l e s of L u b r i c a t i o n ( e d i t o r A. Cameron) Longmans Green and Co., London, 1966. Holligan,P.T., Ch.25, p.511. " P l a i n Bearings - Bearing M a t e r i a l s and Diagnosis o f Bearing Fa i 1 ures". 1 3 Engineering, 1967, 20, p.260. "Bond S t r e n g t h o f White M e t a l l i n g " . 14 Rose, A. Trans. l n s t . Mar. Eng. 1967, 79, p.233, "Marine Bearings". J o i n t Course on T r i b o l o g y , I n s t i t u t i o n o f 15 Wilson,R.W. and Shone,E.B., M e t a l l u r g i s t s , London, 1968, Paper 4, " M e t a l l u r g i c a l S t u d i e s o f Bearing Failures". 16 Wilson,R.W. and Shone,E.B., A n t i - C o r r o s i o n Methods and M a t e r i a l s , 1970, 17, p.9. "The C o r r o s i o n o f Lead Overlay Bearings". "The Science o f T r i b o l o g y 17 Quayle, J.P., Copper, 1969, 3, ( 5 ) , p.12. P a r t 3Il. 18 Bryce,J.B. and Roehner,T.G., Trans. I n s t . Mar. Engs., 1961, 73, p.377, "The C o r r o s i o n o f Tin-Base B a b b i t t Bearings i n Marine Steam Turbines". I n s t . Mech. Engs., T r i b o l o g y Convention 1969, 19 Lloyd,K.A. and Wilson,R.W., Paper 10, p.76. "Formation o f T i n Oxides on White Metal Bearinqs". "Corrosion o f T i n Base B a b b i t t Bearings t o f o r m T i n Oxides", 20 H i l e y , R.W., Trans l n s t . Mar. Eng., 1979, 91, (2) p. 52-66. 21 Dawson, P.H. and F i d l e r , F., I n s t . Mech. Engs. ( L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear F i f t h Convention), 1967, 1811, p. 207, "Wire-wool Type F a i l u r e s ; The e f f e c t o f S t e e l Composition, S t r u c t u r e and Hardness". 22 Dowson, D., Godet, M. and T a y l o r , C.M., " C a v i t a t i o n and R e l a t e d Phenomena i n L u b r i c a t i o n " , U n i v e r s i t y o f Leeds, Yorks, England. Leeds-Lyon Symposium on T r i b o l o g y , l s t , Prog. Pap and Discuss., U n i v e r s i t y o f Leeds, Yorks, England, Sept. 1974, Publ. by Mech. Eng. Publ. f o r I n s t i t u t e o f T r i b o l o g y , Publ. Ltd., New York, NY, 1974, 248. Leeds U n i v e r s i t y , Yorks, England.

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23 24 25 26 27 28 29

James, R.D., " C a v i t a t i o n Damage i n P l a i n Bearings". T r i b o l o g y I n s t . Feb. 1978, 1 1 , (1) p. 22-23. Garner, D.R., James, R.D. and W a r r i n e r , J.F., " C a v i t a t i o n E r o s i o n i n Engine B e a r i n g s - Theory and P r a c t i c e " , 1 3 t h CIMAC Conf. Vienna 1979. F o r r e s t e r , P.G., " B e a r i n g M a t e r i a l s " , M e t a l l u r g i c a l Reviews, 1960, 5, p. 507. F o r r e s t e r , P.G., " E l e c t r o d e p o s i t i o n i n P l a i n B e a r i n g Manufacture", Trans. I n s t . Met. F i n i s h i n g , 1961, 38, p.52. Booser, E.R., " P l a i n B e a r i n g M a t e r i a l s " , Machine Design, 1970, 42, p. 14. Standard Handbook o f L u b r i c a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g , ASLE, M c G r a w - H i l l , 1968. Chapter 18, "S1 i d i n g Bearings". T r i b o l o g y Handbook ( e d i t o r M.J. N e a l e ) , B u t t e r w o r t h s , London 1973.

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( ;

ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS

D.G.

HJERTZEN and

R.A.

JARVIS,

SKF (U.K.)LTD.

6.1

INTRODUCTION The p r e s e n t development o f r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by numerous

a p p a r e n t l y s m a l l i n t e r n a l improvements i n t h e b e a r i n g s and t o m a t e r i a l q u a l i t y r a t h e r than t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r a d i c a l new designs. There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e

t e c h n i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t o r o l l i n g b e a r i n g technology and i m p o r t a n t progress i s b e i n g made i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g and i n s p e c t i o n methods, improved l u b r i c a n t s and l u b r i c a t i o n equipment, e t c .

I t i s possibly s u r p r i s i n g , but true,

t h a t although r o l l i n g bearings are

e x t e n s i v e l y used, t h e r e a r e many misconceptions and t h e methods o f s e l e c t i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e b e a r i n g s a r e n o t always f u l l y understood o r a p p l i e d .

It

has been known f o r some u n f o r t u n a t e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a c e r t a i n b e a r i n g t y p e t o r e s u l t i n l o s s of confidence; cular consequently, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h a t p a r t i -

bearing are o f t e n n o t f u l l y u t i l i s e d .

6.2

BEARING SELECTION The major f u n c t i o n o f b e a r i n g s i s t o t r a n s m i t loads between machine p a r t s i n

r e l a t i v e motion, b u t a d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e may be s p e c i a l performance o r e n v i r o n ment requirements a f f e c t i n g c h o i c e o f b e a r i n g s . I t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e d e s i g n e r t o s e l e c t from t h e wide range o f b e a r i n g s a v a i l a b l e t h e b e a r i n g design s u i t a b l e t o c a r r y t h e loads i n v o l v e d under t h e v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t o s a t i s f y t h e requirements o f r o t a t i o n a l speed, temperature v a r i a t i o n s , b e a r i n g housing misalignment, and r i g i d i t y e t c . I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o ensure t h a t c o r r e c t f i t s a r e used between t h e b e a r i n g i n n e r r i n g t o s h a f t and o u t e r r i n g t o housing. The c h o i c e o f f i t depends

e s s e n t i a l l y on t h e w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e r e a r e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as b e a r i n g t y p e and s i z e , b e a r i n g i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e and method o f assembly, etc.

133
6.3 6.3.1
BEARING TYPES

S i n g l e Row Deep Groove B a l l B e ari n g ( Fig.1)

The depth o f t h e b a l l t r a c k s cou pl e d w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e b a l l s i z e and h i g h degree of c o n f o r m i t y ( r a t i o o f t r a c k r a d i u s t o b a l l r a d i u s ) g i v e s t h i s bearing considerable a x i a l - c a r r y i n g capacity i n a d d i t i o n t o r a d i a l capacity, even a t h i g h speeds. These b e a r i n g s n o r m a l l y have a c y l i n d r i c a l bore and a r e For l o c a t i o n purposes, a groove can be p r o v i d e d

mounted d i r e c t o n t o t h e s h a f t .

i n t h e o u t e r r i n g f o r a snap r i n g wh i ch can be used f o r a x i a l l o c a t i o n . These b e a r i n g s can be f i t t e d w i t h s h i e l d s o r s e a l s . The s h i e l d s a r e intended

as grease r e t a i n e r s and t o keep o u t a c e r t a i n amount o f f o r e i g n m a t t e r , b u t t h e s e a l s a r e a c t u a l l y r u b b i n g s e a l s and designed f o r dusty environments, etc.

Be a r in g s w i t h two s h i e l d s o r s e a l s a r e i n i t i a l l y charged w i t h t h e c o r r e c t quant i t y o f grease and, co nse qu en t l y, do n o t r e q u i r e r e l u b r i c a t i o n . a r e f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d l u b r i c a t e d - f o r - l i f e bearings. These bearings

Fig.1

S i n g l e Row Deep Groove B a l l B e a r ing .

F ig.2

Self-A igning

B a l l Bearing.

6.3.2

S e l f - a l i g n i n g B a l l B e ari n gs (F i g. 2)

These have two rows o f b a l l s each i n i t s own groove on the i n n e r r i n g , b u t i n a common sphered t r a c k i n t h e o u t e r r i n g . The i n n e r r i n g and b a l l s form a T h i s f e a t u r e i s an advan-

u n i t wh ic h can a l i g n f r e e l y a bo ut t h e b e a r i n g c e n t r e .

tage i n cases where i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a c c u r a t e p a r a l l e l i s m between t h e s h a f t and h o u s in g bo re, o r where t h e r e i s a d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s h a f t . Due t o

the sphered o u t e r r i n g t r a c k , t h e b e a r i n g does n o t have h i g h l o a d - c a r r y i n g

134
c a p a c i t y and t h e a x i a l - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i s l i m i t e d . The degree o f mis-alignment o f t h e s h a f t o r housing i s l i m i t e d by t h e b a l l s c o n t a c t i n g t h e edges o f t h e o u t e r r i n g and p e r m i s s i b l e m i s - a l i g n m e n t n o r m a l l y v a r i e s from 2'

3'.

These b e a r i n g s a r e manufactured w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l o r t a p e r b o r e and t h e l a t t e r i s u s u a l l y mounted on a s p l i t s l e e v e .

6.3.3

Angular Contact B a l l B e a r i n g [ F i g . 3 )

The d i r e c t i o n o f l o a d through t h e b a l l s i s a t an a n g l e t o t h e b e a r i n g a x i s which makes these b e a r i n g s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r c a r r y i n g combined r a d i a l and a x i a l loads.

A r a d i a l l o a d imposed on a s i n g l e row a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a l l

b e a r i n g g i v e s r i s e t o an induced a x i a l l o a d which must be c o u n t e r a c t e d ; t h e r e f o r e these b e a r i n g s need t o be arranged so t h a t t h e y can be a d j u s t e d a g a i n s t a second b e a r i n g .

Fig.3

Angular Contact B a l l B e a r i n g .

Fig.4

Double Row Angular Contact B a l l Bearing.

These b e a r i n g s a r e f r e q u e n t l y mounted i n p a i r s i n f a c e - t o - f a c e ,

back-to-back

o r tandem f o r m a t i o n , and i n o r d e r t o achieve t h i s t h e s i d e faces o f t h e b e a r i n g r i n g s a r e ground t o achieve t h e c o r r e c t r e s i d u a l i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e . The c o n t a c t a n g l e can v a r y between 15' 6.3.4

- 2 5 '

30'

40'.

Double Row Angular Contact B a l l Bearing ( F i g . 4 )

T h i s b e a r i n g has s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o two s i n g l e row a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a l l b e a r i n g s mounted back-to-back; consequently, t h e l i n e s o f p r e s s u r e o r

135
c o n t a c t through t h e b a l l s a r e d i r e c t e d outwards, rigidity. thereby g i v i n g increased

These b e a r i n g s have v e r y l i t t l e a x i a l c l e a r a n c e , g i v i n g c l o s e a x i a l f o r a x i a l adjustment.

l o c a t i o n o f t h e s h a f t and e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y

These b e a r i n g s can be s u p p l i e d t o g i v e a p r e - l o a d c o n d i t i o n when mounted so t h a t even when s u b j e c t e d t o a x i a l load, t h e a x i a l displacement o f t h e s h a f t i s very small.

6.3.5

C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r Bearings ( F i g . 5 )

The r o l l e r s i n these b e a r i n g s a r e g u i d e d between i n t e g r a l f l a n g e s on the o u t e r o r i n n e r r i n g , thereby a l l o w i n g t h e r i n g s t o move a x i a l l y r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r , which i s an advantage when t h e s h a f t expansion i s g r e a t e r than t h e housing expansion i n an a x i a l plane. The f l a n g e d r i n g and r o l l e r s a r e h e l d

t o g e t h e r by a cage t o form an assembly which can be removed from t h e o t h e r r i n g . T h i s s e p a r a b l e f e a t u r e i s o f t e n u t i l i s e d t o ease assembly problems. The bear-

i n g has h i g h r a d i a l l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y w i t h a c c u r a t e g u i d i n g o f t h e r o l l e r s , r e s u l t i n g i n a c l o s e approach t o t r u e r o l l i n g . p e r m i t s h i g h speeds. Consequently, t h e low f r i c t i o n

Fig.5

C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r Bearing.

Fig.6

Double Row C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r Bearing.

V a r i o u s designs a r e made w i t h d i f f e r e n t f l a n g e arrangements and a d d i t i o n a l

loose f l a n g e s can be i n c o r p o r a t e d t o a x i a l l y l o c a t e t h e r o l l e r s i n b o t h d i r e c tions. The r o l l e r ends and r i n g f l a n g e s a r e capable o f s u s t a i n i n g r e l a t i v e l y h i g h a x i a l loads.

136
6.3.6
Double Row C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r B e ari n gs ( F i g . 6 )

These b e a r in g s a r e o f sep ara bl e d esi g n which a l l o w s a f l a n g e d r i n g w i t h r o l l e r and cage assembly and f l a n g e l e s s r i n g t o be f i t t e d independently, thus f a c i l i t a t i n g mounting and d i smou nt i ng . Low c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l h e i g h t and h i g h l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y g i v e r i g i d bearThey a r e , thereThe i n n e r

i n g arrangements f o r t h e accommodation o f heavy r a d i a l loads.

f o r e , m a i n l y used f o r machine t o o l and r o l l i n g m i l l a p p l i c a t i o n s . r i n g n o r m a l l y has a t ap ere d

b ore t o e na bl e t h e r i n g t o be d r i v e n up a tapered They can be

j o u r n a l t o a c h ie ve a g i v e n r a d i a l cl e ara nce o r even p r e - l o a d . supplied i n special o r u l t r a - p r e c i s i o n execution.

6.3.7

Needle R o l l e r Be ari n gs (F i g. 7)

These a r e s i m i l a r t o c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s and have h i g h l o a d - c a r r y i n g capacity. They a r e made i n v a r i o u s d esi g ns and a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r These b e a r i n g s a r e used i n gudgeon p i n s and

a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c o n f i n e d spaces.

u n i v e r s a l j o i n t s , b u t they a r e n o t recomnended where t h e r e i s l i k e l y t o be misal ig n m e n t o r s h a f t bending o r any c o n d i t i o n where t h e r o l l e r s can be s u b j e c t e d t o t i l t i n g f o r c e s whi ch can cause a c l u t c h a c t i o n .

Fig.7

Needle R o l l e r Bearing.

Fig.8

Taper R o l l e r Bearing.

The d ia m e t e r s o f ne ed l e r o l l e r s a r e s m a l l , u s u a l l y 1 . 5 t o 5 mm and t h e r o l l e r l e n g t h i s a p p r o xi ma t e l y 2 . 5 t i mes t h e d i ame t er.

137

6.3.8

Taper R o l l e r Bearings ( F i g . 8 )

The r o l l i n g elements i n these b e a r i n g s a r e t r u n c a t e d cones and t h e t r a c k o f b o t h t h e i n n e r r i n g (cone) and t h e o u t e r r i n g (cup) a r e tapered. The t a p e r s of

th e r o l l e r s and t h e i n n e r r i n g have a common apex on t h e b e a r i n g a x i s and t h e greater the i n c l i n a t i o n o f the r o l l e r s , the greater the a x i a l carrying capacity. As w i t h s i n g l e row a n g u l a r c o n t a c t b a l l be ari ngs, t a p e r r o l l e r bearings must always be mounted i n p a i r s o r a d j u s t e d towards another b e a r i n g capable o f dealing w i t h a x i a l forces a c t i n g i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n . The t a p e r b e a r i n g can This

a l s o be s u p p l i e d as a p a i r e d u n i t w i t h a common i n n e r o r o u t e r r i n g . b e a r i n g i s used e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e Automobile I n d u s t r y .

6.3.9

Double Row S p h e r i c a l R o l l e r B e ari n gs ( F i g . 9 )

Due t o t h e s i z e , shape, and number o f r o l l e r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h the accuracy w i t h wh ic h t h e r o l l e r s a r e guided, t h i s b e a r i n g has e x c e l l e n t l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n b o t h a r a d i a l and a x i a l d i r e c t i o n . Since t h e b e a r i n g i s s e l f -

a l i g n i n g , a n g u l a r mi sa l i gn men t between s h a f t and housing has no d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t and f u l l c a p a c i t y i s always a v a i l a b l e . Accurate r o l l e r guidance i n the

normal ' C ' d e s ig n i s by means of a l oo se r e l a t i v e l y narrow guide r i n g of t h i c k r a d i a l s e c t i o n between t h e rows o f r o l l e r s and by t h e cage.

Fig.9

Double Row S p h e r i c a l R o l l e r B e a r in g

Fig.10

Spherical R o l l e r Thrust Bearing

S p h e r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s a r e manufactured w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l o r tapered bores. They can be mounted on t ap ere d sleeves and a r e used i n Railway and Heavy Engineering. These b e a r i n g s a r e regarded as t h e heavy-weight o f t h e standard b e a r i n g

138
types and a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y i n plummer b l o c k s .

6.3.10

S p h e r i c a l R o l l e r T h r u s t Bearings (Fig.10) t h e l i n e o f a c t i o n o f t h e load

U n l i k e most o t h e r t ype s o f t h r u s t be ari n g,

a t t h e c o n t a c t s between t h e t r a c k s and t h e r o l l e r s forms an a n g l e w i t h t h e b e a r i n g a x i s wh ich makes these be ari n gs s u i t a b l e f o r c a r r y i n g a r a d i a l load up t o 55% o f t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a c t i n g a x i a l l o ad. The sphered t r a c k o f t h e hous-

i n g washer p r o v i d e s s e l f - a l i g n i n g p r o p e r t i e s w hich p e r m i t a c e r t a i n angular displacement o f t h e s h a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e housing, due t o mounting e r r o r s o r shaft deflection. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t u na ccep t a bl e s l i d i n g a t t h e r o l l e r - t o - t r a c k c o n t a c t s under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e and g y r a t o r y moments, t o a p p l y a c e r t a i n minimum a x i a l l o a d t o t h e bearing. The s h a f t washer, r o l l e r s and cage f orm an assembly w hich i s separable from These
i t i s necessary

the housing washer, a l l o w i n g t h e washers t o be mounted independently. be a r in g s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r heavy l o ad s and f o r r e l a t i v e l y h i g h speeds.

6.3.11

B a l l T h r u s t Bearings (Fig.11)

These c o n s i s t o f a row o f b a l l s , r e t a i n e d i n p o s i t i o n by a cage and two washers known as t h e s h a f t and h ou si ng washer, each w i t h a s h a l l o w b a l l t r a c k groove. The s h a f t washer has a s m a l l e r bo re than t h e o t h e r washer and
5

l o c a t e d by th e s h a f t .

The ho usi n g washer has a l a r g e r o u t s i d e diameter than

the s h a f t washer f o r l o c a t i o n i n a housing. These b e a r in g s a r e o n l y capable o f c a r r y i n g a x i a l l o a d i n one d i r e c t on.

Fig.11

B a l l T hru st B e ari n g

Fig.12

B e a r i n g w i t h S p h e r i c a l Outside Surf a c e and Extended I n n e r R ing Width.

139
6.3.12 Bearings w i t h S p h e r i c a l Ou t si d e Su rf ace and Extended I n n e r Ri n g Width (Fig.12)

These b e a r i n g s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a v a r i a t i o n o f a deep groove b a l l b e a r i n g and are n o r m a l l y used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a range o f c a s t i r o n o r pressed s t e e l housings. They have a sphered o u t e r s u r f a c e and t h i s , when f i t t e d i n t o a

sphered s e a t i n g i n t h e housing, a l l o w s t h e u n i t t o accommodate any i n i t i a l misalignment o f t h e s h a f t whi ch may o c c u r d u r i n g mounting. These bearings normally

have an extended i n n e r r i n g w i t h some f o r m o f l o c k i n g d e v i c e w hich i s used t o l o c k t h e b e a r i n g and, hence, t h e u n i t t o t h e s h a f t . made t o t h e same degree o f accuracy as Although the b e a r i n g i s

deep groove b a l l b e a r i n g s , t h e method

o f l o c k i n g t h e b e a r i n g t o t h e s h a f t does n o t g i v e t h e same c e n t e r i n g accuracy as when b e a r i n g s a r e mounted w i t h an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t on t h e s h a f t . These

be a r in g s a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y i n machinery where t h e r o t a t i o n a l accuracy r e q u i r e ments a r e n o t t o o s t r i n g e n t , such as a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery and conveyors, e t c . where t h e y o f f e r a s i m p l e and economical s o l u t i o n .

6.4.

FATIGUE LIFE AND LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY The concept o f a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g i s t h a t l o a d between t h e s t a t i o n a r y and

r o t a t i n g machine components i s t r a n s f e r r e d t hrough t h e b e a r i n g by means of i nte r p o s e d r o l l i n g elements. Pure r o l l i n g seldom occurs and t h e n e t e f f e c t The exact p r o p o r t i o n s a r e a is

u s u a l l y a c o m b in at i o n o f r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g . f u n c t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g t ype , b u t and 1-10% t o s l i d i n g .

90-99% o f t h e l o a d i s r e l a t e d t o r o l l i n g motion

I f a b e a r i n g i s p r o p e r l y handled, c o r r e c t l y mounted, l u b r i c a t e d , and p r o t e c ted, a l l causes o f f a i l u r e a r e e l i m i n a t e d except one

fatigue o f the material.

The l i f e o f a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g as d e f i n e d by IS0 ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standards Organi s a t i o n ) i s t h e number o f r e v o l u t i o n s ( o r number o f o p e r a t i n g hours a t a g i v e n c o n s t a n t speed) whi ch t h e b e a r i n g i s cap ab l e o f e n d u r i n g b e f o r e f a t i g u e occurs on one o f i t s r i n g s o r r o l l i n g elements. Repeated t e s t s have v e r i f i e d t h a t

when a group o f a p p a r e n t l y i d e n t i c a l be ari n gs a r e run under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d and speed t h e y have d i f f e r e n t l i v e s . "life"

A c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e term
Dynamic

i s , therefore, essential f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f bearing s i z e .

l oa d r a t i n g s g i v e n i n b e a r i n g ma nu f a ct u rers catalogues a r e based on t h e l i f e t h a t 90% o f a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e group o f a p p a r e n t l y i d e n t i c a l bearings can be expected t o a t t a i n o r exceed. T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e b a s i c r a t i n g l i f e ( o r the

nominal l i f e ) and agrees w i t h t h e IS0 d e f i n i t i o n .

A t y p i c a l l i f e d i s p e r s i o n cu rve

is shown i n Fig.13, and i t can be seen t h a t

h a i f t h e b e a r in g s a c h i e v e an average l i f e f i v e times g r e a t e r than the nominal l i f e on which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e based.

140

F%

The classic curve of hearing life shows the life distribution for identical bearings run under idcntical conditions of load and speed. S is the perccntagc of still serviceable brarings, F the percentagc showing signs of fatigue, and L, the life of an individual bearing, given in t e r n of I.,, as explained in the text

S,%

Fig.13

A T y p i c a l B e a r i n g L i f e D i s p e r s i o n Curve.

6.4.1

The H e r t z i a n Contact

W h i l s t t h e H e r t z t h e o r y r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o n t a c t between s o l i d bodies i s s t i l l of i n t e r e s t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c a l c u l a t i n g c o n t a c t pressures and deforma t i o n s i n r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s , t h e g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t i s i n t h e shear s t r e s s e s beneath th e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e as t he se a r e con sidered t o be t h e cause o f b o t h p l a s t i c d e f o m a t i o n s and f a t i g u e c r a c k s i n t h e c o n t a c t zone. F i g u r e 14 shows t he s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t and from a f a t i g u e aspect t h e shear s t r e s s e s a t t h e edge o f t h e c o n t a c t zone a r e t h e most dangerous ones. They a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e and a r e s i t u a t e d
As these shear s t r e s s e s change d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e pass-

beneath th e s u r f a c e . age o f t h e r o l l i n g

body, m a t e r i a l f a t i g u e w i l l o c c u r i f any weak p o i n t such

as a s l a g i n c l u s i o n comes w i t h i n t h e su bsu rf ace zone where these shear s t r e s s e s a r e c o n s id e r a b le . s t i t u t e weak I t has been proved t h a t even t i n y s l a g i n c l u s i o n s can con-

p o i n t s o f t h i s k i n d and t h a t under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the a l t e r n a -

t i n g shear s t r e s s e s these i n c l u s i o n s r e s u l t i n m i c r o c r a c k s w hich subsequently i nc r e a s e i n s i z e , f i n d t h e i r way up t o t h e s u r f a c e , and l e a d t o s u r f a c e f a t i g u e f a i l u r e (see F ig. 15 ).

141

Fig.14
T

Shear Stresses i n t h e Contact Zone. max w i t h the plane o f

T~~~~

max

z g r e a t e s t shear s t r e s s i n t h e c o n t a c t zone and occurs a t a depth z

below t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e f o r m i n g an a n g l e o f the contact surface. and zmax z

Tzy

4 5 '

For l i n e c o n t a c t o f i n f i n i t e l e n g t h

0.30Uo

0.786

b where ' b '

i s h a l f t h e w i d t h o f t h e c o n t a c t zone.

max

g r e a t e s t shear s t r e s s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e and o c c u r s at a depth"zo" t a c t o f i n f i n i t e length beneath

T~~

the contact surface.

For l i n e con-

max

0.25Uo and zo

0.50 b.

6.4.2

R e l a t i o n s h i p between Load and L i f e

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between b e a r i n g l o a d and l i f e shown i n F i g u r e 16 has been o b t a i n e d by t e s t i n g b e a r i n g s under loads o f d i f f e r e n t magnitude. s e r i e s were r u n by t h e ings under loads P 1 , P 2 and P3. Three t e s t

The l i v e s o b t a i n e d a r e i n d i c a t e d

d o t s on t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s . i n each t e s t s e r i e s , i.e.

The l i v e s o b t a i n e d by 90% o f t h e bear-

t h e nominal b e a r i n g l i f e , has been i n d i c a t e d

by t h e numerals 1, 2 and

3.

I t w i l l be seen i n t h e graph t h a t these t h r e e T h i s means t h a t i n v i e w o f t h e t h e l i f e can be expressed

p o i n t s l i e on an a p p r o x i m a t e l y s t r a i g h t l i n e .

f a c t t h a t t h e s c a l e s o f b o t h axes a r e l o g a r i t h m i c , as a power o f t h e load, hence:

where

L = nominal b e a r i n g l i f e i n m i l l i o n s o f r e v o l u t i o n s ; P

e q u i v a l e n t b e a r i n g l o a d i n Newtons b a s i c dynamic load r a t i n g o f t h e b e a r i n g i n Newtons 3 f o r b a l l b e a r i n g s and 10/3 f o r r o l l e r b e a r i n g s .

C p

142

Fig.15

Normal F a t i g u e F a i l u r e

The b a s i c dynamic l o a d r a t i n g o f t h e b e a r i n g i s d e f i n e d as t h e load t h a t gives a nominal b e a r i n g l i f e o f one m i l l i o n r e v o l u t i o n s . O t h e graph, n the

l o a d a t t h e p o i n t a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e o r d i n a t e f o r t h e l i f e one m i l l i o n r e v o l u t i o n s w i t h t h e l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between l o a d and l i f e i s t h e b a s i c dynamic l o a d r a t i n g " C " . T h i s i s t h e l o a d r a t i n g g i v e n i n SKF

catalogues and i s used f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g l i f e .

143

Fig.16 6.4.3

R e l a t i o n s h i p between Load and L i f e .

F u r t h e r Development o f t h e L i f e E q ua tion g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y i s r e q u i r e d from

I t i s necessary t o con-

With t h e advancement o f technology,

r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s and o f t he c a l c u l a t i o n methods used.

s i d e r f a c t o r s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e b a s i c l i f e e q u a t i o n even though t h e r e s u l t s g i v e n by t h e b a s i c l i f e e q u a t i o n a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y i n the m a j o r i t y o f cases.

IS0 has suggested t h a t t h e l i f e e q u a t i o n should be as f o l l o w s : -

al

=
=

r e l i a b i l i t y f a c t o r , which enables t h e b e a r i n g l i f e t o be c a l c u l a t e d f o r any g i v e n p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a t i g u e (al

: :

1 f o r 90% p r o b a b i l i t y ) .

m a t e r i a l f a c t o r (a

1 f o r a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g o f good q u a l i t y s t e e l w i t h

normal hardness and s t r u c t u r e s .

a

l u b r i c a t i o n f a c t o r (a, = 1 f o r normal l u b r i c a t i o n ) . A lt h o u g h t h e new l i f e e q u a t i o n i s a development o f t h e o l d e q u a t i o n , a m u l t i -

p l i c a t i v e c o m b inat i on o f the t h r e e m o d i f i e r s r e s u l t i n an improvement. i ns ta n c e , material. is

a 1 , az, and a

does n o t always

The n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o f inadequate l u b r i c a t i o n , f o r

n o t compensated f o r by u s i n g say a vacuum remelted s t e e l b e a r i n g

144 6.5
BOUNDARY D I HENS I ONS AN0 I NTERNAL CONTROLS

Every s t a n d a r d b e a r i n g w i t h m e t r i c boundary dimensions belongs t o a "dimens i o n a l s e r i e s " which forms p a r t o f g e n e r a l p l a n s p r e p a r e d by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Organisation f o r Standardisation. d i f f e r e n t outside For any g i v e n b o r e t h e r e a r e a s e r i e s o f

d i a m e t e r s and w i t h i n each d i a m e t e r s e r i e s t h e r e a r e b e a r i n g s Each s t a n d a r d b e a r i n g b e l o n g i n g t o The l a s t two d i g i t s i n

o f d i f f e r e n t w i d t h s , as shown i n F i g . 1 7 .

a dimension s e r i e s i s d e s i g n a t e d by a t w o - d i g i t number.

a f o u r o r f i v e d i g i t number a r e 1/5 o f t h e b o r e when t h i s i s i n m i l l i m e t r e s ; i . e . b e a r i n g 6004 has a b o r e o f 20 mm.

Supplementary symbols f a l l i n t o v a r i o u s groups r e l a t i n g t o i n t e r n a l d e s i g n f e a t u r e s such as cage, m a t e r i a l , s e a l i n g , cision etc. The r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e f o r s i n g l e row deep groove b a l l b e a r i n g s has been agreed b o t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y and by B r i t i s h Standards O r g a n i s a t i o n s . summary i s a s f o l l o w s : i n t e r n a l r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e and p r e -

A general

SKF Designation c2 Norma I

I.S.O.

& B.S.

A l s o r e f e r r e d t o as

Group
2

0 00 000 OD00

Norma 1

c3 c4

3 4

SKF a l s o manufacture c e r t a i n b e a r i n g s w i t h s m a l l e r r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e s ( C I ) and l a r g e r r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e s (C5).

6.6

USAGE C1

used on machine t o o l s p i n d l e s where minimum movement and maximum r i g i d i t y are required.

145
C2

s u i t a b l e f o r f r a c t i o n a l h orse power motors f o r domestic appliances p a r t i c u l a r l y where s i l e n t run ni n g i s r e q u i r e d .

Normal c le a r a nce ture,

used f o r normal a p p l i c a t i o n s where t h e r e a r e no tempera-

speed, o r i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t problems.

C3

o f t e n used on l a r g e e l e c t r i c motors, p a r t i c u l a r l y where the i n n e r r i n g temperature exceeds t h a t o f t h e o u t e r r i n g , o r when t h e r i n g s a r e mounted w i t h heavy i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t s .

C4 -

used f r e q u e n t l y on

a p p l i c a t i o n s such as l a r g e t r a c t i o n motors f o r

d i e s e l e l e c t r i c and e l e c t r i c l o como t ives where t h e r e a r e temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l s between the i n n e r and o u t e r r i n g and t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t s a r e much g r e a t e r than those used f o r C3 bearings.

C5

t h i s c o n t r o l i s o f t e n used f o r b ea ri ngs i n furnace t r u c k s where t h e r e a r e l a r g e t emp era t u re d i f f e r e n t i a l s between t h e i n n e r and o u t e r r i n g s c o u p le d w i t h heavy i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t s .

6.7

SPEED LIMITS

Due t o t h e many f a c t o r s combining t o de t e rmine t h e maximum speed l i m i t s f o r r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s such as b e a r i n g t yp e, s i z e , t i o n s , method o f l u b r i c a t i o n , r a d i a l clearance, c o o l i n g condiit

l oa d, degree of p r e c i s i o n and environment e t c . ,

i s d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e p r e c i s e l i m i t s and a l l attempts t o g i v e l i m i t i n g speeds must be t o p r o v i d e an approximate general g ui de. For comparison purposes between speed and b e a r i n g s i z e , r o l l i n g b e a r i n g speeds a r e u s u a l l y expressed i n terms o f "ndm" where and n ndm = A x f l x f 2 f o r r a d i a l b e a r i n g s and n

JbFi,

/% = n =
dm

A x f

x f f o r t h r u s t bearings 1 2 speed, rpm

d
H

= =
=

mean d i ame t e r o f b e a r i n g , 0.5(d+D)mm b e a r i n g bo re, r m n

D = b e a r i n g o u t s i d e d i ame t e r, mm
h e i g h t o f s i n g l e t h r u s t be ari n g, mm c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r b e a r i n g s i z e (Fig.18)

1 f2 A

c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r b e a r i n g l oad (Fig.19) c o n s t a n t , whi ch i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and l u b r c a t i o n method (Fig.20).

A lt h o u g h t h e speed l i m i t f ormu l a i s based on p r a c t i c a l experience re s e a r c h i n t o more a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r s

extensive

A,

fl

and f 2 has

r e s u l t e d i n l i m i t i n g speeds i n c l o s e ap pro xi mation t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s found i n practice. Approximate speed l i m i t s f o r a l o ad g i v i n g t h e b e a r i n g a minimum l i f e Lh

100,000 h o u rs ( f 2 = 1) a r e shown on F i gs.21 and 22.

I f t h e load i s g r e a t e r

146

0.5

50

100

200

300

500

1000

dm
Correction factor for bcaring size (d,,,=mean diameter o bearing, mm)

(1

Fig.18

Correction Factor f o r Bearing S i z e .

fi
1

0.5

I ,

50

, , , , f

100

Mo

300

500

J d?n

lo00

Correction factor f* for bearing load, expressed as the resulting life L b in hours (d,=mcm diameter o f bearing, mm)

Fig.19

Correction Factor f o r Bearing Load

147

Bearing type
Radial bearing^: dn = . f , f a A Deep groove ball bearings

Factor A

Remarks

"

Normally Maximum Vormally Maximum Normally Maximum Normally Maximum Normally Maximum Normally Maximum

500'000 1 000 000

Pressed-steel cages Solid brass cages Pressed-steel cages Solid brass cages Pressed-steel cages Solid brass cages

Self-aligning ball bearings Single row angular contact ball bearings Double row angular contact hall bearings Cylindrical roller bearings Spherical roller radial bearings

500 000 800 000

500OOO

600000 200000 400000

400000 Presstd-steel cages 600 000 Solid brass cages 200000 400OOO

Taper roller bearings

Normally Maximum

200 OOO In the case of a predominant 400000 thrust load 20-40% lowei

limit values apply, depending o n the working conditions

%wt

bearitigJ:

" I/DH=f,f, A
Ball thrust bearings Spherical roller thrust bearings Normally Maximum Normally Maximum
1OOOOO

200 000 200000 Good, natural cooling gene rally sufficient. 300000 Effective cooling necessary.

At high speeds the bearing slackness must usually be greater than normal
Thrust bearings operating at high speeds must carry a certain minimum load Fa n i r , as shown in the graph in Fig.

F i g . 20

148
th e l i m i t values a r e reduced by m o d i f y i n g t h e f a c t o r f 2 . F i g u r e s 21 and 22 Bearings

show two speed l i m i t s (normal and maximum) f o r each b e a r i n g type.

o p e r a t i n g up tomorma1 l i m i t s can be f i t t e d w i t h standard cages and, as a general r u l e , grease l u b r i c a t i o n may be used.

I t should be n o t e d t h a t B a l l

Th r u s t and S p h e r i c a l R o l l e r T h r u s t b e a r i n g s shown i n Fig.22 should be mounted f r e e f r o m s la c k n ess and c a r r y a c e r t a i n minimum a x i a l load, o t h e r w i s e t h e t r a c k s may be damaged (due t o smearing) a s a r e s u l t o f t h e g y r a t o r y f o r c e s a c t i n g on th e r o l l i n g elements.

--__ -I _
Mu

UBAlllNGS
d-trr (1 ) far d u m r r ms r:
-I_

-_
3 4

zn
24 26 31

I8

zu
22
25 21 34

23
25

2934 3240 36 46 44 53
51 58 65

43 41 54

46 54

60
65 70 18
85

1
I

60 68 75 03

60
65

73
0
95 113 10
18 25 33

m : 90

13
7B

83 93 9 0 %
1 5 1 1113 0 3 I 110 U8 I 118

I05 I13 I25

140 141

I33

I5
2U 25
411

I25
133 14U 148 155 168

40 48 58
65 75

1% 168 175 183 195 235

13
54

9O 215
05

65 75 n8

180 195 210

225 240 250

20 1 25U
35 65 ml
95 I0 40
70 OU

265

I n
Jo
4u 55 M l
UI W

I5

w r)5 m
310

265
uy) 3IU

325 3 u
)80

Y O 370 511 3 w
1x1

410

YI I 4 7 5

4w
535
570

all

420 4P 4w 505

60
95
55

w 5
UI5

50

h d & kariuEs. Approximate s p e d limits for a load (predorninurtly rcrdi.1 in the o f roller bcarinp) givin the bearings a minimum life L, of IOOOM) houn. Lower limits apply to axially loadtd d i a l roller bearings See adjoining table for thc values d.
case

UI

7u

51) 5uJ
615 645
675 718

u u615 10 o

845 8U 7

m 5w

tMJ

1111

$55 755
IM 135 i75
795 M! 8% 94,

u s

Fig.21

Approximate speed l i m i t s .

Rad i al Bearings.

149

.C.

BALL

Ill
15
16 16 19 2a

113

- 114

E N . I1 I3
14

'8.
LI

m -

Tkvrr bariag~. Approximate 8 Umiu for a Land giving the bearings a pinimum lice l& O houn. M Scc adjoining uble for the values P H . It rhould be noted a y t md that the value 0.001 C, C p s u t i c carrying c yo f b + it often grater than tte numerial value o F . obtam from the graph. The former value i8 then t a k a . It should .Is0 h noted chat the F . i lina have diffuent n l u a for ball mnd mUu baring$

ef

>
rn

.. I

31

Y
U 51

15 I6 I1
11 21 XI

25

36
(0

45
(P

51
63 M 16

P
31 35

54 61

11 24
26

a
41

UI

61
64 11

81

95

P 30
3 a
34

U 45 46

n n
86

11 0
107 It4

f
40

s
m
62 11 15
79

51

n im
I39

111

IW IU

44

I43

121 1% 141 1 U

im
11 1

i n m
M

m
U
6(

52 56

141 151 115

I(0

I N

16

1%
IW

I14

I U
!I4

12 16

E d

P 96

IS3

no
I35

191

M
M
92

00

up
!43 !59 62

16

36
I3
59

QI

I24

id0

L8 7

m
b9

m
130

112 I35

Fig.22

Approximate speed 1imits.Thrust bearings.

150
I n the top p a r t o f Fig.21 the speed curves w i t h A = 1500000 and A = 3000000 have been drawn i n and the broken l i n e shows the extreme values which have been achieved w i t h bearing types i n a few known cases. Such speeds, however, do

r e q u i r e experience i n mounting and the gr a t e s t care must be exercised. 6.8 FRICTION The extensive use o f r o l l i n g bearings than s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n . s due t o r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n being less

F r i c t i o n a l losses i n r o l l ing bearings are u s u a l l y very

low, hence the term a n t i f r i c t i o n bearings. The f r i c t i o n a l resistance o f a r o l l i n g bearing i s dependent on several f a c t o r s such as bearing load, speed o f r o t a t i o n , and the p r o p e r t i e s o f the l u b r i cant. Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s (bearing load P 0.1C. adequate l u b r i c a t i o n

and normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ) i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e the f r i c t i o n a l resistance w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy using t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n given i n Table 6.1. Where rubbing seals are used t h e i r f r i c t i o n a l resistance, which The

can be g r e a t e r than t h a t i n the bearing, must a l s o be taken i n t o account. f r i c t i o n torque "M" o f a bearing i s obtained from the equation:

M =

x F x

d 2

(Nmn)

where IJ = c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n f o r the bearing (see Table 6.1)

F = bearing load,

d = bearing bore, mm.

TABLE 6.1

Coefficient o f f r i c t i o n

Bearing type S e l f a1 i g n i n g B a l l Bearings C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r Bearings Thrust B a l l Bearings Deep Groove B a l l Bearings Spherical R o l l e r Bearings Taper R o l l e r Bearings Spherical R o l l e r Thrust Bearings Angular Contact B a l l Bearings Single Row Double Row Needle R o l l e r Bearings C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r Thrust Bearings Needle R o l l e r Thrust Bearings

IJ
.001 .0011 .0013 .0015 .0018 .0018 .0018

.002

.0024
.0025

.004

.004

151
Higher c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n values than those given i n Table 6.1 a r e obtained w i t h new bearings and t h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o r o l l e r bearings which have n o t been run i n . and using Higher values w i l l a l s o be achieved when s t a r t i n g

excessive q u a n t i t i e s o f l u b r i c a n t .

The f r i c t i o n loss i s :

wF =

-103
where

9.8 x
M
n

M x n (Watts)
f r i c t i o n moment, Nmm speed, rpm.

6.9

LUBRICATION R o l l i n g bearings must be l u b r i c a t e d t o prevent m e t a l l i c contact between the

r o l l i n g elements, t r a c k s and cage and a l s o t o p r o t e c t the bearing from corrosion and wear. The most favourable running temperature f o r a r o l l i n g bearing i s

achieved when the minimum o f l u b r i c a n t necessary t o ensure r e l i a b l e l u b r i c a t i o n i s used. L u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s d e t e r i o r a t e due t o ageing and mechanical working and a l l l u b r i c a n t s become contaminated i n s e r v i c e and must, t h e r e f o r e be replenished or changed periodically.

R o l l i n g bearings may be l u b r i c a t e d w i t h grease o r o i l , o r i n special cases with a s o l i d lubricant. When considering l u b r i c a t i o n f o r bearings the choice Grease

is between o i l and grease and various aspects need t o be considered.

l u b r i c a t i o n has c e r t a i n advantages which are:-

1. Costs involved i n mounting a r e lower than w i t h o i l . 2 . Less maintenance i s required and i t i s n o t necessary t o
p i p i n g o r pumping equipment. ncorpora t e

3.

Constant o i l l e v e l devices n o t required.

4. Easier t o c o n t a i n grease i n housing than o i l . 5. Cleaner t o use grease as there i s no splashing as w i t h o 1 .

6. Cheaper t o seal f o r grease than f o r o i l . 7. Grease a s s i s t s i n s e a l i n g a g a i n s t the e n t r y o f moisture and o t h e r

impur i t ies
Tests

.
Reservoirs o f grease form on the cage and a g a i n s t the side The b u l k o f t h e grease c o l l e c t s o u t s i d e the bearing and

have shown t h a t o n l y small amounts o f grease adhere t o the surfaces

o f the bearing.

faces o f the bearing.

i n the grease c a v i t i e s of the housing and, as a r e s u l t , t h i s i s u s u a l l y i n a c t i v e .

I t can be argued

t h a t t h i s reserve o f grease helps t o m a i n t a i n an o i l bleed t o

the bearings, b u t experience suggests t h a t although t h i s reserve may be i n reasonable q u a n t i t i e s i n the c a v i t i e s ,

i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e f o r the bearing to

152
f a i l due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t l u b r i c a n t . The b a s i c r u l e f o r a normal b e a r i n g arrange-

ment i s t h a t th e b e a r i n g s h o u l d be w e l l packed w i t h grease w i t h t h e housing no more than h a l f f u l l .

I f t h e space round t h e b e a r i n g i s e x c e s s i v e l y f i l l e d w i t h

grease then c h u r n i n g o f t h e grease i n t h e b e a r i n g can o c c u r w hich c o u l d l e a d t o a r a p i d breakdown o f t h e grease s t r u c t u r e due t o o v e r h e a t i n g . I n such cases

the grease s o f t e n s and t h e o i l i n t h e grease tends t o b l e e d from t h e soaps. The s t i f f n e s s o r hardness o f a grease i s c a l l e d c o n s i s t e n c y and i s u s u a l l y quoted i n terms o f t h e N a t i o n a l L u b r i c a t i n g Grease I n s t i t u t e (NLGI) s c a l e and Consistencies

2 o r 3 a r e c o m p l e t e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y i n normal a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r b a l l and r o l l e r
bear i ng 1 u b r i c a t i o n .

A ' 3 ' c o n s is te n cy grease would be used i n an a p p l i c a t i o n such as an axlebox

o r t r a c t i o n motor where t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e v i b r a t i o n and a r i s k o f t h e grease slumping.

6.9.1

Greases Metal

L u b r i c a t i n g greases a r e t h i c k e n e d m i n e r a l o i l s o r s y n t h e t i c f l u i d s . soaps a r e m a i n l y used as t he t h i c k e n i n g agent.

The c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e grease When

depends m o s t l y on t h e t ype and q u a n t i t y o f t h e t h i c k e n i n g agent used. s e l e c t i n g a grease, i t s con si st e ncy,

t emp era t ure range and r u s t - i n h i b i t i n g p r o -

p e r t i e s a r e th e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t o be considered. 6.9.1.1 (i) Temperature Range Sodium Base Greases. These greases may be used a t temperatures between Sodium

-30 t o +8OoC,

a l t h o u g h some s p e c i a l v e r s i o n s may be used up t o +120C

base greases a r e w a t e r - s o l u b l e ,

i . e . they a b s o r b w a t e r t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t and

form a r u s t - i n h i b i t i n g emulsion wi ch ou t t h e i r l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s b e i n g impaired. These greases w i l l p r o t e c t t h e be arings s u f f i c i e n t l y a g a i n s t r u s t Where w ater c2n

p r o v i d i n g t h a t w a t e r cannot e n t e r t h e b e a r i n g arrangement.

e n t e r , such greases a r e e a s i l y washed o u t o f t h e b e a r i n g housing. (ii) Calcium Base Greases. Most c a l c i u m based greases a r e s t a b i l i s e d w i t h

1 t o 3% w a t e r .

W i t h i ncre ase d t emp era t u re t h e w ater evaporates and s e p a r a t i o n The upper temperature l i m i t Some h e a t - s t a b l e c a l c i u m

o f t h e grease i n t o m i n e r a l o i l and soap occurs.

f o r t h e s e greases i s t h e r e f o r e ap pro xi mat el y +6OoC. base

greases a r e a v a i l a b l e wh i ch p e r m i t o p e r a t i n g temperatures up t o +120C. L i t h i u m Base Greases. These greases a r e g e n e r a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r use a t b u t a few greases o f t h i s t y p e a r e s u i t a b l e

( i ii )

temperatures

between -30 t o +llOC,

f o r wo r k in g temperatures up t o +150C. L i t h i u m and c a l c i u m base greases a r e v i r t u a l l y i n s o l u b l e i n w a t e r and do n o t therefore give p r o t e c t i o n against corrosion. Such greases should t h e r e f o r e

never be used u n l e s s t he y c o n t a i n a r u s t - i n h i b i t o r .

153
For heavily-loaded r o l l i n g bearings, e.g. r o l l i n g - m i l l bearings, greases

c o n t a i n i n g EP a d d i t i v e s are used since these increase the load-carrying a b i l i t y o f the l u b r i c a n t f i l m . Such greases are a l s o g e n e r a l l y recommended f o r the The r u s t i n h i b i t i n g

l u b r i c a t i o n o f medium and l a r g e sized r o l l e r bearings.

p r o p e r t i e s o f calcium and I i thium base greases c o n t a i n i n g EP a d d i t i v e s (mainly lead compounds) a r e good. These greases adhere w e l l t o the bearing surfaces as They are, therefore, p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e paper-

w e l l as being i n s o l u b l e i n water.

f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s where water can penetrate the bearing arrangement, e.g. making machines o r r o l l i n g - m i l l s . Creases c o n t a i n i n g inorganic thickeners instead o f metal soaps, e.g.

clay or

s i l i c a , may be used f o r s h o r t periods a t higher temperatures than l i t h i u m base greases. Synthetic greases, e.g. those made from d i e s t e r or s i l i c o n e f l u i d s ,

may be used a t both higher and lower temperatures than greases made from mineral

oils. Grease r e - l u b r i c a t i o n i n t e r v a l s as recomnended by SKF a r e given i n graphs i n Fig.23; margin these i n t e r v a l s are conservative and are known t o g i v e a wide s a f e t y

Relubrication interval hours 01 operation

t
b

20000

300
200 160
100

a Radial wl bearings b Cylindrical roller bearings,needc roller bearings c Sphericd mler bearings. taper roller bearings, tnrust ball bearings

n r/min

Fig.23

Re-lubrication Intervals

164
To p r e v e n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m i x i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e greases w i t h i t s i n h e r e n t problems, i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o ensure t h a t o n l y greases h a v i n g t h e same t h i c k e n e r and w i t h a s i m i l a r base o i l a r e used when r e - l u b r i c a t i n g .

There i s o f t e n doubt as t o t h e q u a n t i t y o f grease t o be used i n a b e a r i n g and w h i l s t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o be e x a c t , t h e f o l l o w i n g g u i d e can be used:

G

0.005 x D x B
G D
B

where

=
=

grease q u a n t i t y , grams b e a r i n g o u t s i d e di a met er, m b e a r i n g w i d t h , mm.

For high-speed b e a r i n g s n e c e s s i t a t i n g f r e q u e n t r e - l u b r i c a t i o n i n t e r v a l s i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o a v o i d o v e r - f i l l i n g t h e housings, s i n c e t o o much grease causes the grease t o churn, r e s u l t i n g i n an e x c e s s i v e r i s e i n temperature. Churning can

l ea d t o a breakdown i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e grease w i t h a f u r t h e r r i s e i n t e m p e r a t ure and t he b e a r i n g s o p e r a t i n g i n a p r e - l o a d c o n d i t i o n . This

problem can be a voi d ed by u t i l i s i n g a grease escape v a l v e arrangement, as shown i n Fig.24. The v a l v e c o n s i s t s o f a d i s c which r o t a t e s w i t h t h e s h a f t and, in

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a ho usi n g end cove r, forms a narrow r a d i a l gap.

Excess grease

Cnum d v m for mnd-fnmm typ. m l e r t c motor

Fig.24

Grease Escape Valve Arrangement

i s thrown o u t by t he d i s c i n t o an a n g u l a r c a v i t y and e j e c t e d through an opening on t h e u n d e r s id e o f t h e end cover. T h i s system o f escape v a l v e i s extremely

u s e f u l f r o m a maintenance a spe ct as e xami n at i on o f t h e e j e c t e d grease can g i v e v a l u a b l e e v id e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e bearing, i.e.

i f the bearing

i s f i t t e d w i t h a b rass cage and t h i s i s b e g i n n i n g t o wear t h e grease w i l l become

165
d i s c o l o u r e d , and t h i s can be e a s i l y seen and recognized. F i g u r e 25 shows t h e

temperature e f f e c t o f o p e r a t i n g b e a r i n g s a t h i g h speeds w i t h and w i t h o u t grease v a lv e s . Experiments i n t h e machine t o o l i n d u s t r y where b e a r i n g s a r e r u n w i t h

o n l y a l i g h t smear o f grease on t h e t r a c k s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n i t i a l l u b r i c a t i o n c o u l d be as l i t t l e as 1 cm3 p e r 50 mm mean b e a r i n g diameter. The use o f such

small q u a n t i t i e s i n 9Omm bo re c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s i n j i g b o r e r s p r e loaded 0.0025 mm and o p e r a t i n g a t a speed o f 2500 rpm has reduced t h e temper8OC.

a t u r e r i s e t o a slow as

Al t ho ug h l o n g - r u n n i n g p e r i o d s have a l s o been t h e method i s extremely d e l i c a t e and n e c e s s i t a t e s

a c h ie v e d u s i n g t h i s technique,

special t r a i n i n g f o r the f i t t e r s .

u Y
L

b
60
10

"
0
L

24

48
a

72

96 h
a

120

144
a

188 l5 .4

1
2
1 1 1
1 1 1 1

24

48

72

96
h

120

144

168 192

E
Y I -

50-

A
0
I

h
46

& ,

A 1 n

P96

'
L

k
I

h
Typical comparison between lubication with a grease valve and ordinary grease lubication for a high-speed bearing in a cloaed housing. The steady high temperature in diagram (b) indicates that the grease has deteriorated during the first high temperature running period. Grease has seeped out through the seals and less grease remains than in the housing with grease valve. The temperature peaks in diagram (a) normally occur at each lubrication and a r e permissible with soda-base greases.

(a) Roller bearing 22328M running at 1100rev/min in conjunction with grease valve (b) Same type of roller bearing without grease valve (c) Ball bearing 6310 MA running at 8000rev/min in conjunction with grease valve (d) Same type of bearing running at 12400rev/min in conjunction with grease valve x = relubrication point

Fig.25

E f f e c t on Temperature o f I n c o r p o r a t i n g Grease Valve.

6.9.2

O i l Lubrication
advantages compared t o grease such as ease o f d r a i n i n g and

O i l has s e v e r a l

r e p l e n i s h i n g when necessary and p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e r e l u b r i c a t i o n i n t e r v a l f o r grease i s v e r y s h o r t . o r operating

O i l l u b r i c a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y used when h i g h speeds

The selec-

temperatures p r o h i b i t t h e use o f grease and i s u s e f u l when i t i s

necessary t o d i s s i p a t e f r i c t i o n a l o r . a p p l i e d h e a t f r o m t h e b e a r i n g . t i o n o f a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i s e a s i e r t ha n t h e c h o i c e o f a grease.

O i l s a r e more

u n i f o r m i n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i f r e s i s t a n t t o o x i d a t i o n , gumming, and e v a p o r a t i o n can be s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f a s u i t a b l e v i s c o s i t y (Fig.26).

156

Graph for selection of oil. d = bore of bearing. mlp., spccd, I. m. Example : spheric11 roller thxust b r i n g 29469 : d = &O mm, I 500 r.p.m. UK an oil which has a minimwm viscosity of 13.5 cSt at working temperature. When the working I C I n p c n N r C is known the ap mximarc riscosit of the oil required at 50' C. can b;obuinef; with the aid of t i e thin. oblique lines. At a working tcmpcnturc of 70" C. the oil in the cnmplc should hare a viscosit of appmx. 27 cSr at 50" C. Select an oil from those avaiible who= this d u e . for cmmplc. Ckwylc viscosity is thc ~ r a ( i / DTE Oil Medium (27.3 cSt at 50" C.)
n
P

Figure 26.

Selection o f Oil.

Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t he at -ge ne rat ed i n r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s increases w i t h v i s c osity, i t i s necessary to s e l e c t a t h i n o i l f o r high-speed o p e r a t i o n , o t h e r w i s e For v e r y slow speeds, a p p l i c a t i o n s

t h e b e a r i n g t e m pera t u re would be t o o h i g h . such

as s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r t h r u s t b e a r i n g s i n cranes, an extremely t h i c k o i l i s used t o ensure a s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g

(minimum v i s c o s i t y 400 c S t a t 5DC) oil film.

For normal ambient temperatures and w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , an o i l w i t h i s suitable. A t moderate speeds, no s p e c i a l

a v i s c o s i t y o f 12-22c S t a t 5OoC oil is

r e q u i r e d for b e a r i n g s i n gear-boxes s i n c e they can be l u b r i c a t e d by t h e

gear o i l p r o v i d e d t h e b e a r i n g s a r e a de qu at el y p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t wear p a r t i c l e s from th e gears e n t e r i n g t h e be ari n gs. bea r in g s

I f t h i s cannot be prevented,
oil.

then t h e

must be s e p a r a t e l y l u b r i c a t e d , u s u a l l y w i t h

Grease can be used,

b u t t h e s e a l s must have t h e a b i l i t y t o p r e v e n t t h e gear o i l f l u s h i n g t h e grease o u t o f the bearing. I t must be mentioned t h a t ,

as w i t h grease, an e x c e s s i v e

q u a n t i t y o f o i l can cause c h u r n i n g and c o n s i d e r a b l e heat;

therefore,

for normal

r e s e r v o i r systems i t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e maximum o i l l e v e l t o be no h i g h e r th a n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e l owest r o l l i n g element.

I f t h e o i l l e v e l exceeds t h i s
F i g u r e 27 shows t h e e f f e c t

t h e r e c o u l d be a t e mpe rat ure r i s e due t o c h u r n i n g .

on t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e and f r i c t i o n t o r q u e o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f o i l . When the q u a n t i t y o f o i l reaches a minimum l e v e l , i.e. t h e d o t t e d zone, m e t a l - t o -

metal c o n t a c t o ccu rs, r e s u l t i n g i n r a p i d t emperature r i s e and p o s s i b l e b e a r i n g seizure. B e a r i n g f r i c t i o n t o r q u e i s a l s o a f u n c t i o n o f o i l q u a n t i t y and i t can As t h i s c o u l d

be seen t h a t t h e t o r q u e i ncre ase s w i t h t h e q u a n t i t y o f o i l . rep r e s e n t

c o n s i d e r a b l e power loss i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o ensure t h a t the o i l l e v e l

does nmt exceed a l e v e l c o m p a t i b l e w i t h adequate l u b r i c a t i o n .

O i l lubrication

167
can be by c i r c u l a t i o n , d r i p feed, w i c k feed, o r o i l m i s t . In a circulatory

system t h e o u t l e t must be g r e a t e r t ha n t h e i n l e t t o p r e v e n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f exc e s s iv e o i l i n t h e b ea ri ng . For high-speed a p p l i c a t i o n s such as g r i n d i n g I n t h i s system a m i s t o f o i l and Condensing n i p p l e s immediately

s p i n d l e s , o i l m i s t l u b r i c a t i o n i s o f t e n used.

a i r i s t r a n s p o r t e d t h rou gh p i p e s t o t h e b ea rings.

b e f o r e each b e a r i n g pos t i o n cause t h e o i l t o be s u p p l i e d t o the b e a r i n g i n d r o p l e t form. The smal q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l can be a c c u r a t e l y r e g u l a t e d , conseF i g u r e 28 shows a t y p i c a l o i l

quently the l u b r i c a t i o n f r i c t i o n i s n e g l i g b l e . mist u n i t .

The dependence of burlng friction on quintlcy of 011 (in It+/hr) Lower curve: frlction torque, Ib. In. Upper curve: outer rln; tempenwre. 'C

Fig.27

E f f e c t on B e ari n q F r i c t i o n o f V a ryi ng a u a n t i t y o f O i l

6.10

SEALS

Selecting the c o r r e c t bearings f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n necessitates more t h a n a s c e r t a i n i n g c o r r e c t t y p e and s i z e . satisfactorily,

If bearings are t o f u n c t i o n

t h e y must be p r o p e r l y l u b r i c a t e d and p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h e oper-

a t i n g environment by means o f c o r r e c t l y designed seals. Seals a r e n o r m a l l y i n t e nd ed t o p r e v e n t f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l e n t e r i n g t h e b e a r i n g and i n c e r t a i n cases t o p r e v e n t t h e i n g r e s s o f m o i s t u r e and c o r r o s i v e media. The f r i c t i o n developed by a r u b b i n g se al must be considered r e l a t i v e t o t h e power i n p u t . The seal o r s i d e p l a t e must a l s o r e t a i n t h e l u b r i c a n t i n t h e R o t a t i o n a l speed o r r u b b i n g s e a l s must a l s o be considered

b e a r i n g o r housing.

t o ensure e x c e s si ve h e a t i s n o t developed.

158

Pipeline layout for condensed oil mist lubricating system

1 I 3 4

Compressed air cut-off valve

OU mint lubricator

Pressure control valve Mein pipeline

5 Mstribution box 6-8 Condenstng nipples 9 Branch pipelines 10 Spray nomle

Fig.28

O i l M i s t L u b r i c a t i o n System

Simple gap seals a r e e f f i c i e n t using grease l u b r i c a t i o n , the purpose o f the gap seals being t o keep o u t r e l a t i v e l y small a m u n t s o f f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l and t o r e t a i n the grease w i t h o u t excessive temperature problems. long a x i a l l y and as small as p o s s i b l e r a d i a l l y . gap should be 0.1 t o 0 . 3 mm.

A gap seal should be

For normal a p p l i c a t i o n s the

Gap seals can be used w i t h o i l l u b r i c a t i o n , but

i t i s advisable t o incorporate a groove i n the s h a f t o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y ,

fit a
A fur-

r i n g , both arrangements causing the o i l t o f l o w back i n t o the housing.

t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e would be t o machine a small groove i n the s h a f t adjacent t o the gap seal (which has a d r a i n hole) thereby encouraging the o i l t o f l o w back i n t o the housing. L a b y r i n t h seals a r e e x t e n s i v e l y used w i t h grease l u b r i c a t i o n i n d i r t y and wet c o n d i t i o n s . The l a b y r i n t h c o n s i s t s o f a number o f r a d i a l l y separated

tongues w i t h a small r a d i a l clearance and can be considered as e l a b o r a t e grooved gap seals. The grooves a r e o f t e n f i l l e d w i t h grease t o prevent the ingress o f

169
d i r t and a t y p i c a l l a b y r i n t h system f o r a t r a c t i o n motor bearing i s shown i n Fig.29.

lkaring srbcmc /or rrartion motor armatwe

Fig.29

Bearing Scheme f o r T r a c t i o n Hotor Armature

6.11

NOISE

Noise o r i g i n a t e s from an o s c i l l a t i n g body which produces a moving l o n g i t u d i n a l wave c o n s i s t i n g o f v a r i a t i o n i n pressure. I n order t o reduce noise i r r i t a t i o n t o

a minimum t h e r e i s a constant demand f o r s i l e n t running bearings p a r t i c u l a r l y i n domestic and o f f i c e equipment such as vacuum cleaners, f l o o r p o l i s h e r s , c i r c u l a t o r y pump motors f o r c e n t r a l heating and fans e t c .

A clean h i g h q u a l i t y r o l l i n g bearing runs w i t h an even p u r r i n g sound and

depending on the bearing arrangement, the n o i s e may be so low as t o be i n a u d i b l e o r i t can be unpleasant and d i s t u r b i n g . Bearing noise i s a f u n c t i o n o f the l e v e l

o f v i b r a t i o n i n the bearing and the q u i e t e r the bearing the lower the l e v e l o f vibration. V i b r a t i o n s i n a bearing depend on many f a c t o r s such as surface

f i n i s h , speed, load and accuracy o f geometric form e t c . Clearance i n a bearing i s a f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r y f a c t o r t o n o i s e and i t i s necessary t o s e l e c t bearings and f i t s t o achieve zero clearance i n the bearing under o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . bearing clearances. Fig.30 shows the e f f e c t on noise of d i f f e r e n t

Freedom from clearance i n mounted b a l l bearings can a l s o be

160
achieved by a d j u s t i n g t h e b e a r i n g a g a i n s t each o t h e r by means o f d i s c s p r i n g s as shown i n Fig.31. working c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s method ensures p r a c t i c a l l y z e r o c l e a r a n c e under a l l The t o t a l s p r i n g p r e s s u r e should be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5
100 Newton p r e s s u r e f o r a 20 mm s h a f t .

Newtons per mm o f s h a f t diameter i . e .

Clearance in mounted bearing The dependence of motor noise on bearing clearance. Measurement of vibration of electric motor over the frequency range 400--800 c/s with progressive variation of bearing clearance A=clearance range obtained with C2 bearings and normal fits B=clearance range obtained with normal bearings and normal fits

Fig.30

E f f e c t o f Noise on D i f f e r e n t Bearing C 1 earances

For b a l l and c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s o p e r a t i n g a t h i g h speeds (ndm 500000 and 400000 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) t h e temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l between t h e i n n e r and o u t e r r i n g s i s g r e a t e r than a t normal speeds and t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s must be taken i n t o account. Any r e d u c t i o n i n c l e a r a n c e due t o temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l

must be compensated f o r by u s i n g b e a r i n g s w i t h g r e a t e r i n i t i a l r a d i a l clearance. W h i l s t v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s i n b e a r i n g s can be reduced, i t i s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o ensure t h a t t h e o t h e r components i n t h e machine a r e a l s o manufactured t o s i m i l a r accuracy t o ensure t h e y a r e n o t t h e cause o f v i b r a t i o n , o t h e r w i s e t h e q u i e t running p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b e a r i n g w i l l n o t be u t i l i s e d . From a n o i s e

aspect t h e o v a l i t y and t a p e r o f t h e s h a f t and housing s e a t i n g s should be accura t e and l i e w i t h i n h a l f t h e t o l e r a n c e range f o r grades I T 5 and IT6 f o r s h a f t and housing r e s p e c t i v e l y . B e a r i n g a l i g n m e n t must a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d , a s misF i g u r e 32 shows t h e h i g h and c o r r e s -

a l i g n m e n t can a l s o be a source o f n o i s e .

ponding d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed low s p o t s on a lobed t y p e o f out-of-roundness, and Fig.33 shows t h e e f f e c t o f a l i g n m e n t e r r o r s on n o i s e i n t e n s i t y . There a r e

161

Fig.31

Spring preloading of deep groove ball bearings. 1 with spring washers, 2 with helical springs.

Fig.32

Lobing. For every high spot there is a corresponding low spot diametrically opposite. There are always an odd number of lobes.

162

Noise intensity

dR

Fig.33

Errors of alignment

E f f e c t o f Alignment E r r o r s on Noise

many a p p l i c a t i o n s where n o i s e must be t o l e r a t e d i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a s a t i s f a c t o r y bearing l i f e . o f railway vehicles, I n e l e c t r i c t r a c t i o n motors geared t o t h e d r i v i n g a x l e s t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s d i c t a t e heavy f i t s w hich i n t u r n The increased r a d i a l

n e c e s s i t a t e b e a r i n g s w i t h l a r g e i n i t i a l r a d i a l clearance.

c l ea r a n c e r e s u l t s i n combined r o l l e r and cage d r o p as they come o u t o f t h e load zone which can cause increased b e a r i n g no i se, a l t h o u g h i t has no e f f e c t on t h e l i f e o f t h e b e a r i n g and cannot be heard when t h e motor is f i t t e d under t h e l oc o m o tiv e .

A h i g h p i t c h e d whine can o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r a t c e r t a i n speed ranges

T h i s has been

w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r be ari n gs, d e s p i t e adequate l u b r i c a t i o n .

a t t r i b u t e d t o resonance caused by c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s o f the r o l l i n g elements c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e b e a r i n g end frame and, i n c e r t a i n cases, whine has been s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced by m o d i f y i n g t h e mass d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e housing.

6.12

ANTICIPATING BEARING DAMAGE

The r u n n in g performance o f r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s from a n o i s e aspect can be checked w i t h reasonable accuracy u s i n g a wooden l i s t e n i n g s t i c k and l i s t e n i n g t h r o u g h t h e h a n d le t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e d n oi se .

A wooden s t i c k i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n

t h a t i t t r a n s m i t s n o i s e r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g and c u t s o u t most o f t h e extraneous n o i s e from o t h e r machine components w hich can cause p r o blems f o r t h e more s e n s i t i v e stethoscope.

With experience, an o p e r a t o r becomes

Naturally,

tuned t o c e r t a i n n o i s e s and can a s c e r t a i n t h a t b e a r i n g examination should be c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e n e x t shutdown p e r i o d .

if say a c o n s i s t e n t knocking

develops w i t h t h e normal n o i s e l e v e l , t h en an immediate i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e bearing

163
should be made. Damaged t r a c k s caused by c a r e l e s s mounting produce pronounced

low p i t c h n o i s e and inadequate r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e produces m e t a l l i c n o i s e .

6.13

DETECTION OF BEARING DAMAGE BY SHOCK PULSE MEASUREMENT f l a k i n g occurs i n t h e r o l l i n g

When a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s u f f e r s f a t i g u e f a i l u r e , element s u r f a c e s o r i n t h e t r a c k s .

A b e a r i n g component coming i n t o c o n t a c t
These v i b r a t i o n s g e n e r a t e e l e c -

w i t h t h e damaged zone causes a mechanical shock, causing t r a n s i e n t v i b r a t i o n s

which a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e b e a r i n g housing. t r i c v o l t a g e s i n an acce l ero met er and t h e i r a m p l i t u d e i s determined by a shock p u l s e meter. The c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g i s monitored, t a k i n g readings a t I n c i p i e n t damage can, t h e r e f o r e be d e t e c t e d a t an e a r l y

suitable intervals.

s ta g e and b e a r i n g replacement planned a c c o r d i n g l y . Earphones can be used t o l i s t e n t o t h e rhythm o f t h e shocks and, p r o v i d e d t h e damage i s n o t t o o complex, b e a r i n g i s damaged. Temperature i s a f u r t h e r method f o r gauging b e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n , and b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s a r e sometimes preceded by a d r o p i n temperature f o l l o w e d by a r a p i d i nc r e a s e i n temperature, u s u a l l y caused by metal-to-metal c o n t a c t w i t h subset h e rhythm w i l l suggest w hich component o f t h e

quent f a t i g u e f a i l u r e o r even s e i z u r e .

The o l d method o f checkina t h e b e a r i n g and i n a p p l i c a t i o n s

te m p e r a t u r e by f e e l i n g t h e h ou si ng i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y ,

where breakdowns cause maintenance problems i t i s usual t o use thermal-couples p o s i t i o n e d as c l o s e t o t h e b e a r i n g o u t e r r i n g as p o s s i b l e . When u s i n g t h e

te m p e r a t u r e method o f ch ecki n g b e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n i t must be noted t h a t t h e r e

w i l l always be a t emp era t u re r i s e w i t h new o r freshly-greased

bearings.

This

o n l y a p p l i e s d u r i n g i n i t i a l r u n n i n g and once t h e new l u b r i c a n t has d i s t r i b u t e d itself, t h e te m p era t u re w i l l s t a r t t o f a l l .

6.14

FITS (SHAFT AND HOUSING)

To le r a n c e s f o r t h e bo re and o u t s i d e d i ame ter o f m e t r i c r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s a r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y s t a n d a r d i s e d and t h e r e q u i r e d f i t s a r e achieved by s e l e c t i n g s h a f t and h o u s in g t o l e r a n c e s u s i n g t h e IS0 t o l e r a n c e system ( i n c o r p o r a t e d i n BS 4 5 0 0 : P a r t 1:1969). Only a sma l l s e l e c t i o n o f t h e IS0 t o l e r a n c e zones need

t o be c o n s id e r e d f o r r o l l i n g b e a r i n g , and Fig.34 shows these r e l a t i v e t o t h e b e a r i n g b o r e ( a ) and b e a r i n g o u t s i d e d i ame t e r ( b ) . The s h a f t t o l e r a n c e i s i n d i c a t e d by a sma ll l e t t e r and a number and the housing b o r e by a c a p i t a l l e t t e r and a number. bore t o l e r a n c e c omb i na t i o n would be w r i t t e n j 6 obtained from t ole ran ce tab le s.

A t y p i c a l s h a f t and housing

J7, t h e values f o r each being

164

Fig.34

Shaft and Housing F i t s .

The various symbol gradings a r e as f o l l o w s : Shafts Clearance Transition Bearings always have clearance f i t i f the s h a f t t o l e r a n c e

i sl l f l l

Bearings can be clearance o r i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t depending on the a c t u a l dimensions, i f t h e shaft t o l e r a n c e is w i t h i n t h e range 'lg

- j". r'l.

Interference

Bearings w i l l always have an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t i f t h e s h a f t t o l e r a n c e range i s w i t h i n "k Housings

C I earance

Bearings w i l l always have clearance i f t h e housing tolerance

' range i s IG
Transition

- H".

Bearings w i l l have a clearance or an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t dependi n g on the a c t u a l dimensions i f the housing tolerance i s w i t h i n the range "J

N".

Interference

Bearings w i l l have i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t i f the housing tolerance i sl l p l l

The most important f a c t o r s t o consider when s e l e c t i n g f i t s are;-

1 . Conditions o f r o t a t i o n 2 . Magnitude o f the load

3 . Temperature c o n d i t i o n s

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6.15
load, C O N D I T I O N S OF ROTATION

When a bearing r i n g i s t o r o t a t e r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of the r a d i a l

i t must be mounted w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e on the s h a f t o r i n the

housing t o prevent " r o l l "

o r "creept'.

I f creep occurs between heavily-loaded

It i s therefore essential that

d r y surfaces, t h e surfaces undergo r a p i d wear. the f i t used i s t i g h t enough t o

ensure t h a t no clearance e x i s t s and none can

develop due t o the a c t i o n o f the load.

I f the load i s always d i r e c t e d towards

the same p o i n t on the r i n g , however, no creep o'ccurs and a clearance f i t i s g e n e r a l l y permissible. Various loading c o n d i t i o n s can be c l a s s i f i e d as f o l l o w s ; (i) R o t a t i n g inner r i n g load. The s h a f t r o t a t e s r e l a t i v e t o the d i r e c t i o n

o f the load so t h a t a l l p o i n t s on the inner r i n g t r a c k a r e subjected t o load d u r i n g one r e v o l u t i o n . Example

Shaft w i t h b e l t d r i v e . The s h a f t i s s t a t i o n a r y r e l a t i v e t o the

( i i ) S t a t i o n a r y inner r i n g load.

d i r e c t i o n o f loading so t h a t the load i s always towards the same sector o f the inner r i n g . Example

- Automobile

f r o n t hub. The bearing housing remains s t a t i o n a r y t h e load i s always d i r e c t e d

( i i i ) S t a t i o n a r y o u t e r r i n g load.

r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f loading so t h a t towards t h e same sector o f the o u t e r r i n g . Example

Shaft w i t h b e l t d r i v e . The bearing housing r o t a t e s r e l a t i v e t o the

( i v ) Rotating o u t e r r i n g load.

d i r e c t i o n o f loading so t h a t a l l p o i n t s on t h e o u t e r r i n g t r a c k come under load d u r i n g one r e v o l u t i o n . Example

- Automobile

f r o n t hub.

I n many a p p l i c a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s cannot be r e l a t e d t o any o f these simple loading cases and v a r i a b l e e x t e r n a l loads o r out-of-balance forces

i n f l u e n c e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f loading, an a p p r o p r i a t e f i t being c l a s s i f i e d as " d i r e c t i o n o f loading indeterminate". I n t h i s instance, bearing r i n g "creep"

can o n l y be prevented by using an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t f o r both r i n g s and i n such cases bearings w i t h increased r a d i a l clearance a r e u s u a l l y necessary.

6.16

INFLUENCE OF LOAD AND TEMPERATURE

The load compresses t h e inner r i n g i n a r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n which s t r e t c h e s the r i n g i n a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n and compresses t h e s h a f t , thereby loosening the f i t . S i m i l a r l y , as the bearing inner r i n g t r a c k is warmer d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n

than the bearing bore, t h i s a l s o has the e f f e c t o f loosening the f i t o f the

166
b e a r i n g i n n e r r i n g on i t s j o u r n a l .
I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i t i s unnecessary t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e q u i r e d

i n t e r f e r e n c e s i n c e e xpe ri en ce i s a good g u i d e i n s e l e c t i n g s u i t a b l e f i t s f o r d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and o n l y i n p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t or unusual c o n d i t i o n s i s i t necessary t o r e s o r t t o s p e c i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s .

6.17

BEARING A P P L I C A T I O N S

When d e s i g n i n g b e a r i n g arrangements t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n b a s i c r u l e s w hich should be f o l l o w e d . l o c a t i o n purposes. Wherever p o s s i b l e o n l y one b e a r i n g should be used f o r T h i s means t h a t t h e b ea ring o u t e r r i n g should be h e l d

a x i a l l y i n i t s hou si ng w i t h t h e i n n e r r i n g l o c a t e d on t h e s h a f t i n a s i m i l a r manner.

All o t h e r be ari n gs on t h e same s h a f t should be a x i a l l y f r e e , e i t h e r

I f t h i s basic r u l e i s

on t h e s h a f t o r i n t h e housing, as shown on Fig.35.

ignored and two a x i a l l y l o c a t e d b e a r i n g s a r e used, any s h a f t expansion o c c u r r i n g due t o generated o r e x t e r n a l h e a t c o u l d cause severed l o c k i n g ( p r e l o a d i n g ) acr o s s t h e b e a r in gs, r e s u l t i n g i n premature b e a r i n g f a i l u r e . In certain appli-

c a t i o n s u s i n g a ng ul a r c o n t a c t b a l l o r t a pe r r o l l e r bearings i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o use only one b ea ri ng f o r l o c a t i o n and t h e bearings must be a d j u s t e d by end covers.

FIG.

35

FTG.

36

W it h these b e a r ing s g r e a t c a r e must be t ake n t o ensure t h a t t h ? bearings can accommodate a x i a l v a r i a t i o n s and i n sane a p p l i c a t i o n s a small gap i s l e f t between t h e b e a r i n g o u t e r r i n g and t h e abutment cover, as shown i n Fig.36. The a x i a l expansion problem can be r e s o l v e d by i n c o r p o r a t i n g a c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r in g a t t h e no n-l o cat ed p o s i t i o n , t h i s arrangement being used extens i v e l y on e l e c t r i c motors where a b a l l b ea ri ng i s used a t t h e commutator end and a r o l l e r b e a ri ng a t t h e d r i v e end.
I n a d d i t i o n t o r e s o l v i n g t h e thermal

expansion problem such an arrangement has an added advantage i n t h a t a c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b e ari n g has s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r I o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y (compared t o a d i m e n s i o n a l l y e q u i v a l e n t b a l l be ari n g) which makes i t p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r r e a c t i n g heavy d r i v e f o r c e s .

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6.18
BEARING CARE

Cleanliness i s o f paramount importance when handling and mounting bearings, but i n s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t bearings a r e p r e c i s i o n made, one has o n l y t o look around the average workshop t o see open bearings l e f t on benches o r i n dusty environments.

I t should be noted t h a t i f f o r e i g n matter i s allowed t o enter a

bearing the r o l l i n g elements i n passing over i t d u r i n g s e r v i c e can cause indenta t i o n s leading t o f a t i g u e f a i l u r e i n t h e r o l l i n g elements o r t r a c k s which can shorten the l i f e o f the bearing considerably.

As a general r u l e , i n order t o

ensure the bearings remain f r e e from i m p u r i t i e s , they should n o t be removed from t h e i r o r i g i n a l packing u n t i l they a r e required f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n . Before

packing bearings a r e u l t r a - s o n i c a l l y washed and coated w i t h a bearing preservat i v e which mixes r e a d i l y w i t h most l u b r i c a n t s , a p a r t from c e r t a i n c l a y o r synthetic-based greases, facturers. Although i n i t i a l washing o f bearings by t h e user i s n o t recommended due t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the washing f l u i d n o t completely evaporating, i n which case i t i s advisable t o contact the bearing manu-

i f washing i s

necessary then the bearings should be washed w i t h c l e a n w h i t e s p i r i t a f t e r which the bearings must be thoroughly d r i e d before adding l u b r i c a n t .

6.19

BEARING MOUNTING

I f the bearing inner r i n g i s t o be a t i g h t f i t on t h e s h a f t , i t can be d r i v e n onto the s h a f t j o u r n a l by means o f a t u b u l a r d r i f t which should bear evenly a g a i n s t t h e f a c e o f t h e inner r i n g , as shown i n Fig.37.

I f the bearing outer

r i n g i s t o be a t i g h t f i t i n i t s housing then the r i n g should be d r i v e n i n t o the housing by a p p l y i n g f o r c e t o the outer r i n g .

Hollow drift for bearings with an interference fit on the shaft Hollow drift for bearings with an interference fit both in the housing and on the shaft

I
FIG. 38

FIG-

37

Pressure must n e v e r be a p p l i e d t o the inner o r outer bearing r i n g i n order t o mount the o t h e r r i n g which has a t i g h t f i t , otherwise t h e r e i s a danger o f the t r a c k s being indented and the bearing would probably f a i l i n s e r v i c e a f t e r

168
a s h o r t t im e .

I f b o t h t he i n n e r and o u t e r r i n g s a r e a t i g h t f i t , then a t o o l

o f t h e t y p e shown i n F i g . 3 8 must be used whi ch c o n t a c t s b o t h s i d e f a c e s o f t h e be a r in g r i n g s . Care must be t ake n t o e nsu re t h a t t h e b e a r i n g r i n g b e i n g pressed on i s c o r r e c t l y a l i g n e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e case o f small r i n g s . Excessive m i s a l i g n -

ment p u t s severe s t r e s s on t h e cage, wh i ch can r e s u l t i n premature b e a r i n g failure. C y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r b ea ri ng s sometimes g i v e assembly problems due t o t h e r o l l e r s being scored as t h e y a r e f e d o v e r t h e t r a c k s . T h i s problem can be r e -

s o lv e d by u s i n g a s p e c i a l mounting s l e e v e as shown on Fig.39.

Mounting sleeves simplify the mounting of cylindrical roller bearings and prevent damage to the tracks

FTG.

39

For l a r g e r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l bores where t h e i n n e r r i n g i s a

t i g h t f i t , mounting can be s i m p l i f i e d by h e a t i n g t h e complete b e a r i n g i n an o i l ba th a t a t e m p e ra t u re o f 70

8OoC above ambient.

I f t h e b e a r i n g needs t o be

t r a n s p o r t e d some d i s t a n c e i t can be heated t o a h i g h e r temperature t o compens a t e f o r c o o l i n g down d u r i n g t r a n s i t . Bearings can be heated up t o 12OoC i n there i s

t h i s way, b u t t h i s t e mpe rat ure sh ou l d n o t be exceeded as, above 120C, a danger o f r e d uci n g t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l hardness.

6.20

DISMOUNTING BEARINGS

I f an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t has been used t o l o c a t e a b e a r i n g on a s h a f t i t i s

e s s e n t i a l t o use a s u i t a b l y designed wi t h dra wal t o o l t o remove t h e b e a r i n g . The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s for mounting a b e a r i n g a p p l y a l s o t o dismounting. The d i s -

mounting f o r c e must be a p p l i e d t o t h e b e a r i n g r i n g having t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e f i t and n o t t o t h e loose r i n g and t hro ug h t o t h e o t h e r r i n g by means o f t h e r o l l i n g

169
elements. Claw-type p u l l e t s a r e o f t e n used t o remove b a l l bearings, but design-

e r s must t a k e t h i s i n t o c o d s i d e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n s t a g e by i n c o r p o r a t i n g s u i t a b l e grooves i n t h e abutment shoulder a d j a c e n t t o t h e b e a r i n g f a c e t o enable the b e a r i n g i n n e r r i n g t o be g r i p p e d by t h e p u l l e r c l a w s . N a t u r a l l y , the p u l l e r

f o r c e must be a p p l i e d t o t h e i n n e r r i n g and n o t t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e r o l l i n g elements.

I f t h e i n n e r r i n g i s i n a c c e s s i b l e i t i s necessary t o p u l l on t h e

o u t e r r i n g , b u t b e a r i n g damage can be avoided by l o c k i n g t h e p u l l e r c e n t r e screw w i t h a spanner and r o t a t i n g t h e claws. The o u t e r r i n g w i l l then r o t a t e

d u r i n g t h e w i t h d r a w l process, d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e load over t h e t r a c k s and thereby preventing the p o s s i b i l i t y o f indentations. The b e a r i n g i s t h e n p u l l e d o f f

s u f f i c i e n t l y t o enable t h e i n n e r r i n g t o be g r i p p e d w i t h t h e p u l l e r ( F i g . 4 0 ) .

Extractor

U
FIG. 40
6.21
MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING B Y O I L INJECTION I n o r d e r t o overcome many o f t h e mounting and dismounting problems SKF, i n 1940, i n t r o d u c e d an o i l - i n j e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e which i s now w i d e l y used i n many branches o f e n g i n e e r i n g . O i l under h i g h p r e s s u r e i s i n j e c t e d between t h e bearAn o i l f i l m The o i l

ing i n n e r r i n g and s h a f t j o u r n a l d u r i n g mounting o r dismounting.

i s formed which b o t h separates and l u b r i c a t e s t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s .

separates t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s except f o r a narrow zone a t each end o f t h e r i n g . The s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e i s g r e a t e r i n these zones due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s h a f t m a t e r i a l beyond t h e end o f t h e r i n g and t h e zones a c t a s an o i l l o c k which r e t a i n s t h e o i l between t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s . When t h e o i l p r e s s u r e i s released

t h e o i l i s f o r c e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y back through t h e s u p p l y d u c t s , thereby r e s t o r i n g the o r i g i n a l f r i c t i o n . The advantage o f u s i n g o i l - i n j e c t i o n i s t h a t t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o move t h e component i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced and t h a t by e l i m i n a t i n g d i r e c t c o n t a c t and t h e r e s u l t i n g f r i c t i o n between t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f damage t o t h e s u r f a c e s o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e mounting o r dismounting process i s minimised.

170
A f u r t h e r advantage i s t h a t
components can be dismounted o r a d j u s t e d w i t h o u t

t h e r i s k o f the f i t d e t e r i o r a t i n g . I f t h e b e a r i n g r i n g i s mounted on a t a p e r e d j o u r n a l w i t h a s e l f - r e l e a s i n g taper, the r i n g w i l l be e j e c t e d w i t h some f o r c e when t h e o i l i s i n t r o d u c e d and

I f , however, a

some f o r o f a x i a l r e s t r a i n t such as a n u t w i l l be necessary.

l o c k i n g t a p e r i s used then an e x t e r n a l f o r c e a d d i t i o n a l t o t h e o i l i n j e c t i o n f o r c e w i l l be r e q u i r e d . F i g u r e s 41, 42 and 43 show t y p i c a l arrangements.

Position o distribution groove f in a tapered and a cylindrical seating

for a rolling bearing

Cylindrical seating

FIG.

41

Tapered seating

FIG.

42

The f i r s t two show a b e a r i n g on a p a r a l l e l s h a f t and a b e a r i n g on a tapered shaft. The t h i r d shows o i l i n j e c t i o n b e i n g a p p l i e d t o a gear wheel mounted on I t should be n o t e d t h a t , w i t h a p a r a l l e l s h a f t , once t h e

a parallel shaft.
bearing r i n g i s and t h e r i n g c o u l d

p a s t t h e o i l e n t r y h o l e t h e r e i s no l o n g e r any o i l p r e s s u r e
lock. I t has been found, however, t h a t i f t h e r i n g i s w i t h -

drawn r a p i d l y then i t w i l l t r a v e l o v e r t h e remaining area w i t h o u t t o o much d i f f iculty Large r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s w i t h a t a p e r b o r e and mounted on a d a p t o r o r w i t h -

d rawa 1 sleeves can be e a s i l y mounted o r dismounted u s i n g h y d r a u l i c n u t s designed by SKF The h y d r a u l i c n u t c o n s i s t s o f an i n t e r n a l l y threaded s t e e l r i n g w i t h a

groove i n one f a c e i n t o which i s f i t t e d an a n n u l a r p i s t o n sealed w i t h O - r i n g s . When o 1 i s pumped i n t o t h e a n n u l a r space behind t h e p i s t o n i t i s f o r c e d o u t wards, shaft. thereby f o r c i n g t h e b e a r i n g on o r p u l l i n g t h e b e a r i n g o f f t h e s l e e v e o r F i g u r e 4 4 shows a h y d r a u l i c n u t b e i n g used t o mount a s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r

b e a r i n g on an adaptor s l e e v e and Fig.45 shows an arrangement f o r d i s m o u n t i n g a b e a r i n g on an adaptor s l e e v e . An arrangement f o r dismounting a b e a r i n g from a

withdrawal sleeve i s shown on Fig.46.

171

H M V nut for driving up a bearing on an adapter sleeve

Cylindrical mating surface having two distribution grooves

FIG.

43

H M V nut and stop rings in position to press loose an adapter sleeve

H M V nut used to free a withdrawal sleeve

FIG.

46

6.22

C L E A N I N G OF B E A R I N G S
i t i s n o t necessary t o c l e a n b e a r i n g s taken d i r e c t

A s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned,

from t h e i r packages and any a t t e m p t t o do so c o u l d be d e t r i m e n t a l from b o t h a c l e a n l i n e s s and f u t u r e l u b r i c a t i o n aspect. bearings need t o There a r e occasions, however, when

be dismounted, cleaned, and inspected i n s p i t e o f the f a c t

t h a t unnecessary dismounting may cause d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e s h a f t and housing

f i t s as w e l l as p o s s i b l e damage t o t h e t r a c k s .

172
A f t e r d is m o u n t i n g f o r c l e a n i n g purposes a l l used grease should f i r s t be caref u l l y removed. ing f l u i d Small b e a r i n g s sh ou l d be immersed i n w h i t e s p i r i t o r o t h e r clean-

and s w i r l e d round, t he r e s i d u a l grease and d i r t b e i n g removed u s i n g a Care must be taken t o ensure t h a t none o f the b r i s t l e s a r e

good q u a l i t y b r ush . tr a p p e d between

t h e cage and r o l l i n g elements.

A f t e r t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y washing t he b e a r i n g s should be washed i n one o r two additional b a t h s o f white s p i r i t .

A warm (lOOC maximum) l i g h t m i n e r a l o i l

Under no

s h o u ld then be f l u s h e d t h rou gh t h e b e a r i n g as i t i s s l o w l y r o t a t e d .

circumstances s ho ul d t h e b e a r i n g be r o t a t e d u n t i l t h e o i l passes through i t , o t h e r w i s e any f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s i n t h e b e a r i n g w i l l be r o l l e d i n t o t h e t r a c k s c a u s in g i n d e n t a t i o n s . they s h o u ld additive.

I f t h e b e a r i n g s a r e n o t intended f o r immediate mounting

be l u b r i c a t e d w i t h a good q u a l i t y o i l c o n t a i n i n g a w a t e r - r e p e l l a n t

6.23

RECOGNITION OF B E A R I N G FAILURES

Ob v io u s ly premature b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s o c c u r , b u t i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases i f the symptoms a r e reco gn i sed t h e cause o f t h e f a i l u r e s can be e l i m i n a t e d . If

r o l l i n g b e a r in g s a r e p r o p e r l y mounted, sea l ed, l u b r i c a t e d and maintained, they w i l l run u n t i l f a t i g u e f a i l u r e ( f l a k i n g ) occurs on t h e b e a r i n g i n n e r o r o u t e r r i n g o r r o l l i n g elements. f a i l u r e can As a l r e a d y mentioned, b e a r i n g l i f e based on f a t i g u e

be p r e d i c t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l i f e d i s p e r s i o n curve, and i f a l i f e i t i s important to a s c e r t a i n

b e a r i n g f a i l s w e l l s h o r t o f i t s normal L,o

th e cause o f the f a i l u r e b e f o r e f i t t i n g new b e a r i n g s .

6.23.1

Wear

I f a b e a r i n g housing i s i na de qu at el y se al ed, a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s can e n t e r the bearing c a u s in g wear i n t h e t r a c k s , r o l l i n g elements and cage, and i n c e r t a i n The worn s u r f a c e s a r e d u l l i n appearance Wear can a l s o o c c u r between

be a r in g s wear i n t h e g u i d e f l a n g e s .

and an example o f worn t r a c k s i s shown i n Fig.47.

th e i n n e r r i n g bo re and i t s j o u r n a l o r between t h e o u t e r r i n g o u t s i d e diameter and h o u s in g bore due t o creep. T h i s i s u s u a l l y the r e s u l t o f excessive c l e a r -

ance and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s because n o t o n l y the b e a r i n g b u t a l s o t h e s h a f t o r h o u s in g c o u l d be damaged and r e q u i r e r e p l a c i n g . faces Creep between mating s u r -

causes f r e t t i n g c o r r o s i o n and wear, and p a r t i c l e s o f r u s t from t h e c o r r o -

ded areas may a l s o e n t e r t h e b e a r i n g cau si ng wear i n t h e t r a c k s and r o l l i n g e l e ments. Wear can a l s o be caused by inadequate l u b r i c a t i o n , t h e worn surfaces

having a h i g h l y planished f i n i s h . failure.

T h i s t y p e o f wear develops i n t o f a t i g u e

173

Fig.47

Worn T r a c k s due t o Abrasive P a r t i c l e s .

174

6.23.2
which can

Incorrect

Mounting

F a u l t y mounting o f t e n r e s u l t s i n t h e b e a r i n g b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h loads cause m a t e r i a l f a t i g u e i n t h e b e a r i n g r i n g s o r r o l l i n g elements w e l l Indenta-

b e f o r e t h e nominal c a l c u l a t e d l i f e o f t h e b e a r i n g has been reached.

t i o n s w i t h t h e same p i t c h as t h e r o l l i n g elements can be caused by t h e mounting f o r c e b e i n g a p p l i e d through t h e r o l l i n g elements. D u r i n g s e r v i c e an o v e r l o a d

occurs each t i m e a r o l l i n g element passes o v e r an i n d e n t a t i o n , and a f t e r a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t i m e small fragments o f b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l break away, t h e c o n d i t i o n b e i n g g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " f l a k i n g " . F i g u r e 48 shows t h e i n n e r r i n g o f a

deep groove b a l l b e a r i n g w i t h advanced areas o f f l a k i n g on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e o f the track.

Fig.48

F l a k i n g caused by F a u l t y Mounting

F i g u r e 49 shows t h e i n n e r and o u t e r r i n g o f a b a l l b e a r i n g w i t h a f i l l i n g s l o t . The f l a k e d wear on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e o f t h e i n n e r r i n g and on t h e l e f t - h a n d side o f t h e o u t e r r i n g show t h a t f a i l u r e has been caused by a heavy t h r u s t l o a d F a t i g u e f a i l u r e o f t h i s t y p e begins a t a p o i n t below t h e Small c r a c k s develop, which g r a d u a l l y

due t o c r o s s - l o c a t i o n .

s u r f a c e o f t h e t r a c k o r r o l l i n g elements. work up t o t h e s u r f a c e where,under

repeated o v e r l o a d a t such weak p o i n t s , even-

t u a l l y cause fragments t o break away, t h e s e fragments b e i n g r o l l e d i n t o o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e t r a c k thereby i n i t i a t i n g f u r t h e r areas o f weakness.

175

Fig.49

F a i l u r e caused by a Heavy T h r u s t Load due t o Cross L o c a t i o n .

6.23.3

Cage F a i l u r e s

With an adequately l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g i n normal c o n d i t i o n s , t h e cage i s t h e most l i g h t l y - l o a d e d component.

I f t h e l u b r i c a t i o n i s inadequate,

wear w i l l o c c u r where t h e cage makes c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r i n g s and r o l l i n g elements and e v e n t u a l l y t h e cage may f r a c t u r e . Highly planished surfaces are u s u a l l y Excessive misalignment o f t h e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h inadequate cage l u b r i c a t i o n .

i n n e r and o u t e r b e a r i n g r i n g r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r i s a n o t h e r cause o f cage f a i l u r e and severe misalignment can r e s u l t i n t h e cage, o r even t h e b e a r i n g rings, cracking. Wear can a l s o be caused by f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s e n t e r i n g t h e

bearing, t h e p a r t i c l e s jamming o r wedging between t h e cage and r o l l i n g elements. F i g u r e 50 shows a s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g case w i t h worn r o l l e r prongs and wear i n t h e bottom o f t h e r o l l e r pockets. where t h e prongs have a c t u a l l y sheared. F i g u r e 51 shows a more advanced case

176

Fig.50

Spherical R o l l e r Bearing Cage w i t h Worn R o l l e r Prongs and Wear i n the Bottom of the R o l l e r Pockets.

Fig.51

More Advanced Case than F i q . 5 0 , w i t h Prongs Sheared.

6.23.4

Smearing i s a t r a n s f e r e n c e o f m a t e r i a l from one body t o another when two surfaces s l i d e a g a i n s t each o t h e r . Local s t r e s s con-

Smearing

inadequately l u b r i c a t e d

c e n t r a t i o n s a r e induced by smearing, and these produce cracks i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s and subsequent f l a k i n g . which F i g u r e 52 shows a smeared c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r

has been caused by r a p i d a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e r i n t h e loaded zone

coupled w i t h inadequate o r i n c o r r e c t l u b r i c a t i o n . subjected

I f c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r s are

t o severe t h r u s t f o r c e s combined w i t h inadequate o r u n s u i t a b l e l u b r i -

c a t i o n , smearing develops a t t h e ends o f t h e r o l l e r and on t h e g u i d e f l a n g e s

Fig.52

Smeared C y l i n d r i c a l R o l l e r caused by Rapid A c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e R o l l e r i n t h e Loaded Zone coupled w i t h Inadequate o r Incorrect Lubrication. Smearing

o f b e a r i n g r i n g s , and Fig.53 shows smearing on t h e end o f a r o l l e r .

can a l s o o c c u r on l i g h t l y - l o a d e d high-speed b a l l t h r u s t b e a r i n g s where t h e g y r a t o r y moment may f o r c e t h e b a l l s t o s l i d e t a n g e n t i a l l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f

178

Fig.53

Smearing Caused by Severe Thrust Forces combined with Inadequate o r Unsuitable Lubrication. Lightly-loaded high-speed ball thrust

rolling, causing spiral-shaped smearing. as given on Fig.22.

bearing must therefore always have a small pre-load or spring load when mounted

6.23.5

Vibrations Bearings in

A phenomenon known as 'False Brinelling' can occur in rolling bearings fitted

to stationary machines, due to vibrations from adjacent machinery.

ships ancillary equipment subject t o vibrations from the ship's machinery are particularly prone to this damage and this can apply to bearings in machines being transported by sea.

179

Fi9.54

Vibration Damage.

Fig.55

Vibration Oamage.

180

Rotor clamp for preventing damage due t o vibration during transport

FIG.

56

Fig.57

Corrosion a t the Contact Surfaces due t o Water.

181
A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f v i b r a t i o n damage i s t h a t t h e damaged areas a r e
spaced a t t h e same p i t c h as t h e r o l l i n g elements. The v i b r a t i o n s induce small

movements a t t h e c o n t a c t surf ace s between t h e r o l l i n g elements and t h e r i n g s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g wear causes mi cro scop i c p a r t i c l e s o f m a t e r i a l t o break away. These p a r t i c l e s o x i d i s e and, on m i x i n g w i t h t h e l u b r i c a n t , cause a l a p p i n g a c t i o n , and hence an i n crea se i n t h e o x i d a t i o n r a t e . The h i g h e r t h e frequency

o f t h e v i b r a t i o n a l movement a t t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s , t h e more r a p i d t h e damage, each r o l l i n g element g r a d u a l l y f o r m i n g a cavity. C y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r and n ee dl e r o l l e r b e a r i n g s a r e more prone t o t h i s t y p e o f damage t h a n b a l l b e a r i n g s and s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g s , and one method o f overcoming t h e problem i s t o use spri n g-l o ad ed b a l l bearings. The p r e - l o a d

s h o u ld be a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o 20 Newtons per m i l l i m e t e r o f s h a f t diameter. Be fo r e p r e - l o a d i n g , however,

i t i s necessary t o check t h a t t h e combination o f

e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and a d d i t i o n a l p r e - l o a d does n o t o v e r l o a d t h e bearing. T y p i c a l examples o f v i b r a t i o n damage t o b e a r i n g s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n due t o r e l a t i v e movement between t h e s h a f t and housing, whether by sea, r a i l , o r road, can be r e s o l v e d by d r i v i n g a wooden wedge between t h e s h a f t o r c o u p l i n g and a r o b u s t p a r t o f t h e c r a t e . Alternatively, t h e s h a f t can be locked r e -

l a t i v e t o t h e h o usi n g by means o f a clamp, as shown i n Fig.56.

6.23.6

Rust and Other Types o f C o r r o s i o n

R o l l i n g b e a r i n g s w i l l r u s t i f wat er o r m o i s t u r e i s p r e s e n t and t h e bearings a r e n o t p r o t e c t e d by a l u b r i c a n t c o n t a i n i n g a r u s t - i n h i b i t o r . P i t t i n g develops

i n t h e c o r r o d e d are as, r e l e a s i n g small p a r t i c l e s o f r u s t , and i f t h e r e a r e such areas i n t h e t r a c k s t h e r u s t mixes w i t h grease and a c t s as a l a p p i n g agent. Fig.57 shows c o r r o s i o n on a s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r b e a r i n g and i n t h i s case t h e grease was u n a b l e t o p r o t e c t t h e b e a r i n g f rom w ater. E l e c t r o l y t i c a c t i o n due

t o t h e wa t e r has r e s u l t e d i n c o r r o s i o n a t t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s between t h e r o l l e r s and r i n g s .

6.23.7

Passage o f E l e c t r i c Cu rren t Through Bearings

E l e c t r i c c u r r e n t p assi n g t hro ug h a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g causes damage t o t h e t r a c k s o r r o l l i n g elements, which can r e s u l t i n premature f a i l u r e o f t h e bearing. A l t e r n a t i n g and d i r e c t c u r r e n t have a s i m i l a r e f f e c t and where t h e r e i s a r i s k o f e l e c t r i c a l leakage, o f current. r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s must be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e passage

I f a c o n t i n u o u s c u r r e n t passes through a r o t a t i n g b e a r i n g a dark

c o l o u r e d f i l m i s produced on t h e t r a c k s and r o l l i n g elements which g r a d u a l l y develop i n t o a washboard f o r m a t i o n as shown i n Fig.58. The b a l l s i n b a l l b e a r i n g s s u b j e c t e d t o e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t do n o t u s u a l l y develop t h e washboard surf ace , b u t become u n i f o r m l y dark-coloured over the whole surface. T h i s i s due t o t he b a l l s s p i n n i n g when t h e b e a r i n g r o t a t e s . The

182

Fig.58

\,/ashboard Effect Caused by Continuous Passage of Electric Current.

rings have fluting similar to that on rollers, but the bands are much narrower. On applications such a s traction motors, craters and burns occur instead of the washboard formation and a typical burn is shown on Fig.59. Generally pitting from electrical leakage does not mean rapid failure and on railway applications, it is known that pitted bearings have run for very long periods before requiring replacing. The main problem is removing the debris released during the formation of the craters, and provided this is carried out and fresh lubricant added, preferably by means of a grease escape valve, the bearings should function successfully for a further period. There are many problems relating to ball and roller bearings, but providing the basic principles governing bearing selection and a knowledge of lubrication is developed, then the calculated nominal bearing life can be achieved.

183

Fig.59

Typical Burn Caused by E l e c t r i c Current Leakage i n

A Traction Motor.

184

I-

PRACTICAL GEAR TRIBOLOGY

T.I.

FOWLE, C o n su l t a nt , Tenterden

7.1

INTRODUCTION The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e causes o f t h e v a r i o u s forms o f d i s t r e s s appearing

on gear t e e t h i s seldom an easy m a t t e r because o f t h e i r g r e a t v a r i e t y and because few e n g i ne ers have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o see even a m i n o r i t y o f them a t f i r s t hand. The t rou bd esh oo t i n g c h a r t s g i v e n a t t h e end o f & i s chapter a r e

i n te n d e d t o s i m p l i f y t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e causes and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e remedies f r o m t h e observed symptoms. Systematic c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

the v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s should a t l e a s t narrow down t h e number and suggest t e s t s which m ig h t be a p p l i e d t o c o n f i r m t h e f i n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g

not e s a r e g i v e n t o a m p l i f y and e x p l a i n t h e reasons f o r t h e most i m p o r t a n t effects.

7.2

ALIGNMENT There a r e two a spe ct s o f gear a l i g n m e n t : e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l . Errors i n

e x t e r n a l a lig n m e nt ,

t h a t i s a l i gn men t w i t h t h e connected

machines, p l a c e over-

loads on t h e b e ari n gs and c o u p l i n g s ,

r i s k i n g f a i l u r e o r a t l e a s t n o i s e which Errors i n internal

c o u ld be e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e gears themselves.

alig n m e n t cause uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e l oad a l o n g t h e gear t e e t w i t h consequent r i s k o f damage and n o i s y r u n n i n g and a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r concern i n t h i s c h a p te r . With p a r a l l e l - s h a f t gears t h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y two e r r o r s o f i n t e r n a l a l i g n ment: t h e s h a f t s may n o t be p a r a l l e l , and they may n o t be i n t h e same p l a n e . The v a r i o u s combinations

Bo t h these e r r o r s may, o f course, be p r e s e n t t o g e t h e r .

produce p a t t e r n s of c o n t a c t , o r o f damage such as p i t t i n g o r s c u f f i n g , as shown i n F i g u r e 1. Only i n a few cases a r e gears p r o v i d e d w i t h means for a d j u s t i n g

t h e p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e two s h a f t s , and indeed, w i t h modern machining i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e s h a f t s w i l l n o t be p a r a l l e l . eve n ly supported on i t s f e e t by t h e f ou nd at i ons, same p la n e . Checking t h a t t h e two s h a f t s a r e i n t h e same p l a n e i s b e s t c a r r i e d o u t by removing t h e t o p o f t h e gear c a s i n g and, o r b e a r i n g keeps. However, i f t h e gearcase i s n o t

t h e s h a f t s w i l l n o t be i n t h e

i f necessary, t h e top halves o f bearings

A s t r a i g h t edge w i t h a spacer b l o c k t o a l l o w f o r any d i f f e r -

ence i n diameter s u p p o r t i n g a p r e c i s i o n s p i r i t l e v e l can then be placed across

185
b o t h ends o f t h e s h a f t s i n t u r n t o check t h a t t h e ends a r e i n t h e same plane.
An accuracy o f 1 p e r 60 000 i s s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The t h i c k n e s s o f the shims r e q u i r e d

can then be e a s i l y determined.

Single helical and spur

2
Q

Double helical

Gear axes parailei but not

co-planar

Single helical and spur

Gear axes co-pianar but not parailei

iii ozzl
Fig.1 c o n t a c t w i t h marking b l u e .

Single helical and spur

Gear axes neither co-planar nor parallel

I n t e r n a l misalignment p a t t e r n s on p a r a l l e l s h a f t gears

I n t e r n a l a l i g n m e n t can a l s o be checked by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t o o t h A f t e r e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e j o u r n a l s cannot l i f t o u t o f

t h e i r b e a r i n g s and t h a t t h e j o u r n a l s a r e l u b r i c a t e d , a t h i n c o a t i n g o f marking b l u e i s a p p l i e d i n a t h i n a x i a l band on one o f the gears. The gears a r e then

t u r n e d so t h a t t h e marking i s t r a n s f e r r e d o n t o t h e o t h e r gear. then be taken by means of a S e l l o t a p e impression. depends on t h e c o n d i t i o n s

A r e c o r d may

The degree o f c o n t a c t required

o f s e r v i c e as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 2 ( a ) t o (d) which ' S p l i t Marking' as

i s based on BS 1807 f o r t u r b i n e gears and s i m i l a r d r i v e s .

186
shown i n F i g u r e 2 ( e ) , which i s due t o t h e hob n o t h a v i n g been c o n c e n t r i c w i t h i t s mandrel, i s u n d e s i r a b l e because i t p r e v e n t s t h e most f a v o u r a b l e p a r t o f t h e i.e. t h a t w i t h t h e l e a s t s l i d i n g , from s u p p o r t i n g t h e l o a d and

tooth p r o f i l e ,

transfers i t instead t o less favourable p a r t s .

25%

25%

50%

la)

(6)

Fig.2

Contact area

( a ) , (b) and ( c ) r e p r e s e n t t h e minimum c o n t a c t areas r e q u i r e d by BS 1 8 0 7 f o r t u r b i n e gears and s i m i l a r d r i v e s , c l a s s e s B, A 2 and A1 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s p e c i f i c a t i o n does n o t s t i p u l a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o n t a c t areas, o n l y t h e i r depth and t o t a l l e n g t h . Classes A 2 and A1 a r e f o r gears w i t h p i t c h l i n e speeds o v e r 50 m / s , A 2 b e i n g suggested f o r 50-100 m/s and A1 f o r 50-150 m / s . ( d ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e requirements o f some a u t h o r i t i e s f o r p r e c i s i o n gears. ( e l S p l i t marking.

187
W i t h n o n - p a r a l l e l s h a f t gears, such as b e v e l g e a r s and worm gears, a l l o w a n c e

has t o be made f o r t h e i n e v i t a b l e d i s t o r t i o n under l o a d , as shown i n F i g u r e s and 4.

I n a l l cases c o n t a c t s h o u l d n o t e x t e n d t o t h e ends o f t h e t e e t h as l o a d s

No load
Fig.3

Full load
C o n t a c t marks on b e v e l gears

'

. +

No load
Fig.4

Full load
C o n t a c t marks on worm gears

t h e r e would be h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d .

I n t h e case o f worm g e a r s t h e r e must a l s o

be c l e a r a n c e where t h e worm e n t e r s t h e c o n t a c t , even a t t h e h i g h e s t l o a d s , so t h a t t h e o i l on i t s s u r f a c e i s n o t scraped o f f by t h e edge o f t h e t o o t h . I f

t h i s c l e a r a n c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t h e f r i c t i o n and wear a r e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d and t h e t r a n s m i t t e d power 1 i m i t e d .

7.3
logy.

TOOTH ACTION An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t o o t h a c t i o n h e l p s t o e x p l a i n many a s p e c t s o f g e a r t r i b o I n s p u r , h e l i c a l and b e v e l g e a r t o o t h a c t i o n i s as r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 5 .

The p o i n t o f c o n t a c t moves c o n t i n u o u s l y o v e r b o t h t e e t h and i n t h i s sense t h e y r o l l o v e r one a n o t h e r . p r e s s u r e s t o be c a r r i e d . The t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e o f t h e c o n t a c t e n a b l e s v e r y heavy

A t t h e p i t c h p o i n t b o t h t o o t h s u r f a c e s a r e moving i n
and so m o m e n t a r i l y r o l l o v e r one a n o t h e r

t h e same d i r e c t i o n a t t h e same speed without sliding.

A t a l l o t h e r p o i n t s t h e s u r f a c e s a r e moving a t d i f f e r e n t

speeds so t h a t t h e r e i s s l i d i n g as w e l l as r o l l i n g .

188

Opposing surface slides in these directions Line of action Dr

Fig.5

Contact c o n d i t i o n i n Spur, H e l i c a l and Bevel t e e t h . The h a t c h i n g i n d i c a t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d i s t o r t i o n o f the surface layers.

O t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e d r i v i n g gear t h e s l i d i n g i s always away from t h e p i t c h n l i n e , w h i l e on t h e d r i v e n t o o t h i t i s always towards t h e p i t c h l i n e . lubrication i s When

inadequate t h e s l i d i n g shear f o r c e s thus tend t o draw m a t e r i a l

away from the p i t c h l i n e o f t h e d r i v e r and t o p i l e i t up a t t h e p i t c h l i n e o f the d r i v e n tooth. T h i s produces t h e c o n d i t i o n known as g r o o v i n g and r i d g i n g Another e f f e c t o f t h i s system

( r e f e r symptom 1 1 o f t h e T r o u b l e - s h o o t i n g c h a r t ) .

of s l i d i n g i s t h a t on t h e dedendum s u r f a c e o f b o t h gears any cracks a r e p u l l e d open i n advance o f t h e c o n t a c t . favourable d i r e c t i o n , The cra cks b e i n g a l s o i n c l i n e d i n t h e most F u r t h e r movement o f

t h e o i l r e a d i l y e n t e r s t h e crack.

t h e c o n t a c t t h e n s e a l s t h e mouth o f t h e c r a c k and compresses t h e o i l i n i t t o exte n d t h e c r a c k s t i l l f u r t h e r . I n c o n t r a s t , any cracks on t h e addendum surfaces furthermore, tends t o push t h e

s l o p e away from t h e on-coming c o n t a c t which,

s i d e s o f t h e c r a c k t o g e t h e r i n advance o f c o n t a c t so t h a t o i l i s n o t encouraged t o e n t e r t h e c r a ck. The r e s u l t i s t h a t f a t i g u e p i t t i n g tends t o occur almost b o t h d r i v e r and d r i v e n .

e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e dedendum s u r f a c e o f gear t e e t h ,

An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f spur and h e l i c a l gears i s t h a t t h e r e i s no s l i d i n g al o n g t h e l i n e o f c o n t a c t , whi ch i s a l s o v i r t u a l l y t h e case w i t h bevel gears. I n h y p o id gears and worm gears, however, t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e component o f s l i d i n g a l o n g t h e l i n e o f c o n t a c t whi ch makes f o r g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y i n

189
lubrication, because any a s p e r i t y on one s u r f a c e i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e o t h e r I n worm gears p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h i s s l i d i n g con-

f o r a g r e a t e r t ime and d i s t a n c e .

s i d e r a b l y in c r e a se s f r i c t i o n and t e mpe rat ure r i s e .

Much o f t h e f r i c t i o n , more-

over, m e r e ly serves t o d i s t o r t t h e wheel towards c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n t a c t

(see symptom 20).

7.4

TOOTH SURFACE DISTRESS

O f t h e t h r e e main forms o f s u r f a c e d i s t r e s s : p i t t i n g , a b r a s i v e wear and

s c u f f i n g o r a d h e si ve wear, t h e f i r s t tends t o o c c u r a t t h e lower end o f t h e speed range w h i l e s c u f f i n g tends t o o ccur a t t h e h i g h e r end as i n d i c a t e d i n Figure 6 . S c u f f i n g may f o low p i t t i n g , b u t p i t t i n g does n o t occur where t h e r e The i d e a l c o n d i t i o n o f f u l l - f i l m

i s s c u f f i n g o r where t h e r e i s a b r a s i v e wear.

o r elastohydrodynamic l u b r c a t i o n (EHL) occu rs a t low loads and h i g h speeds.

Bending fatigue failure, impact f radure

'tr

I
Partial E.H.L.

Speed
F i g. 6

As i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e Various sub-types and

Zones o f gear t o o t h d i s t r e s s .

The d i f f e r e n t slopes o f l i m i t s f o r p i t t i n g i n h a r d and i n s o f t gears i l l u s t r a t e s e p a r a t e l y t h e two e f f e c t s o f speed on f i l m t h i c k n e s s and t o o t h e r r o r s .

7.4.1

Pitting

About t h e most common f orm o f s u r f a c e d i s t r e s s i n s o f t o r through-hardened gears i s p i t t i n g , wh i ch i s a t y p e o f f a t i g u e f a i l u r e . p i t t i n g i s r a t h e r unusual i n surface-hardened g e a r i n g .

6,

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causes a r e l i s t e d a g a i n s t sympton 2, and an example i s shown i n F i g u r e 7. t h i s Figure the t y p i c a l oyster-shell t h e fragments l o o s e can be seen. In

shaped c r a t e r s produced by t h e o i l p r i s i n g

Fig.7

Surface f a t i g u e p i t t i n g .

Note c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o y s t e r - s h e l l shape on t h e l e f t . Note a l s o t h e e f f e c t s o f ' s p l i t m a r k i n g ' . (Photo c o u r t e s y o f S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co.Ltd.) A s well as t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l , t h e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s , o r r a t h e r t h e r a t i o o f t h e o r e t i c a l o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s t o t h e s u r f a c e roughness o f t h e harder t o o t h , i s a most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r , and t h i c k f i l m s o r f i n e f i n i s h e s o r b o t h a r e d e s i r a b l e t o reduce t h e i n c i d e n c e o f p i t t i n g . t o be avoided as much stresses. gears i n F i g u r e 6. P i t t i n g may be e i t h e r o f t h e i n i t i a l o r t h e p r o g r e s s i v e t y p e . With the Shock-loading i s a l s o

as p o s s i b l e as i t c o n s i d e r a b l y increases t h e s u r f a c e

T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e n e g a t i v e s l o p e o f t h e p i t t i n g l i m i t f o r s o f t

former t h e removal o f a s p e r i t i e s and prominent areas by p i t t i n g increases t h e a c t u a l area o f c o n t a c t and reduces t h e s t r e s s e s s o t h a t i t a r r e s t s i t s e l f . W i t h overloaded s u r f a c e s , however, p i t t i n g c o n t i n u a l l y reduces t h e a r e a o f

191
a c t u a l c o n t a c t and promotes f u r t h e r p i t t i n g . But i f one gear i s a b l e t o r e s i s t

p i t t i n g and can m a i n t a i n i t s shape, p i t t i n g w i l l progress less r a p i d l y on t h e o t h e r (see sympton 2 ( f ) ) . The s i z e o f t h e p i t s i s g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e o f the gears, b u t there

may be wid e v a r i a t i o n s due, perhaps, t o s u r f a c e a s p e r i t i e s and o t h e r d e t a i l s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , where t h e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s i s r e l a t i v e l y v e r y t h i n t h e s u r f a c e t r a c t i o n can be v e r y h i g h and produce v e r y l a r g e s h a l l o w p i t s (see 2 ( j ) ) . The e f f e c t o f extreme p r e s s u r e (EP) a d d i t i v e o i l s i s v a r i e d . I n laboratory

t e s t s u s i n g v e r y a c c u r a t e gears o r d i s c s , EP o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y found t o a c c e l e r a t e p i t t i n g , b u t where p r a c t i c a l gears h a v i n g s u r f a c e u n d u l a t i o n s o r s i m i l a r i n a c c u r a c i e s a r e concerned, EP o i l s a r e o f t e n a b l e t o d e l a y o r suppress t h e problem. A p p a r e nt l y, a t l e a s t some EP ag en t s can prevent t h e c r e s t s o f such

u n d u l a t i o n s from work-hardening so t h e c o n t a c t zones can deform t o increase t h e i r area and thus reduce s t r e s s e s and temperatures.

7.4.2

Scuffing

Severe a d h e s ive wear t ake s seve ral d i f f e r e n t forms i n gear t e e t h according t o c o n d i t i o n s and i s g i v e n even more d i f f e r e n t names. s c o r i n g , g a l l i n g and p l u c k i n g . For example, s c u f f i n g ,

The nomenclature i s even f u r t h e r confused by t h e In

f a c t t h a t what i s c a l l e d s c u f f i n g i n t h e UK i s known as s c o r i n g i n t h e USA. l a b o r a t o r y t e s t r i g s t h e v a r i o u s forms a r e n o t t o o d i f f i c u l t t o recognise and

a r e reasonably w e l l d e f i n e d , as f o r example s c u f f i n g and s c o r i n g i n I P 166 f o r the I A E Gear Rig, b u t i n n on -st a nd ard i sed t e s t s d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e sometimes made between high-speed and low-speed s c u f f i n g ( l e s s than about 4 m/s p i t c h l i n e

speed a c c o r d i n g t o some a u t h o r i t i e s ) and between s e l f - p r o p a g a t i n g and s e l f h e a l i n g forms i n b o t h cases. I n p r a c t i c a l gears appearances may v a r y t o an even g r e a t e r e x t e n t , b u t a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n degree, n o t o f k i n d . I n comparison w i t h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t gears i t

should be borne i n mind t h a t i n t h e l a t t e r a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e power i s used t o overcome t o o t h f r i c t i o n i n t h e t e s t gears so t h a t when l u b r i c a t i o n f a i l s and s c u f f i n g o c c u r s , t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e power r e q u i r e d . There

i s thus an immediate f a l l i n speed wh i ch f u r t h e r increases f r i c t i o n and noise, as w e l l as p r o d u ci n g smoke and sometimes sp arks. Under these c o n d i t i o n s i n the

s c u f f i n g o f t e n does n o t l a s t f o r more than a f r a c t i o n o f a minute and, FZG r i g , f o r example, never more than 15 mi n utes.

I n p r a c t i c e , however, the

e x t r a power absorbed when gear t e e t h s c u f f i s o n l y a v e r y small f r a c t i o n o f t h e power b e in g t r a n s m i t t e d so t h a t t h e o nse t o f t h e damage i s u s u a l l y unnoticed and may c o n t i n u e f o r many hours. as ' g a l l i n g ' a r i s e s . Except p o s s i b l y a t low speeds, s c u f f i n g appears t o be an e s s e n t i a l l y thermal The speed of s l i d i n g depends mainly on Under such c o n d i t i o n s t h e v e r y severe type known

phenomenon due t o t o o t h s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n .

192

Fig.8

S c u f f e d p i n i o n t o o t h f r o m FZG t e s t . (Photo c o u r t e s y o f S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co. L t d . ) And s i n c e l a r g e

t h e p e r i p h e r a l speed o f t h e gears and t h e s i z e o f t h e t e e t h .

t e e t h can be more h e a v i l y loaded than small t e e t h , t o o t h s i z e tends tohave a preponderant i n f l u e n c e on t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s c u f f i n g , as i n d i c a t e d i n Table 7.1 below, which summarises general e x p e r i e n c e , a l s o i n s e c t i o n 3 ( f ) . Table 7.1 Danger o f s c u f f i n g i n spur, h e l i c a l and bevel gears. Danger o f s c u f f i n g None Only a t v e r y h i g h speeds w i t h t h i n o i l .

Module p i t c h (mm) 1.25 2.5

5
10

A t moderate speeds even w i t h medium o i l .

A t low speeds even w i t h heavy o i l .

193
A s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e above T a b l e , and a l s o i n symptom 3 ( d ) , t h e h i g h e r t h e

v i s c o s i t y grade o f t h e o i l t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n i t a f f o r d s a g a i n s t s c u f f ing. I f t h e grade i s t o o v i s c o u s , however, t h e r e c o u l d be d i f f i c u l t i e s i n

s t a r t i n g up f r o m c o l d and t h e power loss and t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e i n high-speed b e a r i n g s m i g h t be e x c e s s i v e . Compromises have t o be made, t h e r e f o r e , and l i g h t e r i n any case, a r e more a c c u r Viscosity

grades have t o be used f o r high-speed gears which,

a t e l y made and have s m a l l e r t e e t h and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y s m a l l e r l o a d s .

grade recommendations f o r s p u r , h e l i c a l and bevel gears a r e , t h e r e f o r e , o f t e n g i v e n i n terms o f speed o n l y , as i n T a b l e 7.2 below, which i s f o r gears operat i n g a t ambient temperatures between about 10C and 25OC. Table 7.2

O i l v i s c o s i t y grades f o r spur, h e l i c a l and bevel gears

P i t c h l i n e speed m/s 0.5 ft/min 100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10000 Range o f I S 0 V i s c o s i t y Grades c S t a t 4OoC

460
320
220 150 100

1.3
2.5

5
12.5 25

68 46

50

1000

680 460
320

220
150 100

H i g h e r v i s c o s i t y grades may be needed where t h e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e exceeds 2S0C, where t h e gears a r e s u b j e c t t o shock loads, o r where b o t h gears a r e made o f through-hardened n i c k e l - c h r o m e s t e e l s . Lower v i s c o s i t y grades may be used o r where t h e t e e t h have been g i v e n

where t h e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e i s below 10C,

a scuff-resistant coating t o a s s i s t running-in. For d o u b l e - r e d u c t i o n g e a r i n g t h e low v i s c o s i t y end of t h e range f o r t h e low speed t r a i n s h o u l d be taken, and f o r m u l t i p l e t r a i n s t h e mean f o r t h e two slowest trains. Worm gears need t o be t r e a t e d r a t h e r more g e n e r o u s l y because t o o t h f r i c t i o n i s o f much g r e a t e r importance. To m i n i m i s e t o o t h f r i c t i o n H V I o i l s a r e p r e -

f e r r e d t o o t h e r t y p e s and v i s c o s i t y grades a r e h i g h e r than f o r o t h e r types o f g e a r i n g , a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 7 . 3 below. For d e s i g n e r s , t h e r i s k o f s c u f f i n g can be assessed by t h e use o f B l o k ' s C r i t i c a l Contact Temperature t h e o r y o r t h e Niemann and S e i t z i n g e r b u l k t o o t h temperature c r i t e r i o n o f s t r a i g h t o r EP o i l s . a t i o n o f T a b l e 7.1
[l]and a d e c i s i o n made on whether t o recommend t h e use

For f i e l d use s i m p l e r guidance i s needed and c o n s i d e r EP o i l s should,

i s recommended.

f u r t h e r m o r e , be c o n s i d e r e d

f o r p a r a l l e l - s h a f t gears where t h e t o o t h c o n t a c t markings do n o t reach t h e e x t e n t

194
r e q u i r e d by t h e speed as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 2, where t h e gears a r e s u b j e c t t o dynamic o v e r lo a d s, and where t h e gears s t e p up t h e speed. T a bl e 7.3 IS0 o i l v i s c o s i t y grades r e q u i r e d f o r enclosed worm gears Centre d i s t a n c e ( in c h e s ) (mm) 2.5 Output o r wormwheel r.p.m. 50 and under

800

150 and o v e r

64
100
250
500

HVI 1000
460

HVI 460 320

220
2 20

HVI 320
320

4
10 20

3 20
320

220 220

EP o i l s s h o u ld g e n e r a l l y be used f o r h y p o i d gears because o f t h e i r h i g h com-

ponent o f s l i d i n g a l o n g t h e l i n e o f c o n t a c t , t h e i r l a r g e t e e t h and t h e i r l i a b i l i t y t o c o n s i d e r a b l e dynamic o verl o ad s

itl

a ut omotive s e r v i c e .

They should n o t ,

however, be used f o r worm gears u n l e s s t h e o i l temperature i s c o n s i s t e n t l y below about 6OoC because o f t h e r i s k o f e xcessi ve c o r r o s i v e wear o f t h e bronze. Since s c u f f i n g i s a thermal phenomenon, o v e r h e a t i n g can be a cause, and i t s courses and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e counter-measures d e t a i l e d under symptom 23 should be c o n s i dered.

7.4.3

A b r a s i v e Wear One, as i n symptom 4, where a rough, abrasion;

There a r e t w o k i n d s of a b r a s i v e wear.

hard s u r f a c e rubs a g a i n s t a s o f t e r one, which i s known as 'two-body'

t h e o t h e r , as i n symptom 5, where a b r a s i v e d i r t a c t s between two r u b b i n g surfaces, which i s known as ' t h r e e - b o d y ' a bra si on .

The f i r s t k i n d o ccurs where a rough surface-hardened p i n i o n runs a g a i n s t a s o f t s t e e l o r p l a s t i c wheel, and a l s o where a rough surface-hardened worm runs a g a i n s t a bronze wheel. I n t h e l a t t e r case t h e a s s o c i a t e d h i g h f r i c t i o n may so

d i s t o r t t h e gears t h a t c o n t a c t i s b rou gh t o n t o t h e i n l e t edge o f t h e wheel t e e t h and f r i c t i o n f u r t h e r i n crea ses t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t power t r a n s m i s s i o n may be l i m i t e d (see symptom 20). smoother f i n i s h , e.g. The remedy i s t o stone o r l a p t h e harder member t o a

0 . 5 t o 0.2 microns Ra.

T y p i c a l contaminants cau si ng three-body a b r a s i o n a r e sand and m i l l s c a l e . F i l t r a t i o n down t o 20 mi cro ns (nominal) i s n o r m a l l y t h e best p r a c t i c a b l e s o l u t i o n , The maximum amount o f conta-

though s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s can s t i l l cause a b r a s i o n .

minant t o l e r a b l e i n t h e o i l depends on i t s hardness r e l a t i v e t o t h a t o f t h e gears concerned. For example, i n steel m i l l practice a typical l i m i t f o r millscale i s r e t a i n e d on a 0.45 micron m i l l i p o r e f i l t e r ) . The Greases a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y l i a b l e

0.3% w by D I N 51 592

i . e.

c o r r e s p o n d in g l i m i t f o r sand would be 0.1% w.

196
t o p e r m i t a b r a s i o n s i n c e t h e y t e n d t o keep t h e a b r a s i v e c o n t a m i n a n t s and t h e wear p r o d u c t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e mesh.

Fig.9

Three-body a b r a s i o n o f a g e a r t o o t h by sand i n t h e o i l Note t h e sh o rt l e n g t h o f t h e scars. (Photo c o u r t e s y o f S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l Co.Ltd.1

7.4.4

O t h e r forms o f gear wear

The o t h e r forms o f g e a r wear l i s t e d under symptoms 6 t o 19 a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e and space does n o t p e r m i t s p e c i a l d i s c u s s i o n h e r e .

7.5

PROBLEMS I N LUBRICATION SYSTEMS The main problems a r i s i n g i n s u p p l y i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f l o w o f o i l t o

and f r o m t h e t o o t h mesh a r e :

o v e r h e a t i n g , windage ( i n v e r y h i g h speed g e a r s ) ,

196
e x c e s s i v e foaming ( i n b a t h l u b r i c a t e d systems) and e x c e s s i v e a e r a t i o n ( i n l a r g e c i r c u l a t i o n systems). One f r e q u e n t source o f o v e r h e a t i n g i n b a t h systems i s when one gear d i p s t o o deeply i n t o t h e b a t h (see symptom 2 3 ( a ) , (b) and ( c ) ) . T h i s can sometimes be

avoided by s u r r o u n d i n g t h e lower p a r t o f t h e d i p p i n g gear by a s p e c i a l t r o u g h . When t h e gear i s a t r e s t t h e t r o u g h f i l l s w i t h o i l , b u t d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n t h e excess i s thrown o u t and t h e meshing t e e t h r e c e i v e s u f f i c i e n t o i l f o r l u b r i c a t i o n and c o o l i n g from h o l e s i n t h e bottom o f t h e trough. Above about 15 m/s p i t c h l i n e speed even t h i s s p e c i a l f o r m o f b a t h l u b r i c a t i o n tends t o cause e x c e s s i v e power loss and temperature r i s e so t h a t spray l u b r i c a t i o n f r o m c i r c u l a t i o n systems i s n o r m a l l y adopted. i n t h e range 0.3 t o 1.5 b a r . Pump p r e s s u r e s a r e u s u a l l y

Pressures below 0.3 b a r may be s a t i s f a c t o r y , b u t

whenever t h e gauges read below 1 b a r a v i s u a l check should be made t o ensure t h a t the o i l i s reaching t h e p a r t s required. (Upper l i m i t s t o o i l p r e s s u r e may

be d i c t a t e d by t h e s a f e t y l i m i t s f o r pumps, c o o l e r s , f i l t e r s , e t c . ) .

A t speeds above about 50 m/s windage e f f e c t s become n o t i c e a b l e and a t around

100 m/s and o v e r t h e y need t o be s p e c i a l l y c a t e r e d for i n t h e d e s i g n by arrangi n g f o r p l e n t y o f space between t h e gears and t h e housing, by a r r a n g i n g comple t e l y s e p a r a t e o r even dual d r a i n l i n e s w i t h s h i e l d s , o t h e r w i s e t h e c a s i n g may become choked w i t h o i l . The l o c a t i o n o f t h e o i l s p r a y e r s needs s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n where p i t c h l i n e speeds a r e above 50 m/s. Above t h a t speed t h e sprayers should n o t be d i r e c t e d

s t r a i g h t i n t o t h e mesh, b u t a l i t t l e i n advance.

In t h i s way a l l t h e o i l

serves t o c o o l t h e gears, t h e excess above t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r l u b r i c a t i o n i s thrown o f f b e f o r e t h e gears mesh. 'down-going' gears. Above T h i s arrangement i s e s p e c i a l l y r e q u i r e d f o r about 80-90% o f t h e f l o w a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75 m/s,

should be d i r e c t e d o n t o t h e o u t g o i n g s i d e f o r c o o l i n g , w i t h t h e remainder b e i n g sprayed s l i g h t l y i n advance o f mesh f o r l u b r i c a t i o n . Excessive foaming and a e r a t i o n o f t h e o i l i s due e i t h e r t o a d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the properties o f t h e o i l from contamination o r t o excessive ingress o f a i r i n t o the o i l . The former may be r e a d i l y checked by c a r r y i n g o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
I P 146 and I P 313, t h e l a t t e r by r e f e r e n c e t o symptom

t e s t s on t h e o i l , e.g. 24(a), (b) and ( c ) .

REFERENCES

1 Fowle, T. I . , Lubn. Engg.,

1976, 32 N O . 1,

17.

GEAR PROBLEMS : CAUSES AND REMEDIES

Symptom P o s s i b l e Causes (a) F a t i g u e ( i ) Load unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d . ( i i ) Sharp c o r n e r i n t o o t h r o o t . ( i i i ) Notches i n t o o t h r o o t caused by improper f i l i n g o r g r i n d i n g . ( i v ) Overload. (v) Torsional v i b r a t i o n s . ( v i ) Bruises on t e e t h , e.g. caused by dropping. ( v i i ) Coarse m a r t e n s i t i c s t r u c t u r e i n hardened s t e e l . (viii)Blow-holes i n roots o f cast teeth. ( i x ) Surface f a t i g u e p i t s a d j a c e n t t o root o f tooth. (b) F r a c t u r e ( i ) Repeated heavy loads. ( i i ) Hard f o r e i g n o b j e c t s jammed i n gear mesh. 2. Pitting (a) Small w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d p i t s on worki n g s u r f a c e s . (b) P i t s c o n ce nt rat ed a t one o f tooth o r helix. (c) Concentration o f p i t s i n r e g u l a r ba nd s a l o n g tooth width. (a ) F a t i g u e a t s u r f a c e a s p e r i t i e s d u r i n g i n i t i a l running. (b) C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f load due t o s l i g h t mi sa l i gnment. ( c ) C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f load on s u r f a c e undulations. (a) None: t h e p i t t i n g w i l l cease t o spread and w i l l be o f no consequence. (b) Check alignment o f s h a f t s and c a s i n g f o r d i s t o r t i o n . The p i t t i n g may cease t o spread. ( c ) The p i t t i n g may cease t o spread, b u t lapping o r stoning advisable i n severe cases. Remedies Temporary c o r r e c t i o n s may be made by c u t t i n g o u t broken t e e t h and cracked s e c t i o n s u n t i l o n l y sound t e e t h a r e l e f t , and r u n n i n g a t p r o p o r t i o n a l l y reduced load; by i n s e r t i n g pegs and b u i l d i n g up new t e e t h on them by w e l d i n g , f o l l o w e d by reshaping

1. Broken t e e t h

Apart from e l i m i n a t i n g overloads t h e o n l y permanent c o r r e c t i o n i s , however, t o procure gears w i t h o u t t h e f a u l t s l i s t e d , t o have them c o r r e c t l y l i n e d - u p and run w i t h any shock loads l i m i t e d by shock absorbing c o u p l i n g s .

SvmDtom 2. P i t t i n g ( c o n t d . ) ( d ) P i t s c o n ce nt rat ed a l on g pitch line.

P o s s i b l e Causes

Remed ies

(d ) ( i ) F a u l t y p r o f i l e . ( i i ) Excessive wear o r s c u f f i n g has produced a r i d g e a l o n g t h e p i t c h l i n e w hich becomes overloaded. (e) ( i ) I n s u f f i c i e n t hardness o f s o f t e r gear o r excessive f r e e - f e r r i t e i n rnicros t r u c t u r e r e l a t i v e t o loading. ( i i ) E xcessive amounts o f hard nonm e t a l l i c inclusions i n the metal. ( i i i ) I n i t i a l s u r f a c e f i n i s h t o o rough and o i l v i s c o s i t y t o o low. ( i v ) Overload, e s p e c i a l l y by shock, t o r s i o n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s and h i g h s t a r t i n g torque. ( f ) I n s u f f i c i e n t hardness o f b o t h gears r e l a t i v e t o the loading.

(d) ( i ) As above. ( i i ) Use o i l o f h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o r o f h i g h e r EP a c t i v i t y . (e) The p i t t i n g w i l l cease t o spread i f opposing gear u n a f f e c t e d . An i n c r e a s e i n o i l v i s c o s i t y c o u l d be b e n e f i c i a l

( e ) P i t s c o n ce nt rat ed on dedendum su rf a ces o f one gear.

F i t shock absorbing c o u p l i n g .

( f ) P i t s on dedendum s u r faces o f b o t h gears, often with d i s t i n c t step a t the p i t c h l i n e .

( f ) Reduce l o a d i n g i n s e r t shock absorbing t y p e o f coupling,between source o f shock and gear. I f possible, increase operating v i s c o s i t y o f o i l . Change t o EP o i l , m a i n l y t o p r e v e n t subsequent s c u f f i n g o f remaining c o n t a c t areas. I f p o s s i b l e , l a p o r stone t e e t h t o improve s u r f a c e and r u b i n d r y MoS2 powder. (9) Reduce load. (h) ( i )
A 25 micron l a y e r o r l e s s i s gene r a l l y harmless b u t removal o f t h i c k e r l a y e r s by l a p p i n g o r g r i n d i n g should be considered. ( i i ) Increase o p e r a t i n g v i s c o s i t y o f the o i l .

(g) P i t t i n g i n casehardened g ea rs. (h) M i c r o - p i t t i n g o r ' f r o s t i n g ' i n s u r f a c e hardened gears ( c l o s e l y spaced p i t s s m a l l e r t ha n 0.1mm across).

(g) Teeth t o o s o f t e i t h e r from a c c i d e n t a l d e c a r b u r i s a t i o n o r inadequate quenching. (h) ( i ) N i t r i d e d gears: t h i n s u r f a c e l a y e r o f b r i t t l e super-rich n i t r i d e s (white l a y e r ) . Inadequate o i l f i l m .

!ii)

Symptom 2 . P i t t i n g (contd.) ( i ) Very l a r g e oyster-shaped p i t s e x te nd i ng ove r p r a c t i c a l l y t h e whole o f t h e a c t i v e f l a n k o f casehardened t e e t h .

P o s s i b l e Causes

Remed i es

( i ) Hi gh t o o t h f r i c t i o n due t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t between t h e t e e t h ; t h e o r e t i c a l o i l f i l m thickness l e s s t han 0.5 micron.

( i ) Increase o p e r a t i n g v i s c o s i t y o f t h e o i l .
NB. P i t t i n g o f s o f t and through-hardened s t e e l gears i s so common t h a t i t cannot be counted as a f a i l u r e . But, i f p o s s i b l e , i t i s prudent t o c o r r e c t as d e t a i l e d above. In some cases, a f r e s h s t a r t can be made by t u r n i n g round one o r b o t h gears and l a p p i n g them t o g e t h e r as a p p r o p r i a t e . I n severe cases where n o i s e i s e x c e s s i v e o r reduced areas o f c o n t a c t cannot be prevented from s c u f f i n g , o r t h e r e i s a danger o f s u r f a c e p i t t i n g i n i t i a t i n g t o o t h breakage, i t may be necessary t o r e p l a c e gears.

3. S c u f f i n g

(a) Tooth l o a d i n g t o o h i g h . (b) I n s u f f ic ien t 1 ub r i c a t i o n ( i ) O i l - b a t h l e v e l t o o low. ( i i ) O i l sprayer nozzles choked. ( i i i ) Pump s u c t i o n s t r a i n e r choked. ( i v ) Bearings r o b o i l from sp rayer n o z z l e s . ( v ) Windage i n h i g h speed gears d e f l e c t s o i l spray. ( v i ) L u b r i c a n t channels a t low s t a r t i n g temperatures. ( v i i ) Clearance between gears and c a s i n g t o o s m a l l : o i l cannot f l o w back t o bath.
( c ) Ope rat ing temperatures excessive.

(a) Reduce l o a d i n g (b) ( i ) Raise o i l l e v e l so t h a t gear d i p s 1-3 t o o t h h e i g h t s when running. ( i i ) Check o i l nozzles, c l e a r as necessary, f i l t e r o r change o i l . ( i i i ) C h e c k s u c t i o n s t r a i n e r , c l e a n as necessary, f i l t e r o r change o i l . ( i v ) R e s t r i c t o i l supply t o bearings. (v) Increase o i 1 pressure. Reposition sprayer nozzles. ( v i ) Use l u b r i c a n t w i t h lower channel p o i n t . ( v i i ) I f p o s s i b l e use lower v i s c o s i t y o i l . Increase clearance. ( c ) Reduce temperatures (see Symptom 23) (d) Use h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y grade; improve c o o l i n g .

(d ) O i l v i s c o s i t y t o o low ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s o f t o r through-hardened gears).

Symptom

P o s s i b l e Cause (e) L u b r i c a n t has i n s u f f i c i e n t EP a c t i v i t y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y hardened g e a r s ) . ( f ) T e e t h have e x c e s s i v e addendum h e i g h t f o r t h e speed. (9) Teeth do n o t have s u f f i c i e n t c o n t a c t because o f u n d u l a t i o n s , s p l i t markings o r m i s a l i g n m e n t .

Remed i es

0
0

3. S c u f f i n g ( c o n t d . )

(e) Use more a c t i v e EP o i l .

( f ) Check d e s i g n . Use more a c t i v e EP o i l . (g) Reduce u n d u l a t i o n s by s t o n i n g , l a p p i n g o r shaving. Check a l i g n m e n t . Check t h a t c a s i n g has n o t d i s t o r t e d f r o m uneven s e t t l i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s . Check t h a t b e a r i n g s a r e riot worn. (h) A p p l y t i p - r e l i e f by s h a v i n g o r s t o n i n g .

(h) T e e t h a r e n o t a d e q u a t e l y r e l i e v e d . ( i ) F u l l - l o a d a p p l i e d b e f o r e gears have been a d e q u a t e l y r u n - i n .

( i ) Use a c t i v e EP o i l t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r s c u f f i n g w h i l e c o n t i n u e d r u n n i n g makes s u r f a c e s smoother.

( j ) B o t h gears have h i g h n i c k e l - c h r o m i u m
c o n t e n t and a r e n o t case-hardened.

(j) Use a c t i v e EP o i l o r h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y grade.

NB. P r o v i d e d s c u f f i n g has n o t roughened t h e surfaces unduly, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h s p i r a l b e v e l and h e l i c a l g e a r s , once t h e b a s i c cause has been e l i m i n a t e d f u r t h e r r u n n i n g , p r e f e r a b l y w i t h an EP o i l , w i l l c o r r e c t t h e problem. Stone o r l a p t e e t h t o a f i n e r f i n i s h .

4. Wear o f s o f t e r member
o n l y o f gear p a i r .

S u r f a c e f i n i s h o f h a r d e r member t o o coarse. A b r a s i v e d i r t i n l u b r i c a n t becoming embedded i n s o f t e r inember. Lubricant f i l m too t h i n . E x c e s s i v e f r i c t i o n caused by o v e r l o a d , overspeed, loss o f b a c k l a s h , o r f a u l t y lubrication.

5. Wear o f h a r d e r member
i s greater.

Change o i l o r pass i t t h r o u g h a f i n e f i l t e r . F i t f i l t e r s on a i r v e n t s . Use h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y l u b r i c a n t . Reduce o v e r l o a d s o r overspeed, and d i s t r i b u t i o n . improve o i l f l o w

6. Wear a t low speed.

7. Wear a t h i g h speed.

Symptom

P o s s i b l e Causes M a t e r i a l combination may be u n s u i t a b l e . (See a l s o No.20). I n t e r f e r e n c e : gears n o t p r o p e r l y matched o r c e n t r e d i s t a n c e t o o s m a l l . (a ) Combination o f s o f t m a t e r i a l and re pe at ed shock loads l e a d i n g t o separation o f t e e t h w i t h re-contact i n s u f f i c i e n t l y damped by o i l f i l m (peening)

Remed ies
I f p o s s i b l e use case-hardened s t e e l worm and c e n t r i f u g a l l y cast phosphor bronze.

8. Wear o f worm wheel t e e t h .

9 . T e e th t i p s rounded and
dedendum s u r f aces gouged.

Check design. distance.

I f p o s s i b l e extend c e n t r e

10. P l a s t i c f l o w o f t o o t h s u r faces w i t h pronounced f i n at tips.

(a) Reduce shock loads, use h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l , reduce backlash, change t o harder gear m a t e r i a l .

(b) Very heavy steady loads and s o f t materials ( r o l l i n g ) .

(b) Reduce loads, i n c r e a s e gear s u r f a c e hardness. Check o i l supply, e.g. t h a t o i l b a t h l e v e l i s c o r r e c t when gears a r e running, t h a t o i l supply p i p e s , f i l t e r s and sprayer nozzles a r e n o t choked.

11. Groove a l o n g p i t c h l i n e o f d r i v i n g t e e t h and r i d g e a lo n g p i t c h l i n e o f d r i v e n teeth. 12. Grooves a l o n g p i t c h l i n e o f both d r i v i n g and d r i v e n teeth.

When a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s c u f f i n g o f t h e r e s t o f t h e t e e t h i t may be due t o complete f a i l u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t su pp l y. When n o t , o i l f i l m may be t o o thin. E r o s i o n by spark discharge.

E s t a b l i s h source o f s t r a y e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s and lead t o e a r t h by (a) e a r t h i n g brushes o f generous s i z e , and (b) s t o p p i n g o t h e r p o s s i b l e paths through t h e gear mesh by i n s u l a t i n g pads under p e d e s t a l s and i n s u l a t i n g bushes f o r holding-down b o l t s . Use hypoid t y p e f u l l EP o i l .

13. Rippling.

E xce ssi ve s u r f a c e f r i c t i o n a t low speeds. Very severe o v e r h e a t i n g due t o f a i l u r e o f o i l su pply.

14. B u lk p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f
t e e t h e s p e c i a l l y a t middle o f tooth width.

Repair t e e t h o r renew gears. E l i m i n a t e cause o f o i l supply f a i l u r e . I n s t a l l alarms so t h a t u n i t can be stopped q u i c k l y i n event o f o i l supply f a i l u r e .

System

P o s s i b l e Causes Hard p a r t i c l e s i n system, o f t e n s w a r f , o c c a s i o n a l l y from EP o i l carbonised on h i g h l y r a t e d h e a t e r s i n system. Overheating d u r i n g g r i n d i n g , h e a t t r e a t m e n t s , o r both. incorrect

Remed i es Thoroughly c l e a n system, check h e a t e r surfaces, c l e a n and reduce s u r f a c e temperature as necessary . Check w i t h m a n u f a c t u r e r .

15. I n d e n t a t ions.

16. Cracks i n s u r f a c e of
hardened gears, o f t e n i n net-like pattern.

17. L o n g i t u d i n a l c r a c k i n g and f l a k i n g i n casehardened gears .

Case i s t o o t h i n and c o r e t o o s o f t so t h a t s u r f a c e has c o l l a p s e d under l o a d .

Check w i t h m a n u f a c t u r e r .

18. Red-brown spots on s u r faces o f case-hardened gears.

A t t a c k by c o r r o s i v e substances such as s a l t s from hardening process.

Clean spots w i t h emery s t i c k . Clean, f l u s h and r e f i l l l u b r i c a t i o n system.

19. Red-brown c o n t a c t marks

on t e e t h and r e d - t - o w n powder i n n o m i n a l l y s t a t i o n a r y gears.
20. Worm gear f a i l s t o transmi t f u l l t o r q u e ,

F r e t t i n g due t o v i b r a t i o n w h i l e under s t a t i o n a r y load.

Arrange f o r t h e gears t o be f l u s h e d w i t h o i l and s l o w l y r o t a t e d .

(a) I n s u f f i c i e n t allowance f o r d i s t o r t i o n under load has brought c o n t a c t o n t o e n t r y s i d e o f wheel t e e t h . (b) Excessive t o o t h f r i c t i o n , due e i t h e r t o rough worm s u r f a c e o r t o u n s u i t a b l e combination o f gear m a t e r i a l s , causing e x c e s s i v e d i s t o r t i o n .

(a) A d j u s t p o s i t i o n o f wheel so t h a t even under f u l l l o a d c o n t a c t i s n o t on e n t r y s i d e o f wheel t e e t h and o i l can be drawn i n t o contact. (b) Improve s u r f a c e f i n i s h o f worm, reduce o i l temperature o r use h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y grade. Best m a t e r i a l combination i s casehardened s t e e l worm and c e n t r i f u g a l l y c a s t phosphor bronze wheel.

Symptom

P o s s i b l e Causes (a) D e f e c t i v e b e a r i n g s o r coup1 i n g s . (b) S h a f t s m i s a l i g n e d . ( c ) Check and rebalance as necessary.

Remed i es (a) Check bearings and c o u p l i n g and r e p l a c e as necessary. (b) Check t h a t c a s i n g i s not d i s t o r t e d , r e a l i g n shafts. ( c ) Check and rebalance as necessary.

21.

Vibration

22.

Unusual n oi se .

(a) D e f e c t i v e r o l l i n g element bearing. (b) D e f e c t i v e o i l pump. (c) Defective coupling. (d) Tooth s u r f a c e s e x c e s s i v e l y p i t t e d o r roughened. (e) Continuous t o o t h double h e l i c a l gears r u n n i n g 'down-going' w i t h apex t r a i l i n g , s q u i r t i n g o i l o u t o f mesh. (d) Stone o r l a p t e e t h and rub i n MoS2 powder. (e) Reduce excessive o i l supply t o mesh by reducing immersion i n b a t h o r reducing f l o w t o sprayers and d i r e c t i n g spray i n advance o f mesh. (a) A d j u s t l e v e l when gear r u n n i n g t o d i p 1-3 t o o t h heights. (b) Change t o lower v i s c o s i t y grade. ( c ) Change t o spray l u b r i c a t i o n system. (d) D i r e c t o i l spray f u r t h e r i n advance o f mesh; r e s t r i c t amount o f o i l t o sprayers. (e) Improve drainage o r r e s t r i c t amount o f o i l t o sprayers. ( f ) Check o i l and w ater s i d e s and c l e a n as necessary (9) Change c o o l e r f o r l a r g e r s i z e o r s w i t c h t o c o o l e r w ater supply. Check these p a r t s and r e p l a c e as necessary.

23.

Overheating.

(a ) O i l l e v e l t o o h i g h i n bath. (b) O i l v i s c o s i t y too high. ( c ) Speed t o o h i g h f o r b a t h l u b r i c a t i o n . (d) TOO much o i l sprayed t o o c l o s e t o i n g o i n g mesh o f high-speed gears. (e) Inadequate drainage from housing.

( f ) Clogged c o o l e r .
(9) Cooler inadequate.

(h) Heat r a d i a t e d from surroundings.

(h) I n t e r p o s e r a d i a t i o n s h i e l d s .
PJ

t u
Symptom P o s s i b l e Causes Remed ies

0 P

2 3 . Overheating (con t d . )

( i ) Inadequate a i r f l o w o v e r gearbox. ( j ) D i r t accu mulations on casing. ( k ) (Worm g e a r s ) , u n s u i t a b l e l u b r i c a n t . (1) E xce ssi ve power l o s s i n p l a i n bearings.

( i ) Increase v e n t i l a t i o n o f surrounding a i r space.

( j ) Clean d i r t away.
( k ) Change t o HVI m i n e r a l o i l o r , p r e f e r a b l y , p o l y g l y c o l type s y n t h e t i c o i l . (1) Check b e a r i n g design.

24. Excessive foaming and aeration.

(a ) Gear d i p s t o o deeply i n t o o i l bath. (b) A i r l e a k s on s u c t i o n s i d e o f c i r c u l a t i n g system. (c) O i l cascades down v e r t i c a l r e t u r n pipes i n t o r e s e r v o i r . (d) O i l contaminated by grease, j o i n t i n g compound, another, and i n c o m p a t i b l e o i l etc.

(a) A d j u s t l e v e l when gear r u n n i n g t o d i p 1 - 3 tooth heights. (b) Remake s u c t i o n - s i d e j o i n t s i n c l u d i n g pump gland. ( c ) Rearrange r e t u r n 1 ines t o a1 low smooth f l o w i n t o tank below o i l l e v e l . (d) Renew o i l charge.

205

MATERIALS FOR TRIBOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS

D. SCOTT, Consultant,

E d i t o r o f Wear

8.1

I NTRODUCT I O N
Engineering design i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r making an a r t i c l e t o From a t r i b o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, t h e matu b r i c a n t a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n such s p e c i f -

s a t i s f y a s p e c i f i c requirement. e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and the ications.

For t r i b o l o g i c a l app i c a t i o n s t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s

a r e those p r o p e r t i e s which must be taken i n t o account i n d e s i g n i n g a component t o w i t h s t a n d t h e mechanical and thermal s t r e s s e s t o which i t w i l l be exposed and the e f f e c t s o f t h e environment n which i t has t o f u n c t i o n [ 1 , 2 ] . There i s a

continuous demand f o r m a t e r i a l s o f improved p r o p e r t i e s and w i t h b e t t e r s t r e n g t h t o weight r a t i o s . Mechanisms operaLing under arduous c o n d i t i o n s o f h i g h speed,
If

heavy l o a d o r extremes o f environment r e q u i r e m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h s t r e n g t h .

s u b j e c t e d t o r e l a t i v e m o t i o n they may r e q u i r e m a t e r i a l s o f g r e a t hardness, wear and c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e and s t r u c t u r a l and dimensional s t a b i l i t y

[31.

Newer

m a t e r i a l s [ 4 ] may meet s t r i n g e n t design requirements beyond t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f the more commonly used m a t e r i a l s b u t a v a i l a b i l i t y and c o s t make c o n v e n t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s more a t t r a c t i v e commercially and encourage i n n o v a t i o n . The d e s i g n e r has a v a s t range o f m a t e r i a l s f r o m which t o s e l e c t . erence book One r e f -

[5] gives

35000 p r o p r i e t a r y m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .

The d e s i g n e r

however, besides s e a r c h i n g f o r

improved m a t e r i a l s must o f t e n seek t h e cheapest

m a t e r i a l t o s a t i s f y h i s requirements and sometimes t h e more r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e indiginous materials.

A d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r i n t h e e x t e n s i v e use o f many mat-

e r i a l s i s t h e a m e n a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l to m a n i p u l a t i o n and t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e d e s i g n e r can c o n t r o l and v a r y p r o p e r t i e s such as s t r e n g t h , hardness and d u c t i l i t y w i t h i n t h e range o f s p e c i f i c e n g i n e e r i n g requirements. o f m a t e r i a l s i s o f t e n r e s t r i c t e d by t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g f a c i l i t i e s

dt

The c h o i c e h i s disposal.

8.2

TYPES OF MATERIALS M a t e r i a l s may be c o n v e n i e n t l y d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p r i n c i p a l t y p e s : ferrous,

n o n - f e r r o u s , n o n - m e t a l l i c and composite m a t e r i a l s .

The abundance o f i r o n and

i t s a l l o y s c o m p r i s i n g t h e b u l k o f m e t a l s made, t h e i r f a v o u r a b l e economics and d i v e r s e p r o p e r t i e s make f e r r o u s m a t e r i a l s t h e d e s i r a b l e c h o i c e f o r t r i b o l o g i c a l applications. Modern c a s t i r o n s and s t e e l s f i n d e x t e n s i v e use i n t r i b o -

206
e n g i n e e r i n g as a l l o y i n g and h e a t - t r e a t m e n t e nables them t o be t a i l o r e d t o specific applications. work-hardening, s t r e n g th e n in g . The p r i n c i p a l methods o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g s t e e l i n c l u d e

d ecre asi n g t h e g r a i n s i z e , s o l i d s o l u t i o n and d i s p e r s i o n I n c u r r e n t l y used s t e e l s , the martensite transformation pro-

duces th e b e s t c o mbi n at i on o f s t r e n g t h and d u c t i l i t y b u t as hardness increases, d u c t i l i t y decreases and a t t h e h i g h e s t s t r e n g t h l e v e l s produced by c o n v e n t i o n a l heat t r e a t m e n t procedures, d u c t i l i t y i s d i m i n i s h e d t o l e v e l s considered a t pre s e n t unacceptable f o r most e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s [ 6 ] .

I f a thermo-

mechanical t r e a t men t i s used whereby a u s t e n i t e i s s t r a i n hardened b e f o r e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o m a r t e n s i t e unusual d u c t i l i t y , f a t i g u e and impact p r o p e r t i e s a r e ob ta in e d . Ausforming may t hu s a l l o w increased s t r e n g t h s above t h e p r e s e n t

usa b le l i m i t s w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c e of d u c t i l i t y

[7].

With m a t e r i a l s g e n e r a l l y , h i g h hardness i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a h i g h melting point. Powder m e t a l l u r g y has widened t h e f i e l d o f a v a i l a b l e hard

m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s by making p o s s i b l e metal combinations u n o b t a i n a b l e by conv e n t i o n a l m e l t i n g and c a s t i n g t ech ni q ue s. Hard s i n t e r e d c a r b i d e s may be used t o

advantage i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a h i g h degree o f wear r e s i s t a n c e . However, such m a t e r i a l s a r e u s u a l l y expensive t o manufacture and d i f f i c u l t t o form and s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s and c o a t i n g s on o r d i n a r y m a t e r i a l s may be used t o i nc r e a s e s t r e n g t h and improve wear r e s i s t a n c e . For use a t e l e v a t e d temperatures m e t a l s must form a dense, tough, impervious

o x i d e l a y e r which r e s i s t s c r a c k i n g under l o ad and p r e v e n t s a t t a c k o f t h e metal by h o s t i l e environments. The e s t a b l i s h e d n o n - f e r r o u s metal a l l o y systems i n I n b o t h cases t h e

c u r r e n t use a r e based on n i c k e l r i c h and c o b a l t r i c h a l l o y s .

necessary r e s i s t a n c e t o o x i d a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n i s c o n f e r r e d by the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f chromium. The n i c k e l based a l l o y s a r e s t i f f e n e d p r i n c i p a l l y by the a d d i t i o n I n c o b a l t a l l o y s s t i f f e n i n g i s e f f e c t e d by complex

o f t i t a n i u m and aluminium.

c a r b i d e s o f molybdenum, n i o b i u m and t an t a l um. High speed t o o l s t e e l s and s i m i l a r s p e c i a l s t e e l s a r e a l s o used f o r e l e v a t e d temperature s e r v i c e . Corrosion resistance requires c a r e f u l m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l s such as aluminium, n i c k e l ,

and t h e use o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s , chromium,

t i t a n i u m and t h e i r a l l o y s o r n o n - m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s such as p l a s t i c s To r e s i s t severe a b r a s i v e wear, cemented c a r b i d e s , cermets or

o r e la s to m e r s .

even diamond may be r e q u i r e d . As c o n v e n t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s have been improved by o r t h o d o x methods almost t o t h e l i m i t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , new types o f m a t e r i a l a r e bein g developed. Composites whi ch combine m a t e r i a l s o f d i s s i m i l a r mechanical

and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , can have p r o p e r t i e s s u p e r i o r t o one o r b o t h o f t h e i r constituents. There a r e two p r i n c i p a l t ype s.

In one, a m a t r i x may be r e i n I n the o t h e r the

fo r c e d w i t h f i b r e s o r p a r t i c l e s t o improve i t s p r o p e r t i e s .

207
the m a t r i x i s e s s e n t i a l l y a g l u e t o h o l d t o g e t h e r f i b r e s o r p a r t i c l e s which have d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s b u t which by themselves cannot be used as e n g i n e e r i n g materials. C e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s r e q u i r e t o be surmounted b e f o r e composites Whiskers and f i b r e s a r e expensive and have prob-

achieve t h e i r f u l l p o t e n t i a l .

lems w i t h s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e i r ends which can i n f l u e n c e c r a c k initiation. Conventional methods a r e n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e manufacture o f com-

ponents from composites n o r f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n and j o i n i n g o f f i b r e r e i n f o r c i n g materials. By u s i n g r e i n f o r c e m e n t s o f o x i d e and n o n - m e t a l l i c w h i s k e r s which

approach t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t r e n g t h , v e r y h i g h u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h s i n composites are p o s s i b l e . metals. Glass, carbon, s i l i c o n n i t r i d e and alumina a r e a t t r a c t i v e non-

Besides r e p l a c i n g m e t a l s , ceramics may be used as c o a t i n g s t o compleinsulation,

ment d e s i r a b l e metal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by a d d i n g r e f r a c t o r y p r o p e r t i e s , and e r o s i o n , wear, o x i d a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e .

The s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f m e t a l s f o r use a t h i g h temperatures can be achieved by d i s p e r s i n g n o n - m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s i n them t o m a i n t a i n u s e f u l p r o p e r t i e s t o w i t h i n 5O-10O0C o f t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t o f t h e m a t r i x m e t a l . Only small amounts o f

the d i s p e r s o i d a r e r e q u i r e d and n i c k e l a l l o y s w i t h t h o r i u m , TD n i c k e l , a r e commercially a v a i l a b l e . Other newer m a t e r i a l s f o r arduous k o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d e

s y n t h e t i c diamond and sapphire, new g r a p h i t e s and m a t e r i a l s such as t h e carbides, borides and n i t r i d e s o f c e r t a i n m e t a l s which approach t h e hardness o f diamond.

8.3

MATERIALS FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

Adequate m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s f o r design a r e u s u a l l y ensured by i n d i r e c t means mainly by t h e d e s i g n e r s p e c i f y i n g chemical a n a l y s i s , h e a t - t r e a t m e n t and mecha n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a l t h o u g h such s p e c i f i e d p r o p e r t i e s may n o t be d i r e c t l y r e p r e s entative i n service. For instance, t h e most i m p o r t a n t m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y may be

r e s i s t a n c e t o a b r a s i o n o r r e s i s t a n c e t o s c u f f i n g and s e i z u r e , o r t o r o l l i n g contact f a t i g u e o r t o l u b r i c a n t a t t a c k o r corrosion.

A p r o p e r t y such as

dimensional s t a b i l i t y may c o m p l e t e l y determine t h e s e r v i c e l i f e .

As t h e u l t -

imate assessment o f a m a t e r i a l i s performance i n p r a c t i c e , f u l l s c a l e t e s t i n g and s e r v i c e s i m u l a t i o n t e s t i n g a r e u s u a l l y r e s o r t e d t o as a means o f m a t e r i a l selection. T r i b o - e n g i n e e r i n g depends i n many i n s t a n c e s upon b e a r i n g s , components which a l l o w r e l a t i v e m o t i o n between members o f a mechanism w h i l s t t r a n s f e r r i n g load. Bearings may t a k e many forms b u t t h e most w i d e l y used types a r e p l a i n b e a r i n g s , gears and r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s .

8.3.1

P l a i n Bearings

I n p l a i n b e a r i n g s t h e l o a d i s t r a n s m i t t e d between moving p a r t s by s l i d i n g c o n t a c t and t h e c r i t e r i o n o f s a t i s f a c t o r y b e a r i n g performance i s minimum wear o f the components t o g e t h e r w i t h freedom from s e i z u r e and freedom f r o m mechanical

f a i l u r e by deformation o r f a t i g u e .

To c a r r y a h a r d s t e e l s h a f t , u s u a l l y spec-

i f i e d f o r i t s mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , a b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l must be c o m p a r a t i v e l y s o f t t o a v o i d wear o f t h e harder m a t e r i a l y e t s t r o n g enough t o w i t h s t a n d heavy loads w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n and w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n g f a t i g u e . Soft bearing m a t e r i a l s

a l s o a l l o w a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s t o become embedded and thus reduce a b r a s i v e wear. As a low hardness i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a low m e l t i n g p o i n t , h i g h s p o t s o f s o f t b e a r i n g s a r e removed by s l i d i n g c o n t a c t w i t h o u t damage t o t h e m a t i n g s u r face and w i t h o u t t h e r i s k o f s e i z u r e . However, low hardness i s u s u a l l y assoc-

i a t e d w i t h low f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h and, as s t r e s s l e v e l s a r e r a i s e d , t h e demand i s f o r harder b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s t o improve t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y b u t w i t h t h e minimum loss o f f r i c t i o n and wear p r o p e r t i e s . t o use t h e s o f t e s t b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l p o s s i b l e . White m e t a l , a w i d e l y used p l a i n b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l i s based on t i n o r l e a d o r t h e i r intermediate a l l o y s .
A t y p i c a l t i n based a l l o y c o n t a i n s 7-10% Sb and

As a general r u l e i t i s a d v i s a b l e

3-5% Cu, t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n s t i t u e n t s b e i n g SbSn, CueSns and a t e r n a r y p e r i t e c t i c complex, Fig.1. composition [ 8 ] . Hardness and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s a r e l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by A t lOO"C, t h e hardness ranges f r o m 11-16 HV and t h e f a t i g u e
MN/m2.

s t r e n g t h f o r l o 7 c y c l e s from 1.6-1.9

Lead based a l l o y s c o n t a i n i n g Sb and Sn and Cu i n t h e f o r m o f i n t e r m e t a l l i c SbSn and CusSns may be cheaper than s i m i l a r t i n based a l l o y s b u t a r e s l i g h t l y i n f e r i o r r e g a r d i n g wear and f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s . Intermediate a l l o y s o f h i g h

lead and t i n c o n t e n t a r e w i d e l y used b u t appear t o have no advantages o v e r t h e o t h e r w h i t e metals. The success o f w h i t e m e t a l s i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as b e i n g

due t o t h e c o r r e c t compromise between s o f t n e s s t o a v o i d wear and s t r e n g t h t o resist fatigue. Copper-based a l l o y s , s t r o n g e r b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s than t h e w h i t e m e t a l s a t o p e r a t i n g temperatures, range from t h e phosphor bronzes (10% Sn, 0.5% P) through The wear

the leaded bronzes t o t h e copper l e a d a l l o y s o f up t o 50% Pb, Fig.2. p r o p e r t i e s o f leaded bronze a r e b e t t e r than those o f w h i t e m e t a l . o f copper-lead v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o composition from 30-70 H.V.

The hardness

J o u r n a l wear

increases w i t h increase i n hardness b u t f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h increases r o u g h l y i n t h e same p r o p o r t i o n as j o u r n a l wear. minimize wear. Increased j o u r n a l hardness can h e l p t o

A d i s a i v a n t a g e o f copper-lead a l l o y s i s t h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o

l u b r i c a n t c o r r o s i o n of t h e l e a d phase.
A compromise between a l l o y s s o f t enough t o a v o i d wear, those h a r d enough t o

r e s i s t f a t i g u e and those a b l e t o r e s i s t c o r r o s i o n has e v o l v e d by t h e use o f o v e r l a y b e a r i n g s i n which a s t r o n g m e t a l , such as copper-based m e t a l , has a s o f t metal o v e r l a y . For economic reasons, t h e c o p p e r - l e a d may be used as an Fig.3. To a v o i d f a t i g u e under The o v e r l a y p l a t e d

i n t e r l a y between a s t e e l base and t h e o v e r l a y ,

the a p p l i e d loads, t h e o v e r l a y i s u s u a l l y t h i n n e r than 5 urn.

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Fig.1

(x75) S t r u c t u r e o f g r a v i t y c a s t t i n based w h i t e m e t a l .

Fig.2

(x75) S t r u c t u r e o f copper-lead on s t e e l base.

copper-lead b e a r i n g i s w i d e l y used f o r h i g h d u t y e n g i n e b e a r i n g s b u t t h e continuous search i s f o r s u p e r i o r r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s .

Fig.3

(x75) S o f t o v e r l a y on copper lead bearing.

Fig.4

(x120) S t r u c t u r e o f aluminium 20% t i n b e a r i n g .

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Aluminium, a c o m p a r a t i v e l y cheap m a t e r i a l i n abundant supply, has met w i t h some success by t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l approach o f u s i n g hard metal compounds i n the aluminium m a t r i x t o produce a s t r u c t u r e analogous t o t h a t of w h i t e m e t a l . use o f a n o t h e r s o f t met al , t i n , w i t h a l umi n i um has produced good r e s u l t s . s u i t a b l e c o l d wo rki ng f o l l o w e d by h e a t - t r e a t m e n t and r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f about 20% t i n produces a r e t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e , Fig.4, adequate b e a r i n g p r o p e r t i e s . with The By

The a d d i t i o n o f a small amount o f hardener such as

copper i s b e n e f i c i a l and seems t o o f f e r t h e b e s t combination of l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y , wear and c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . o v e r l a y s f o r aluminium b e a r i n g s a i d r u n n i n g - i n , r e d u c t i o n o f t i n c o n t e n t t o about 9%. f u r t h e r economies. For j o u r n a l s , t h e cheapest p o s s i b l e m a t e r i a l i s u s u a l l y chosen. i s used f o r l e s s arduous a p p l i c a t i o n s , Mild steel Suitable

minimise j o u r n a l wear and a l l o w

S i m i l a r aluminium-lead b e a r i n g s e f f e c t

and p l a i n carbon s t e e l s can be heat-

t r e a t e d t o meet most c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e p r o p e r t i e s improving w i t h i n c r e a s e o f carbon c o n t e n t . Medium-carbon s t e e l s used f o r s m a l l e r s i z e s o f For more massive p a r t s ,

j o u r n a l s and e n gi n e c r a n k s h a f t s have low h a r d e n a b i l i t y .

which a r e r e q u i r e d i n t h e hardened and tempered c o n d i t i o n , l o w - a l l o y s t e e l s a r e needed t o e n a b le s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o p e r t i e s t o be obtained. Depending upon t h e

s p e c i f i c p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d , manganese, n i c k e l , chromium, molybdenum and vanadium, used s e p a r a t e l y o r i n v a r i o u s co mbinations, p r o v i d e a wide range o f

m a t e r i a l s f o r h i g h l y s t r e s s e d t r a n s m i s s i o n components and t h e more s t r i n g e n t applications. Surface-hardening t ech ni q ue s, such as c a r b u r i z i n g and n i t r i d i n g ,

a r e b e n e f i c i a l f o r p r o v i d i n g an e x t r e m e l y hard, w e a r - r e s i s t a n t s u r f a c e u s u a l l y on s p e c i a l l y manufactured low-carbon manganese o r tough a l l o y s t e e l s c o n t a i n i n g small amounts o f manganese, chromium, n i c k e l and molybdenum. Nickel steels are tough,

p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r case h ard en i ng a s such s t e e l s p r o v i d e a strong, wear-resistant

case w i t h a d u c t i l e c o r e w h i l s t t h e h a r d e s t n i t r i d e d cases a r e steels.

o b t a i n e d w i t h a lu mi ni u m-con t a i ni n g

C o m p a t a b i l i t y o f m e t a l s i n s l i d i n g c o n t a c t i s a dominant f a c t o r i n b e a r i n g performance and b o t h t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l and t h e h a r d e r s h a f t r e q u i r e c a r e f u l selection. M a t e r i a l s f o r h i g h t emp era t u re b e a r i n g s and s l i d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s have been surveyed [ 9 ] .

8.3.2

Gears

Gears i n s e r v i c e a r e s u b j e c t e d t o r o l l i n g , s l i d i n g , a b r a s i v e , chemical, v i b r a t o r y and s h ock-l o ad i ng a c t i o n . scuffing, pitting, fretting, T h e i r u s e f u l l i f e may be t e r m i n a t e d by Gear m a t e r i a l s

a b r a s i o n , c o r r o s i o n and f r a c t u r e .

must be chosen t o r e s i s t t he se phenomena. a r e t h e carbon-manganese s t e e l s ;

The most e x t e n s i v e l y used gear s t e e l s

manganese c o n t r i b u t e s markedly t o s t r e n g t h

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and hardness b u t i t s e f f e c t depends upon t h e carbon c o n t e n t . hardenability, strength. I t a l s o enhances

and f i n e - g r a i n e d manganese s t e e l s a t t a i n unusual toughness and

For more s t r i n g e n t gear a p p l i c a t i o n s , a l l o y s t e e l s , h e a t - t r e a t e d t o Nickel provides solid-solution

p r o v i d e t h e optimum p r o p e r t i e s , a r e used.

s t r e n g t h e n i n g and i ncre ase s toughness and r e s i s t a n c e t o impact, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t low temperatures, lessens d i s t o r t i o n i n quenching, improves c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t Chromium increases harden-

ance and a l l o w s more l a t i t u d e i n h ea t t rea t ment.

a b i l i t y and has a s t r o n g tendency t o f orm s t a b l e c a r b i d e s which hamper g r a i n growth and p r o v i d e f i n e - g r a i n e d , tough s t e e l s . Vanadium forms s t a b l e c a r b i d e s

t h a t do n o t r e a d i l y go i n t o s o l u t i o n and which a r e n o t prone t o agglomeration by tempering. I t i n h i b i t s g r a i n growth, t h u s i m p a r t i n g s t r e n g t h and toughness Molybdenum and vanadium a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n combinLead may be added t o gear s t e e l s t o a t t a i n

t o heat-treated steels.

a t i o n w i t h o t h e r a l l o y i n g elements. f a s t e r machining r a t e s ,

i n crea sed p r o d u c t i o n and l o n g e r t o o l l i f e .

S u r fa c e h a r d e ni n g t o reduce wear i s e x t e n s i v e l y a p p l i e d t o gear s t e e l s without s a c r i f i c i n g desirable core properties. l i q u i d , gas o r pack c a r b u r i z e d . inium-containing steels. Carbon and a l l o y s t e e l s can be

N i t r i d i n g i s u s u a l l y a p p l i e d t o s p e c i a l alum-

Flame and i n d u c t i o n hardening methods a r e a l s o used.

Other s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s such as S u l ph i nu z, phosphating and s o f t n i t r i d i n g which reduce f r i c t i o n and a i d l u b r i c a t i o n , can be b e n e f i c i a l .

8.3.3

R o l l i n g Be ari n gs i n oper-

A lth o u g h b a l l and r o l l e r b e a r i n g s a r e b a s i c a l l y r o l l i n g elements,

a t i n g mechanisms t h e y a r e a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o some wear by s l i d i n g and t o chemical a t t a c k by l u b r i c a n t and environment. Their useful l i f e i s usually

l i m i t e d by s u r f a c e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , p i t s b e i n g formed by a f a t i g u e process dependent upon t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and the environment [10,11,12]. The p r i n c i p a l q u a l i t i e s o f b a l l - b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s high e l a s t i c l i m i t

a r e dimensional s t a b i l i t y , h i g h hardness t o r e s i s t wear,

t o a v o i d p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n under load, and good f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e t o contend w i t h h i g h a l t e r n a t i n g stresses.

A h i gh -carb on s t e e l s a t i s f i e s these r e q u i r e -

ments i f a c a r b i d e - f o r m i n g element i s i n c o r p o r a t e d t o increase hardness, g i v e h a r d e n a b i l i t y and a l l o w o i l quenching t o mi n imize d i s t o r t i o n d u r i n g heattre a t m e n t.

EN 31, 535A99 o r SEA 52100 (1.0% C, 1.5% Cr) through hardening

Vacuum degassed, vacuum r e -

s t e e l i s used f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l b e a r i n g s , Fig.5.

melted a i d e l e c t r o - s l a g r e f i n e d m a t e r i a l o f improved mechanical p r o p e r t i e s may be used f o r in c r e ase d r o l l i n g c o n t a c t f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e . For convenience,

i n t h e manufacture o f t h e l a r g e r s i z e s o f r o l l e r b e a r i n g s case-hardening s t e e l s c o n t a i n i n g chromium, n i c k e l and molybdenum a c c o r d i n g t o t h e degree o f hardena b i l i t y , shock r e s i s t a n c e and c o r e hardness r e q u i r e d a r e used. For use i n a

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c o r r o s i v e environment m a r t e n s i t i c s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s a r e used w i t h some loss of f a t i g u e resistance. For use a t e l e v a t e d temperatures, conventional r o l l i n g bearing s t e e l s a r e not

s a t i s f a c t o r y owing t o loss o f hardness and f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e and h i g h speed t o o l s t e e l s w i t h h i g h tempering temperatures a r e used, Fig.6. H igh speed t o o l

s t e e l s c o n t a i n i n g p r i n c i p a l l y t un gst en , molybdenum and vanadium a r e a l s o l e s s prone t o d e l e t e r i o u s l u b r i c a n t e f f e c t s t h an EN 31 s t e e l [ l l ] . M a t e r i a l com-

b i n a t i o n and m a t e r i a l l u b r i c a n t co mbi n at i on a r e i m p o r t a n t t o ensure adequate r o l l i n g c o n t a c t f a t i g u e l i f e [13,14,15].

Fi g. 5

( ~ 4 0 0 0 ) S t r u c t u r e o f EN 31 b a l l bearing s t e e l .

F i g. 6 ( ~ 6 , 5 0 0 ) S t r u c t u r e o f 18%W h i g h speed t o o l s t e e l .

Under c o n d i t i o n s o f u n l u b r i c a t e d r o l l i n g c o n t a c t , f a i l u r e occurs n o t by t h e usu a l f a t i g u e mechanism b u t by exce ssi ve wear l i m i t i n g u s e f u l l i f e , owing t o v i b r a t i o n and rough, n o i s y run ni n g. Va ri ou s s u p e r a l l o y s w i t h base composition

o f chromium, molybdenum and c o b a l t and c o n t a i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f n i c k e l , tu n g s t e n , vanadium and o t h e r a l l o y i n g elements, a l s o cermets and ceramics, a r e p o t e n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e and have been used under arduous t e s t conditions. Under c e r t a i n t e s t c o n d i t i o n s

1131,

tungsten c a r b i d e was t h e b e s t o f

t h e m a t e r i a l s t r i e d , g i v i n g t h e l owest wear r a t e and being r e l a t i v e l y u n a f f e c t e d by temperature. The b e s t r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t c a r b i d e s i z e Hot pressed s i l i c o n n i t -

and t h e lo w e s t percentage o f m a t r i x m a t e r i a l , Fig.7. r i d e was a l s o s u i t a b l e .

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F i n e grained
Fig.7 ( ~ 5 0 0 )S t r u c t u r e o f 6% Co tungsten c a r b i d e .

Coarse grained

8.3.4

Wear R e s i s t a n t M a t e r i a l s

Wear r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e t h e c o r r e c t combination o f hardness t o r e s i s t a b r a s i o n and d u c t i l i t y t o contend w i t h shock loads and c y c l i c s t r e s s i n g .

AS these a r e c o n f l i c t i n g requirements, s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n i n v o l v e s
compromise. Other f a c t o r s such as t h e types o f wear, t h e n a t u r e o f any

abrasive, t h e o p e r a t i n g temperature and t h e environment a f f e c t t h e c h o i c e o f material.

For c o n d i t i o n s o f h i g h s t r e s s and impact, t h e toughness and work hardening

p r o p e r t i e s o f a u s t e n i t i c manganese s t e e l a r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d .

For lower s t r e s s

s l i d i n g c o n d i t i o n s where toughness i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t , depending upon t h e c o s t f a c t o r , hardened s t e e l s , a l l o y c a s t i r o n s , h a r d f a c i n g m a t e r i a l s , c o n c r e t e o r ceramics may be used. Where maximum wear r e s i s t a n c e i s r e q u i r e d and c o s t i s Corrosion resistance requires the Suitably reinforced

immaterial, cemented c a r b i d e s may be used.

use of s t a i n l e s s m e t a l s , s u i t a b l e rubbers o r p l a s t i c s .

polymer m a t e r i a l may be used where a low c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n as w e l l as wear resistance i s required. High chromium a l l o y s o f i r o n and s t e e l o f f e r t h e b e s t

wear r e s i s t a n c e t o e l e v a t e d temperature problems o f c r a c k i n g , s p a l l i n g and thermal shock. The wear r e s i s t a n c e o f a metal v a r i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t a b r a s i v e s and t h e e f f e c t i v e hardness o f an a b r a s i v e has been d e f i n e d as t h e maximum v a l u e o f hardness o f a metal t h a t can be abraded by i t . T h i s i s o f importance i n m a t e r i a l It i s also

s e l e c t i o n where a known a b r a s i v e i s t o be encountered i n p r a c t i c e . o f importance i n a b r a s i v e s e l e c t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l removal.

Next t o diamond, t h e

hardest a b r a s i v e a v a i l a b l e , s i l i c o n c a r b i d e i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t a b r a s i v e f o r lapping and g r i n d i n g and f o r g r i n d i n g wheels. Diamond can be s y n t h e s i z e d from

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carbon and i n a s i m i l a r manner, c u b i c c r y s t a l l i n e boron n i t r i d e o f s i m i l a r hardness can be produced. I t s extreme hardness and d u r a b i l i t y make t h i s mat-

e r i a l o f economic s i g n i f i c a n c e even though t h e p r e s e n t i n i t i a l c o s t i s h i g h .

8.3.5

To o ls

The e v o l u t i o n o f modern p r o d u c t i o n methods has been l a r g e l y dependent on the development o f tool s t e e l s cap ab l e of o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n t l y under i n c r e a s i n g arduous c o n d i t i o n s . High hardness i s a r e q u i s i t e o f almost every t o o l s t e e l

b u t t h e optimum hardness depends upon t h e a p p l i c a t i o n and, as hardness and toughness v a r y i n v e r s e l y , maximum hardness can o n l y be used i n t h e absence of shock l o a d i n g . Hardness a t e l e v a t e d t e mpe rature i s sometimes e s s e n t i a l as w e l l The c h o i c e o f s t e e l i s u s u a l l y based As

as r e s i s t a n c e t o a b r a s i o n and d i s t o r t i o n .

on a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e importance of t h e p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d .

no s i n g l e s t e e l possesses a l l d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s , a compromise i s g e n e r a l l y necessary. Economic a spe ct s can r a r e l y be ignored.

The s i m p l e s t t o o l s t e e l s a r e p l a i n carbon (0.6 t o 1.4% C) types, which by wa t e r quenching, d eve l op a h a r d case. Low a l l o y v a r i e t i e s c o n t a i n up t o 0.25%

V f o r c a r b i d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and t o r e t a r d g r a i n growth, and up t o 0.5% C r t o

i n c r e a s e h a r d e n a b i l i t y and case depth. O i l - h a r d e n i n g manganese s t e e l s (1.0 t o Chromium may be added

2.0% Mn) p r o v i d e h i g h hardness w i t h minimum d i s t o r t i o n .

t o h e l p h a r d e n a b i l i t y w h i l s t a d d i t i o n s of t u ngsten and vanadium improve wear r e s i s t a n c e and c o n t r o l g r a i n growth. high-carbon (2.0% C), For t he more arduous a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e s t e e l s a r e used t o r e s i s t wear and They m a i n t a i n a good

high-chromium (14% C r )

c o r r o s i o n and t o m a i n t a i n h i g h d i men si on al s t a b i l i t y . c u t t i n g edge f o r c o l d b l a n k i n g t o o l s .

I f shock r e s i s t a n c e i s r e q u i r e d , s t e e l s o f lower carbon c o n t e n t (0.4

to

0.5% C) a r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d and a l l o y i n g elements such as s i l i c o n , tungsten, vanadium and chromium may be added t o improve a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e . For h o t -

w o r k in g , high-speed t o o l o r h o t d i e s t e e l s which r e t a i n h i g h hardness and a good c u t t i n g edge a t e l e v a t e d temperatures a r e needed. t y p e i s t h e 18-4-1 ( t u n g s t e n , chromium, vanadium) The most w i d e l y used

type and h o t hardness may be

It i s

increased by r a i s i n g t h e vanadium c o n t e n t o r by a d d i t i o n o f c o b a l t .

p o s s i b l e t o p a r t l y r e p l a c e t u ng st e n w i t h molybdenum as i s t h e case w i t h , f o r example, M.2, 6.5.4.2

(W, Mo, C r ,

V) s t e e l .

Tungsten, chromium and molybdenum

chromium h o t d i e s t e e l s may be regarded as l e a n type high-speed t o o l s t e e l s i n which improved toughness can be developed i f t h e carbon c o n t e n t i s reduced t o below 0.4% C. N i c k e l , chromium, molybdenum s t e e l s g e n e r a l l y used as s t r u c t u r a l They do n o t

s t e e l s , may by s u i t a b l e heat t rea t me nt be used as t o o l s t e e l s .

possess t h e h i g h hardness o r a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f high-speed t o o l s t e e l s b u t advantage can be taken o f t h e i r s u p e r i o r toughness.

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8.3.6

C u t t i n g Tools

From an economic p o i n t o f view, one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n machining i s t h e r a t e a t which c u t t i n g t o o l s wear 1161. most w e a r - r e s i s t a n t , used. High-speed s t e e l s have good shock r e s i s t a n c e and can be r e a d i l y shaped by f o r g i n g and machining, so a r e t h e p r e f e r r e d c u t t i n g t o o l m a t e r i a l s f o r a l a r g e range o f a p p l i c a t i o n s . Surface t r e a t m e n t s which increase hardness and minimize Cast cobalt-chromium-tungsten a l l o y s , Generally the hardest,

t o o l m a t e r i a l which r e s i s t s b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e should be

adhesion t o t h e workpiece a r e b e n e f i c i a l .

the S t e l l i t e s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g h i g h temperatures, where c o o l i n g i s i m p r a c t i c a b l e b u t where impact i s absent. Sintered carbide t o o l s

may be s u c c e s s f u l l y used f o r most m e t a l - c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s and t h e i r e x c e p t ional performance r e s u l t s from h i g h hardness and compressive s t r e n g t h s . The

s t r a i g h t t u n g s t e n c a r b i d e s have t h e h i g h e s t hardness and a r e used f o r general applications, b u t grades c o n t a i n i n g t i t a n i u m and t a n t a l u m c a r b i d e a r e more The use o f t h i n

r e s i s t a n t t o c r a t e r i n g and used g e n e r a l l y f o r machining s t e e l .

CVD c o a t i n g s o f T i c improves t o o l l i f e c o n s i d e r a b l y .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new m a t e r i a l s which a r e d i f f i c u l t t o machine and t h e focus on h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y , has accentuated t h e need f o r harder c u t t i n g t o o l s . Ceramic and cermet t o o l s a r e now i n use. The h e a t - r e s i s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f

ceramic t o o l s enable them t o be used a t speeds u n a t t a i n a b l e by c a r b i d e t o o l s w i t h consequently improved s t o c k removal r a t e s . Their high r i g i d i t y prevents T h e i r h i g h hard-

c h a t t e r i n g and a l l o w s smoother c u t s and s u p e r i o r work f i n i s h .

ness and w e a r - r e s i s t a n t p r o p e r t i e s a l l o w c l o s e maintenance o f dimensions and enable t h e machining o f h i g h hardness m a t e r i a l s . Being n o n - m e t a l l i c , ceramics

do n o t weld t o t h e m a t e r i a l b e i n g c u t and t h e i r extreme r e f r a c t o r i n e s s obv i a t e s t h e need f o r c o o l a n t s . Diamond t o o l s a r e used f o r s p e c i a l purpose t o o l l i f e , however, i s superior

c u t t i n g where t h e h i g h c o s t can be j u s t i f i e d ; t o t h a t o f carbide.

8.3.7

P i s t o n Rings

Apart f r o m speed, temperature and load, t h e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e wear o f p i s t o n r i n g s a r e c o r r o s i o n , frequency o f use and d i r t . Whilst high

temperatures may cause wear by a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t i n g l u b r i c a t i o n , l o w tempera t u r e s cause c y l i n d e r and r i n g wear due t o c o r r o s i o n by t h e condensate o f combustion p r o d u c t s , t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so w i t h i n f r e q u e n t l y used engines. A i r b o r n e d u s t can be a s e r i o u s problem. Grey c a s t i r o n i s p r o b a b l y t h e most w i d e l y used m a t e r i a l f o r compression and

o i l r i n g s b u t h a r d e r m a t e r i a l s , such as carbon s t e e l o r even En31 b a l l b e a r i n g

s t e e l , f i n d use. For g r e a t e r hardness and wear r e s i s t a n c e , chromium p l a t i n g inch) can be used on r i n g s and g i v e s reduced i n s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k n e s s (0.005

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wear r a t e s f o r b o t h c y l i n d e r and r i n g s . Chromium p l a t i n g does n o t r u n s a t i s Although occ-

f a c t o r i l y a g a i n s t i t s e l f , so o n l y one mat i ng s u r f a c e i s p l a t e d .

a s i o n a l l y used f o r l i g h t e r s e r v i c e on passenger c a r engines, chromium p l a t i n g i s g e n e r a l l y used on compression r i n g s on heavy duty engines; d i e s e l and n a t u r a l gas engines.
i t i s w i d e l y used i n

As chromium p l a t i n g reduces f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h

i t i s usual t o p l a t e m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h such as h i g h carbon

steels.

Molybdenum c o a t i n g s o f hardness o ver 1000 HV and a p o r o s i t y o f 15-25% Sintered iron piston

may now be f a v o ure d i n p r e f e r e n c e t o chromium p l a t i n g . r i n g s a r e f i n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g use. Carbon-graphite,

used f o r many years as a i s a satisfactory material

p i s t o n r i n g m a t e r i a l f o r u n l u b r i c a t e d compressors, b u t i t has l i t t l e i n h e r e n t f l e x i b i l i t y ,

needs support and depends f o r i t s low Non-metallic p i s t o n

wear p r o p e r t i e s on t he presence o f condensed w ater [ 1 7 ] .

r i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f a b r i c r e i n f o r c e d PF r e s i n s , have been used where t h e r e a r e doubts about l u b r i c a t i o n so t h a t , i n t h e e vent o f l u b r i c a t i o n f a i l u r e , t h e s o f t

r i n g s w i l l n o t damage t h e c y l i n d e r w a l l . Dry r u n n in g PTFE p i s t o n r i n g s a r e su ccessful i n medium p r e s s u r e oxygen com-

p r e s s o r s as t h e y possess low f r i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , dimensional s t a b i l i t y a t o p e r a t i n g temperatures, good wear r e s i s t a n c e , h i g h s t r e n g t h and load-

c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y and chemical i n e r t n e s s . pr e s s u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s , i s reinforced.

However, f o r n o n - l u b r i c a t e d h i g h -

dimensional s t a b i l i t y can o n l y be r e t a i n e d i f t h e PTFE

G l a s s - f i b r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t appears t o be p o t e n t i a l l y more s u i t Other f i l l e r s commonly used a r e carbon, powdThe concept o f avoidance o f

able than s t e e l reinforcement.

e r e d m e t a ls , MoS2, ce rami cs and carbon f i b r e s .

damage t o t h e c y l i n d e r w a l l and i n c r e a s i n g e xperience w i t h PTFE r i n g s on unlubr i c a t e d compressors have l e d t o t h e idea o f r e p l a c i n g m e t a l l i c r i n g s on l u b r i c a t e d compressors w i t h PTFE r i n g s t o a l l o w reduced l u b r i c a n t feed r a t e s . o f t h e a r t r e v i e w o f t h e i r use has been pre sented [ I S ] .

A state

A l i t e r a t u r e survey o f

m a t e r i a l and m e t a l l u r g i c a l asp ect s o f p i s t o n r i n g s c u f f i n g has been c a r r i e d out [lg].

8.3.8

Cams and Tappets high-output, small automtoive u n i t s d i s t r e s s o f cams

I n modern high-speed,

and t a p p e ts can be a major problem due t o a c c e l e r a t e d normal wear, p i t t i n g , s c u f f i n g and b u r n i s h i n g . camshaft m a t e r i a l . Hardenable g rey c a s t i r o n i s t h e most w i d e l y used

Water-quenched hi g h-ca rbo n o r oil-quenched a l l o y s t e e l s o f Carburizing

h i g h carbon c o n t e n t a r e used i n t h e through-hardened c o n d i t i o n .

s t e e l s may a l s o be used w i t h s e l e c t i v e f l a me o r i n d u c t i o n hardening o f s u r f a c e areas. For a u t o mot i ve en gi n e cams, chromium and molybdenum c o n t a i n i n g i r o n s a r e Tappet m a t e r i a l s a r e

g e n e r a l l y used w i t h i n d i v i d u a l cams s u r f a c e hardened.

u s u a l l y through-hardened h i g h carbon, chromium o r molybdenum types o f c a r b u r i z e d low-alloy steels. The most commn t a p p e t m a t e r i a l s i n automotive a p p l i c a t i o n s

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are grey hardenable c a s t i r o n c o n t a i n i n g chromium, molybdenum and n i c k e l o r c h i l l e d cast iron. Oxide c o a t i n g s on hardened s t e e l tappet faces improve Surface f i n i s h e s a r e important Salt-bath

f r i c t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s and a c c e l e r a t e w e a r i n g - i n . t o ensure adequate l i f e ;

s t r e s s - r e l i e v i n g can be b e n e f i c i a l .

n i t r i d i n g t r e a t m ent can be b e n e f i c i a l t o cam f o l l o w e r s .

8.3.9

F r i c t i o n Materials

Te c h n o lo g ic a l p rog ress i n t h e aeronaut i c a ? and automobile i n d u s t r i e s makes demands on f r i c t i o n m a t e r i a l s i n c r e a s i n g l y more severe. m a t e r i a l s must have h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n , temperatures, High q u a l i t y brake

s t a b i l i t y a t a l l operating

good wear r e s i s t a n c e and s t r e n g t h , h i g h thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y and For arduous a p p l i c a t i o n s where s u r f a c e temperatures a r e i s no l o ng er s u i t a b l e . A t o p e r a t i n g temperCopper-

corrosion s t a b i l i t y .

hi gh , o r g a n i c f r i c t i o n m a t e r i a l

a t u r e s above 350"C, wear o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l becomes e x t r e m e l y severe.

base f a c i n g s can o p e r a t e up t o lO0O'C b u t new m a t e r i a l s a r e under development f o r a e r o n a u t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s where r u b b i n g s u r f a c e s may w e l l reach temperatures w e l l above t h i s . S i n t e r e d m a t e r i a l s o f f e r a w ide range o f f r i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s by t h e d i s p o s a l o f c a r e f u l l y graded n o n - m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s i n a m e t a l l i c matrix; level. t h e c o m p o s i t i o n can be a d j u s t e d t o minimise wear, s e i z u r e and n o i s e Cermet and carbon f r i c t i o n m a t e r i a l s a r e b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y used i n

many a p p l i c a t i o n s .

8.3.10

P l a s t i c Be ari n gs

Since t h e f i r s t appearance on t h e market i n t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s o f b e a r i n g s based on t h e r m o s e t t i n g r e s i n s , t h e r e has been a con t i n uous increase i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f polymers and polymer based composites i n t h e b e a r i n g f i e l d ,

[20,21].

Nylon

was t h e f i r s t o f t h e t h e r m o p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s used f o l l o w e d by PTFE and more recently the polyacetals. P l a s t i c s o f f e r a number o f advantages over metals.

T h e i r p h y s i c a l and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s can be v a r i e d over a wide range by s u i t a b l e c h o i c e o f polymer t ype , f i l l e r and r e i n f o r c e m e n t ; easy t o shape. some a r e cheap and

Many polymers a r e r e s i s t a n t t o chemical a t t a c k and e x h i b i t low T h e i r wear r a t e s s l i d i n g

c o e f f i c i e n t s o f f r i c t i o n during unlubricated sliding.

a g a i n s t smooth metal c o u n t e r f a c e s a r e low and they do n o t n o r m a l l y e x h i b i t s c u f f i n g o r seizure. L u b r i c a t i o n by f l u i d s can o f t e n be dispensed w i t h , b u t l u b r i c a t i o n more r e a d i l y than

when l u b r i c a t e d , polymers a l l o w elastohydrodynamic metals.

They have disadvantages compared w i t h metals, e s p e c i a l l y r e g a r d i n g e l a s t i c mo du l i , cre ep r e s i s t a n c e and c o e f f i c i e n t s o f ex-

u l t i m a t e strengths, pansion.

Polymers may a l s o r e a d i l y absorb f l u i d s r e s u l t i n g i n dimensional T h e i r low thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s can cause problems w i t h d i s s They a l s o have t emperature l i m i t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g

instability.

i p a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n a l h ea t .

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softening, m e l t i n g and thermal d eg rad at i on . r e s i n based bearings, c l o t h o r f i b r e

The p r im e v i r t u e s o f t h e r m o - s e t t i n g reinforced,

i s t h e i r h i g h s t r e n g t h and . e x c e l l e n t performance under c o n d i t i o n s

A t y p i c a l use i s r o l l neck b e a r i n g s o f s t e e l r o l l i n g

o f wa t e r l u b r i c a t i o n .

m i l l s where heat removal by wat er i s e s s e n t i a l .

On a s m a l l e r scale,

reinforced

r e s i n b e a r in g s a r e used i n pumps f o r wat er c i r c u l a t i o n and w i t h o i l and grease l u b r i c a t i o n i n a ut o mot i ve a p p l i c a t i o n s . Nylon and p o l y a c e t a l bushes p r o v i d e good d r y b e a r i n g l i v e s i f t h e PV f a c t o r i s k e p t low. These m a t e r i a l s s i n t e r e d t o p r o v i d e c o n t r o l l e d p o r o s i t y a r e used Thermo-

f o r o i l impregnated b e a r i n g s a t much g r e a t e r PV values w i t h low wear.

p l a s t i c b e a r i n g s f i n d e x t e n s i v e use i n f r a c t i o n a l HP e l e c t r i c motors, automotive a p p l i c a t i o n s and washing machines. a r e used i n p r o s t h e s i s human j o i n t s . PTFE based b e a r i n g s a r e now used a l most anywhere where c l e a n l i n e s s , resistance, freedom f ro m s e i z u r e and l u b r i c a n t e l i m i n a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . heat Thin P o l y e t h y l e n e and h i g h d e n s i t y p o l y e t h y l e n e

f i l m s o f PTFE f i n d e f f e c t i v e use i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o a v o i d fretting. Depending upon t h e a p p l i c a t i o n and the p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d , PTFE

may be f i l l e d w i t h g l a s s , asbestos, carbon f i b r e s , MoS2, g r a p h i t e , bronze, n i c k e l and i r o n o x i d e .

A p r i n c i p a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f PTFE i s f o r gas l u b r i c a t e d

b e a r i n g s t o contend w i t h s t o p p i n g and s t a r t i n g .

8.4

SURFACE TREATMENTS AND COATINGS M a t e r i a l s f o r t r i b o l o g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s must f u l f i l two i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s .

They must have s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s f o r l o a d c a r r y i n g and s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a l l o w r e l a t i v e mot i on w i t h low f r i c t i o n and t h e minimum amount o f wear damage. demands. Surface t re at men t s and c o a t i n g s a l l o w design scope t o meet these A ls o , w i t h wear problems i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o make w o r t h w h i l e b u t many s u r f a c e

i n n o v a t i o n s i n d e si gn , l u b r i c a t i o n o r m a t e r i a l s s e l e c t i o n ,

t r e a t m e n t s and c o a t i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e which can e f f e c t wear r e s i s t a n c e and improved f r i c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s r Z Z , Z 3 ] . Hard wear r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s a r e

u s u a l l y expensive t o manufacture and d i f f i c u l t t o shape, and f o r economic reasons, w e a r - r e s i s t a n t s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s may be a p p l i e d t o more common,

cheaper t o produce and more e a s i l y shaped m a t e r i a l s . Many s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o combat wear, and t h e c h o i c e depends l a r g e l y upon t h e t y p e and s e v e r i t y o f wear i n v o l v e d . Some treatments

a r e s h o r t l i v e d b u t t h e more common s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s a r e those which a r e expected t o l a s t t h e l i f e o f t h e component. Both types o f treatment may be com-

b i n e d t o e f f e c t p r o t e c t i o n d u r i n g arduous c o n d i t i o n s o f r u n n i n g i n and l o n g service effectiveness. Treatments expected t o l a s t t h e l i f e o f a component

i n v o l v e s u r f a c e ha rde ni n g w i t h o u t changing t h e composition, s u r f a c e hardening by d i f f u s i o n t r e a t m ent s and by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s . Carbon and

219
alloy steels of a hardenable composition and cast iron may be surface hardened by flame or induction methods. Shot peening work hardens the surface o f metals. An extensively used method o f surface hardening to improve wear resistance depends upon diffusing specific elements into the surfaces of metal by such treatments a s carburizing, carbo-nitriding, nitriding, chromosing, boronising and siliconising. Care must be taken to ensure a sufficient depth of case of the correct structure and hardness and a satisfactory transition zone, Fig.8. Electro-deposition o f hard metal such a s chromiumprovides hard surface coatings and alloy coatings may be used to improve wear resistance. deposited metal, Fig.9. Composite coatings may be produced by the co-deposition o f hard particles and electroCoatings o f silicon carbide in nickel, tungsten carbide in nickel and cobalt and silicon nitride in nickel have been used effectively. Diamond containing coatings have been developed for specific applications 1241. Hard surfacing o r facing finds wide use in many applications to provide specific wear resistant alloy o r ceramic coatings. Almost any metal o r alloy With plasma which can be cast may be used as a welding rod to apply a coating. bonding

spraying even the most refractory materials can be deposited with good surface

Fig.8

(x75) Micro hardness survey o f a case hardened gear tooth with superimposed HV.

Fig.9

( ~ 1 5 0 ) Co-deposited Fe-b%Ni and chromium carbide.

220 Some s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s , besides e f f e c t i n g wear r e s i s t a n c e , may a l s o a i d lubrication. Thus Sulphinuz [25] t r e a t m e n t can n i t r o g e n harden a s u r f a c e w i t h

t h e a s s o c i a t e d compressive s t r e s s e s b e n e f i c i a l t o f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e , as w e l l as produce a s u l p h u r - r i c h s u r f a c e l a y e r w i t h good l u b r i c a n t p r o p e r t i e s under boundary c o n d i t i o n s . an oxygen-ion r i c h , S o f t n i t r i d i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n an o x i d i s i n g b a t h produces low f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e b e n e f i c i a l i n r e d u c i n g wear and a i d i n g Sulphinuz and s o f t n i t r i d i n g t r e a t m e n t s

l u b r i c a t i o n under arduous c o n d i t i o n s . may s o f t e n h a r d m a t e r i a l s .

T h i s can be avoided w i t h t h e Noskuff process [25]

which i n c o r p o r a t e s a quenching t r e a t m e n t o f t h e S u f t BT process [25] which p r o duces a s u l p h u r r i c h l a y e r , by an e l e c t r o l y t i c t r e a t m e n t i n a low temperature s a l t bath. Various t y p e s o f phosphating t r e a t m e n t s p r o v i d e a t h i n , porous which can

c r y s t a l l i n e l u b r i c a t i n g s u r f a c e f i l m o f i n s o l u b l e phosphate, Fig.10,

a l s o r e t a i n l u b r i c a n t o r p r o v i d e an e f f e c t i v e base f o r a s o l i d l u b r i c a n t . S o l i d l u b r i c a n t f i l m s such as PTFE and MoS2 can a l s o c o n t r o l wear, f r i c t i o n and a i d l u b r i c a t i o n . reduce

Fig.10

Phosphate c o a t i n g .

A v e r y hard, s t r o n g l y adherent, homogeneous t h i n f i l m u s u a l l y o f h a r d

c a r b i d e such as TIC may be a p p l i e d t o metal by chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n (CVD) [26,27]. R e f r a c t o r y c o a t i n g s such as alumina and s i l i c o n n i t r i d e may a l s o be

chemical vapour deposited. P h y s i c a l vapour d e p o s i t i o n techniques a r e a v i a b l e approach t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u r f a c e f i l m s o f extreme v e r s a t i l i t y i n d e p o s i t c o m p o s i t i o n . V i r t u a l l y any

m e t a l , a l l o y , r e f r a c t o r y o r i n t e r m e t a l l i c compound, some p o l y m e r i c t y p e m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r m i x t u r e s can be d e p o s i t e d [ 2 8 ] . Metal f i l m s d e p o s i t e d by

221
i o n - p l a t i n g a r e s t r o n g l y bonded t o t h e s u r f a c e as t h e f i l m i s d e p o s i t e d on a surface cleaned by s p l u t t e r e t c h i n g

[29,30].

S o f t metal l u b r i c a n t f i l m s may

a l s o be bonded t o a metal s u r f a c e by i o n - p l a t i n g the n i t r i d i n g o p e r a t i o n .

[31].

I o n - n i t r i d i n g speeds up

8.5

CONCLUSIONS Mechanisms can o n l y p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i f t h e d e s i g n and t h e m a t e r i a l s

o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e c o r r e c t l y chosen t o contend w i t h t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t h e environment i n which t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d . I t i s o n l y by e f f i c i e n t s e l -

e c t i o n and c a r e f u l s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e most e f f e c t i v e use o f m a t e r i a l s can be accomplished t o e f f e c t m a t e r i a l c p n s e r v a t i o n and energy s a v i n g i n t h e i r p r o duct ion. Economics i n m a t e r i a l s and m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o s t s can o f t e n be made by j u d i c i o u s use o f s u r f a c e c o a t i n g s and s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s .

REFERENCES

1 2

3 4

Scott,O., T r i b o l o g y , 1968, 1, 14. Scott,D, I n T r i b o l o g y - Proc. J. R e s i d e n t i a l Course, 1968, Paper 1 , I n s t . M e t a l l u r g i s t s , London. Scott,D., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., London I n t . Conf. on L u b r i c a t i o n and Wear, 1967, ( 3 A ) , 325. New E n g i n e e r i n g M a t e r i a l s , Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs, London, 1965/66,

182,

180, ( 3 D ) .

5 6
7 8 9
10
11 12

13 14 15

16 17 18 19
20

21
22

mdman,N.E., E n g i n e e r i n g A l l o y s , 1962, Chapman & H a l l , London. Special Zakay,V.F. and Justusson,W.M., I n High S t r e n g t h S t e e l s - I . S . I . Report 76, 1962, 14. I r o n & S t e e l l n s t . , London. Ouckworth,W.E., Leak,D.A. and P h i l l i p s , R . , I n High S t r e n g t h S t e e l s , I.S.I. Special Report 76, 1962, 22, I r o n & S t e e l l n s t . , London. Forrester,P.G., Metal1 Rev., 1960, (ZO), 507. Amateau,M.F., Nicholson,D.W. and Glaeser,W.A., 1961, O.T.S. PB 171625, O f f i c e o f T e c h n i c a l Services, Washington D.C. Scott,O., I n F a t i g u e i n R o l l i n g Contact, 1963, 103, I n s t . Mech. Engrs. London. Scott,D., I n Low A l l o y S t e e l s , 1968, 203, I r o n and S t e e l I n s t . London. Scott,D., I n R o l l i n g Contact F a t i g u e , (Ed. Tourret,R., and Wright,E.P.), 1977, 3, Heyden, London. Scott,D., Wear, 1977, 71. Scott,D., Proc. I n s t . Mech. Engrs., 1969, 183, (3L), 9. Scott,D., R o l l i n g Contact F a t i g u e , I n , Wear, (Scott,D., Ed.), T r e a t i s e on M a t e r i a l s Science and Technology, 1978, 13, 321, Academic Press, NY. Trent,E.M. Metal C u t t i n g , 1977, B u t t e r w o x h s , London. Summers-Smith,D., Wear, 1966, 425. Summers-Smith,D., Proc. T r i b o l o g y Conf., 1971, Paper C93/71, I n s t . Mech. Engrs. Scott,D., Smith,A.I., T a i t , J . and Tremain,G.R., Wear, 1975, 2, 293. Pratt,G.C., P l a s t i c Based Bearings i n " L u b r i c a t i o n and L u b r i c a n t s " , (E.R. B r a i t h w a i t e - Ed.), 1967, 377, E l s e v i e r , Amsterdam. Evan5,F.C. and Lancaster,J.K., The Wear o f Polymers, i n Wear, (Scott,D.), T r e a t i s e on M a t e r i a l s Science and Technology, 1978, - 85, Academic 13, Press, NY. Scott,D., Wear, 1978, 283.

5,

9,

9,

48,

222

23 Wilson,R.W., Proc. 1st Euro, Tribology Congr., 1973, 165, Inst. Mech. Engrs., London. 24 Sharp,W.F., Wear, 1975, 32, 315. 25 Gregory,J.C., Tribology, 1970, 3, 73. 26 Gass,H. and Hintermann,H.E., SwTss Patent 452.205, 1968. 27 Hintermann,H.E. and Aubert,F., Proc. 1 s t Euro Tribology Congr., 1973, 207, Inst. Mech. Engrs., London. 28 Bunshah,R.F. and Juntz,R.S., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 1972, 9, 1389. 29 Spalvins,T., Przbyszewski,J.S. and Buckley,D.H., NASA Tech. Note TN D - 3707, 1966. 30 Teer,D.G., Tribology, 1975, 1, 245. 211. 31 Sherbiney,M.A. and Halling,J., Wear, 1977,

3,

223

! )
A.R.

SELECTION OF LUBRICANTS

LANSDOWN, D i r e c t o r , Swansea T r i b o l o g y Centre, U.K.

9.1

I NTRODUCT I ON
The v a r i e t y o f a v a i l a b l e l u b r i c a n t s i s enormous.
I f we simply c o n s i d e r

broad, b a s i c t y p es t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y many hundreds:

i f we take i n t o account

minor d i f f e r e n c e s i n comp osi t i on and t h e v a r i o u s commercial brands, t h e r e a r e probably t e n s o f thousands. To t h e n o n - s p e c i a l i s t t h e problem o f proper l u b r i -

cant s e l e c t i o n can t h e r e f o r e seem v e r y c o n f u s i n g . For many a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a l u b r i c a n t i s i n f a c t n o t c r i t i c a l , and a wide v a r i e t y o f l u b r i c a n t s c o u l d work q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . For such

a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e o b j e c t o f l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n should p r o b a b l y be t o ensure t h e lowest o v e r a l l l i f e c o s t f o r t h e system as a whole. For some a p p l i c a t i o n s , however, t h e s e l e c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t may be v e r y c r i t i cal indeed, and t h e r e may be v e r y few o r even no l u b r i c a n t s capable o f e n s u r i n g satisfactory operation. Because t h e r e a r e thousands o f d i f f e r e n t l u b r i c a n t s a v a i l a b l e , and because many a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e n o t c r i t i c a l , t h e r e i s o f t e n a tendency t o leave l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n t o a v e r y l a t e st ag e i n t h e de si gn process. The r e s u l t may be t h a t a

design i s completed and a machine c o n s t r u c t e d f o r which no s u i t a b l e l u b r i c a n t e x i s t s , and t h e r e have been cases where v e r y expensive m o d i f i c a t i o n has been necessary t o r e s o l v e t h e problem o f l u b r i c a t i o n . One im p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e i s t h e r e f o r e t h a t l u b r i c a n t requirements should always be c o n s id ere d a t an e a r l y st a ge i n d esign.

In o r d e r t o approach l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n r e a I i s t i c a l l y , we should be c l e a r
as t o what a r e t h e o b j e c t s o f l u b r i c a t i o n . The p r i m a r y o b j e c t o f l u b r i c a t i o n i s t o reduce f r i c t i o n o r wear, o r u s u a l l y both f r i c t i o n and wear. cant T h i s i s t h e f a c t o r w hich d e f i n e s a m a t e r i a l as a l u b r i -

.
a d d i t i o n t h r e e secondary f u n c t i o n s o f a l u b r i c a n t : I n some systems t h i s w i l l be a v i t a l f u n c t i o n o f To a c t as a c o o l a n t . t h e l u b r i c a n t because f r i c t i o n a l o r process heat must be removed and no a l t e r n a t i v e c o o l i n g f l u i d can be used.

There a r e i n (i)

(ii)

To remove wear d e b r i s o r o t h e r contaminants, o r t o p r e v e n t o t h e r contamin a n ts from e n t e r i n g t h e system.

( i i i ) To p r o t e c t m e t a l s a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n .

There i s no good reason why a

224
l u b r i c a n t sho ul d be expected t o p r o v i d e such p r o t e c t i o n , b u t because mine r a l o i l s are very e f f e c t i v e corrosion preventives, come t o expect t he same o f a l l l u b r i c a n t s . The l u b r i c a n t w i l l o f t e n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f u l f i l a l l these tasks, b u t where the a v a i l a b l e choice o f l u b r i c a n t s i s l i m i t e d ,
i t may be necessary t o choose t h e

many designers have

l u b r i c a n t o n l y t o meet t h e f r i c t i o n and wear requirements, and t o use o t h e r techniques t o s o l v e t h e c o o l i n g , c o n t a m i n a t i o n and c o r r o s i o n problems.

9.2

SELECTING THE LUBRICANT TYPE L u b r i c a t i o n systems as such a r e o u t s i d e t h e scope of t h i s chapter, b u t the

problem o f l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n cannot e n t i r e l y be separated from t h a t o f select i n g t h e l u b r i c a t i o n system. The most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d way t o s e l e c t b o t h l u b r i c a n t and l u b r i c a t i o n system i s p r o b a b ly t o s t a r t w i t h t h e s i m p l e s t t e chn i que and t o progress from t h a t o n l y

a s f a r as i s necessary t o ensure s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n .
re1 i a b l e .

The s i m p l e s t technique

w i l l u s u a l l y have t h e l owest i n i t i a l c o s t , and w i l l o f t e n also be t h e most

The s i m p l e s t system c o n s i s t s o f a sma l l q u a n t i t y o f p l a i n m i n e r a l o i l i n p l a c e i n t h e l u b r i c a t e d component, w i t h o u t any f a c i l i t y f o r r e - l u b r i c a t i o n . Such a system w i l l cope w i t h a s u r p r i s i n g l y wide v a r i e t y o f mechanisms, i n c l u d i n g watches and c l o c k s and many o t h e r p r e c i s i o n instruments, d o o r - l o c k s and h in g e s , sewing-machines, and so on. I t ceases t o cope when t h e r e i s t o o much l oad o r speed o r heat o r d e b r i s , o r when t h e l i f e r e q u i r e d i s so l on g t h a t t h e o i l o x i d i s e s . evaporates, o r creeps away f r o m th e b e a r i n g surf ace s. I t i s then necessary t o use a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d t y p e w r i t e r s , b i c y c l e s , r o l l e r skates, skate-boards,

o i l , a grease, a s o l i d l u b r i c a n t , o r sometimes even a gas l u b r i c a n t , o r t o use a more complex l u b r i c a t i o n system. T a b le 9.1 shows some o f t h e p o s s i b l e cho i ces o f a l t e r n a t i v e systems when t h e s i m p l e s t system i s no l on ge r adequate. Some o f these choices a r e concerned w i t h

t h e l u b r i c a t i o n system r a t h e r than t h e c h o i c e o f l u b r i c a n t , b u t whatever l u b r i c a t i o n system i s used, a c h o i c e o f l u b r i c a n t i s needed. As t h e demands on a b e a r i n g i ncre ase , a p o i n t i s e v e n t u a l l y reached where a p l a i n m i n e r a l o i l i s no l o ng er adequate, and i t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e p r o blem o f l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n b eg i ns.

A c o n v e n ie n t approach t o l u b r i c a n t s e l e c t i o n w i l l be t o c o n s i d e r f i r s t t h e
p r o p e r t i e s which i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l o i l s , then t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r o i l s which can be used, and f i n a l l y t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s , namely greases, s o l i d l u b r i c a n t s and gases.
I t may be u s e f u l t o r e f e r t o F i g u r e 1, whi ch i n d i c a t e s broad l i m i t s o f speed

and l o a d w i t h i n w hi ch d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f l u b r i c a n t can be used.

SPEED ( f t / m i n ]

1,ooo.000

10

100

boo0

10.000

100.000

100.000

2.

- looeooo
a
Y

3.

For 1 iqiiid Iiihricnnts t h c rmlnmcntnl pronerty is v i s c o s i t y , :ind t h i s f i m i r c L I S S I U ~ C S h a t t h e corrert v i s c o s i t y h;is t hecn chosen. 1:xtcrnalIy nressiiriscd hcnrinps can he uscd ovcr a wide rnnp,c of snecd :ind lo:1d.

10.000

.c _

>
E

10.000
1,000

e a

1,000
100

100

10

100

100 .0

10.000

rw,ooo

14.5

r,ooo,ooo

SPEED AT BEARING CONTACT lrnm/s) --C

Fig.1

Speed/load limitations f o r d i f f e r e n t types o f lubricant.

N

t u cn

226
Table 9.1 P o s s i b l e ch oi ce s when a small q u a n t i t y o f p l a i n m i n e r a l o i l i n p l a c e i s no lonqer adequate. Too much l oa d More viscous o i l Grease Extreme p r e s s u r e o i l Extreme p r e s s u r e grease Externally pressurised l u b r i c a t i o n Sol i d l u b r i c a n t Greater q u a n t i t y o f o i l Less viscous o i l O i l c i r c u l a t i o n system Gas l u b r i c a t i o n
O i l w i t h anti-oxidant More viscous o i l Greater q u a n t i t y o f o i l O i 1 c i r c u l a t i o n system Synthetic o i l Sol i d l u b r i c a n t

Too much speed (which may l ea d t o t o o much he at )

Too much heat

Too much d e b r i s

Greater q u a n t i t y o f o i l C i r c u l a t i o n system w i t h f i l t r a t i o n

Contamination

O i l c i r c u l a t i o n system Grease Solid lubricant

O i l with anti-oxidant More viscous o i l Great q u a n t i t y o f o i l R e l u b r i c a t i o n system Synthetic o i l Grease Sol i d l u b r i c a n t

Long 1 i f e r e q u i r e d

9.3

PROPERTIES OF MINERAL OILS

9.3.1

Viscosity

V i s c o s i t y i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e p r o p e r t y o f a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l , s i n c e
i t i s th e s o l e p r o p e r t y which determines whether t h e o i l i n a b e a r i n g a t a

s p e c i f i c lo a d and speed w i l l g i v e f u l l f l u i d f i l m s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e b e a r i n g s u r fa c e s . V i s c o s i t y may be expressed i n any one o f a number o f d i f f e r e n t u n i t s . Pro-

ba b ly t h e most commonly used i n E n gl i sh -spe aking c o u n t r i e s i s the c e n t i s t o k e ( c S t ) which p r o p e r l y d e s c r i b e s K i n ema t i c V i s c o s i t y , and i s d i r e c t l y measured by t h e v a r i o u s s t a n dard I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum, ASTM, B r i t i s h Standard and IS0 t e s t methods. The A b sol u t e V i s c o s i t y i s commonly expressed i n terms o f t h e

c e n t i p o i s e (cP) and i s t h e v i s c o s i t y used i n t h e v a r i o u s e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s such as e qu at i on s ( 1 ) t o ( 3 ) .

227
Each o f these u n i t s has i t s S t e q u i v a l e n t , b u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e S I U n i t s has been t he s u b j e c t of c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s p u t e . c e n t i s t o k e i s t h e m i l l i m e t r e z pe r second (mm2 s - ' ) The SI e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e and t h e S I e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e

c e n t i p o i s e i s t h e m i l l inewton second p e r metre2 o r m i l 1 i p a s c a l second ( m N s / m Z ) . There a r e a l s o t h r e e o t h e r u n i t s wh i ch a r e s t i l l w i d e l y used, a l t h o u g h c u r r e n t p o l i c y i s t o d i s c o n t i n u e them i n f a v o u r o f k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y i n c e n t i stokes. They a r e Redwood Seconds, used i n B r i t a i n , Saybolt Seconds (SUS) i n the

United S ta t e s , and degrees E n gl e r, used i n Germany and o t h e r p a r t s o f c o n t i n e n t a l Europe. There a r e s e v era l e q u a t i o n s which r e l a t e t h e o i l f i T m t h i c k n e s s t o t h e o i l viscosity. applies, ax For g en era l hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n t h e Reynolds Equation [ l ]

h3

*
=

ax1

aY

h3

aY1

6pU

ah

+ 6ph

12pV

(1)

f o r elastohydrodynamic

l u b r i c a t i o n w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l elements, as i n r o l l e r

bearings and many gear c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , an e q u a t i o n o f t h e Dowson-Higginson type,

121 a p p l i e s ,

"0.7
hmin/R 2.65

G0.54

w0.03

w h i l e f o r e la s t o hyd rod yna mi c l u b r i c a t i o n w i t h s p h e r i c a l elements, as i n b a l l bearings, t h e Archard-Cowking Equation

[3]

applies,

where U i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o v i s c o s i t y .

10-1

z
P

u LL

I -

u .
z I W -

0 lL

U W

10-2

10.~
PV/ p

10-8 DIMENSIONLESS

Fig.2

T y p i c a l S t r i b e c k curve

228
F i g u r e 2 , sometimes c a l l e d a S t r i b e c k curve, shows how t h e v i s c o s i t y o f a l u b r i c a n t a f f e c t s t h e l u b r i c a t i o n mode and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n i n a bearing . By t h e use of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e q u a t i o n t h e o i l v i s c o s i t y r e q u i r e d f o r any b e a r i n g can be c a l c u l a t e d , b u t i f t h i s i s done f o r every b e a r i n g i n every machi n e i n a f a c t o r y t h e r e s u l t w i l l p r o b a b l y be a l i s t of several hundred v i s c o s i ties. The number o f a v a i l a b l e m i n e r a l o i l s i s so g r e a t t h a t i t m i g h t w e l l be

p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n o i l s w i t h eve ry v i s c o s i t y r e q u i r e d , b u t t h e r e a r e some very good reasons f o r n o t d o i n g so. (i)

I f a l l t h e b e a r i n g s i n a complex machine can use t h e same

u b r i c a n t , then

a s i n g l e o i l r e s e r v o i r and c i r c u l a t i o n system can be used, and t h i s w i l l g e n e r a l l y be cheaper and more r e l i a b l e . (ii)

A l a r g e number o f d i f f e r e n t l u b r i c a n t s causes s t o r a g e prob ems.

( i i i ) The g r e a t e r t h e number o f l u b r i c a n t s i n use i n one p l a n t , t h e g r e a t e r i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e wrong one b e i n g used. (iv) Most b e a r i n g s a r e r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e over a range o f temperature,
so the

v i s c o s i t y o f t h e o i l w i l l o n l y be a t t h e optimum v a l u e f o r a p a r t o f the o p e r a t i n g time. F o r t u n a t e l y t h e v i s c o s i t y req ui re men t i s o f t e n n o t c r i t i c a l .

A s l o n g as the

v i s c o s i t y i s h i g h enough t o ensure t h e r e q u i r e d o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s , harm i n g o in g t o a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y . s i t y i s p a r t l y s e l f -co mpe nsa t i n g.

t h e r e i s no

I n any case an increase i n v i s c o -

The e f f e c t of i n c r e a s i n g v i s c o s i t y i s t o

i n c r e a s e v is c o u s f r i c t i o n , whi ch i n crea ses t h e power d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e bearing. The excess power i s con vert ed t o h ea t , t h e h eat r a i s e s t h e o i l temperature, and t h e h i g h e r t e m p erat ure reduces t h e o i l v i s c o s i t y . So t h e end r e s u l t of u s i n g a

more v is c o u s o i l i s t h a t t h e power consumption and t h e temperature s t a b i l i s e a t a s l i g h t l y higher level. I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o use a sma l l number o f v i s c o s i t y grades t o f i l l a wide range o f o i l requirements, and i n f a c t many n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r Indus-

standards ( i n c l u d i n g B r i t i s h Standard 4231 " V i s c o s i t y t r i a l L i q u i d Lubricants")

r e s t r i c t t h e number o f l u b r i c a n t s i n such a way t h a t i s 50% h i g h e r than t h a t o f t h e

t h e v i s c o s i t y o f each o i l i n c e n t i s t o k e s a t 4OoC pre c e d in g grade.

T h i s g i v e s o n l y e i g h t e e n grades t o cover t h e whole range from

2 c S t t o 1500 c S t .
So t h e f i r s t t h i n g t o do i n m i n e r a l o i l s e l e c t i o n i s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e lowest

v i s c o s i t y which w i l l ensure f u l l f l u i d f i l m l u b r i c a t i o n o f a l l t h e b e a r i n g s i n t h e system, and t he n t o i d e n t i f y t h e n e x t h i g h e r standard v i s c o s i t y grade. The v i s c o s i t y o f an o i l i s always quoted a t a s t a t e d temperature, u s u a l l y OF,

7OoF, 100F

o r 130F,

b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y 4OoC.

These temperatures w i l l

229
r a r e l y be t h o s e a t wh i ch yo ur b e a r i n g s a r e i n tended t o operate, so t h e second i mp o r t a n t p r o p e r t y t o c o n s i d e r i s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h temperature.

9.3.2

V i scos i ty/Tempe r a t u r e Re1a t ionsh i p

For a l l l i q u i d s t h e v i s c o s i t y decreases as t h e temperature increases, b u t t h e r a t e o f decrease v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y f ro m one l i q u i d t o a n o t h e r . I t follows

t h a t i f we p l o t graphs o f o i l v i s c o s i t y a g a i n s t temperature, w hich g i v e s somet h i n g approaching s t r a i g h t l i n e s , t h e s l o p e o f t h e l i n e s i s d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f erent o i l s . F i g u r e 3 shows some t y p i c a l v i s c o s i t y / t e m p e r a t u r e relationships

for different oils. Standard c u r v es a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e showing the v i s c o s i t y / t e m p e r a

ur e

r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r d i f f e r e n t o i l s , so t h a t we can c o n v e r t o u r r e q u i r e d v scos i t y t o t h e v i s c o s i t y a t a st an da rd r e f e r e n c e t e mperature, p r o v i d e d t h a t we know which l i n e ( i . e . whi ch sl o pe ) r e l a t e s t o t h e o i l under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The p r o p e r t y whi ch i s most w i d e l y used t o d e s c r i b e t h e v i s c o s i t y / t e m p e r a t u r e beh a v io u r o f an o i l i s t h e V i s c o s i t y Index (V.1). T h i s index r e l a t e s t h e

change o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h t emp era t u re t o two a r b i t r a r y o i l s , one based on a Pe n n s y lv a n ia Grude o i l (V . I . 0) and one on a G u l f Coast o i l (V.1.

100).

The v i s c o s i t y index o f an unknown o i l can be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e measured v i s c o s i t i e s a t 4OoC and 100C by means of e q u a t i o n

V.I.

100 ( L - u ) / ( L - H )

where U i s t h e v i s c o s i t y a t 4OoC o f t h e o i l sample i n c e n t i s t o k e s , L i s t h e v i s c o s i t y a t 4OoC o f an o i l o f 0 v i s c o s i t y index having t h e same v i s c o s i t y a t 100C as t h e o i l sample, and H i s t h e v i s c o s i t y a t 4OoC o f an o i l of 100 v i s c o s i t y in d e x h a v i n g t h e same v i s c o s i t y a t 100C as t h e o i l sample. Tables o f

v al u e s f o r L and H a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e st an dard I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum and ASTM t e s t methods. Briefly, t h e V i s c o s i t y Index w i l l be low i f t h e v i s c o s i t y changes r a p i d l y British r e f e r s t o m i n e r a l o i l s h avi ng V i s c o s i t y I n d i c e s of 0, 50 o r 95. f o r a s i m p l e m i n e r a l o i l i s s l i g h t l y over 100, w h i l e c e r t a i n have V . I . g r e a t e r t ha n 200.

w i t h temperature, and h i g h i f v i s c o s i t y i s l e s s a f f e c t e d by temperature. Standard D.S.4231 The h i g h e s t V . I . synthetic o i l s

Ge n e r a lly , a V . I .

h i g h e r t h an 100 i s o n l y o b t a i n e d w i t h a m i n e r a l o i l by t h e V.I.Improvers

use o f a p o l y m e r i c a d d i t i v e c a l l e d a V i s c o s i t y Index Improver.

a r e used i n m u l t i - g r a d e e ng i ne o i l s and i n h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s w hich a r e r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e o v e r a wi d e t emp era t u re range. Most b e a r i n g s have t o o p e r a t e o v e r a range of temperatures, w i d t h o f t h i s range which determines what V . I . i s required. and i t i s t h e o f 0 may be

A V.I.

a c c e p t a b l e i f t h e t emp era t u re range i s v e r y narrow, o r i f a l a r g e change i n v i s c o s i t y i s acceptable. O t h e o t h e r hand, a V . I . n o f 160 o r more i s s p e c i f i e d

230

Fig.3

Viscosity/temperature characteristics of various oils

231
f o r an a i r c r a f t h y d r a u l i c f l u i d which i s r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e f r o m -4OOC t o +15OoC. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a V.I.Improver i s a f f e c t e d by t h e shear r a t e , t h e r a t e

a t which t h e o i l has t o pass through c o n f i n e d spaces, and a t h i g h shear r a t e i n a high-speed b e a r i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y o f a V . I . l i t t l e o r no d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e base o 1 . Having chosen t h e r e q u i r e d V i s c o s i t y Index, t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d o i l a t the r e f e r e n c e temperature can be worked o u t by means o f a graph such as Figure 3 o r a c h a r t such as t h e one i n B.S.423 improved o i l may be

9.3.3

Viscosity/Pressure Relationship
i t i s perhaps d e s i r a b l e f o r complete-

Before l e a v i n g t h e s u b j e c t o f v i s c o s i t y ,

ness t o mention t h e v a r i a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h p r e s s u r e . l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s increases as t h e p r e s s u r e i s increased.

The v i s c o s i t y o f a l l I n p r a c t i c e the r a t e

o f increase i s v e r y low, and i n p l a i n hydrodynamic o r e x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i s e d bearings i t can s a f e l y be n e g l e c t e d . I n elastohydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , however, t h e p r e s s u r e generated i n t h e l u b r i c a n t can be s u b s t a n t i a l . The i n c r e a s e i n l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y i s c o r r e s -

pondingly h i g h , and i s a major f a c t o r i n e n s u r i n g s u c c e s s f u l l u b r i c a t i o n o f gears and r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s .

I t i s rare t o specify o r quote a pressure c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y f o r a

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l , and t h i s i s n o r m a l l y o n l y done f o r v e r y c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s such as i n c e r t a i n s p a c e c r a f t a p p l i c a t i o n s .

9.3.4

A n t i -Wear,

Extreme Pressure and A n t i -Fr ic t i o n P r o p e r t i e s

I n t h e o r y , from t h e p o i n t o f view o f p u r e p h y s i c a l l u b r i c a t i o n , we have completely s p e c i f i e d t h e o i l when we have s p e c i f i e d t h e v i s c o s i t y , t h e V . I . perhaps t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y . and

I n p r a c t i c e t h i s i s n o t always extreme p r e s s u r e o r

so, and i t i s o f t e n necessary t o s p e c i f y t h e a n t i - w e a r ,

a n t i - f r i c t i o n properties o f the o i l . R e f e r r i n g a g a i n t o F i g u r e 2, t h e boundary and mixed l u b r i c a t i o n r e g i o n s represent s i t u a t i o n s i n which t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y separated by a f i l m o f l u b r i c a n t , b u t e x p e r i e n c e some degree o f s o l i d - t o - s o l i d Even i n l i g h t l y - l o a d e d b e a r i n g s s o l i d - t o - s o l i d contact.

c o n t a c t can occur a t low

speed when a b e a r i n g i s s t a r t i n g o r s t o p p i n g , and t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i f a mechanism i s i n t e n d e d t o o p e r a t e i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . The r e s i d u a l o i l f i l m

w i l l o f t e n g i v e some p r o t e c t i o n under these c o n d i t i o n s , b u t g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n

can be o b t a i n e d by t h e use

o f an a n t i - w e a r a d d i t i v e .

T h i s i s u s u a l l y an organic

a c i d such as s t e a r i c a c i d o r a n a t u r a l o i l such as rapeseed o i l , b u t s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c phosphorus compounds such as t r i - x y l y l phosphate a r e a l s o e f f e c t i v e . I n h e a v i l y - l o a d e d b e a r i n g s o r i n t e r m i t t e n t r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s o r c e r t a i n types

o f gear, a more a c t i v e t y p e o f a d d i t i v e known as an Extreme Pressure (EP)

232
a d d i t i v e may be needed.
EP a d d i t i v e s a r e u s u a l l y r e a c t i v e s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c

compounds c o n t a i n i n g phosphorus, s u l p h u r o r c h l o r i n e , a l t h o u g h lead naphthenate i s s t i l l used i n c e r t a i n gear o i l s , and molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e i s o c c a s i o n a l l y used.

EP p r o p e r t i e s a r e assessed i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t ways, b u t t h e most w i d e l y

used t e s t methods a r e p rob ab l y t h e Timken and Four-Ball machines. measured by means o f t h e F ou r-Ba l l Machine,

One c r i t e r i o n ,

i s t h e Mean H e r t z load, and t h i s can

v a r y from 30 f o r a p l a i n m i n e r a l o i l t o 85 f o r a pow erful E gear o i l . P One extreme r equ i reme nt f o r EP p r o p e r t i e s i s i n c e r t a i n types o f metalw orking o p e r a t i o n , and t h e most po we rf u l c h l o r i n e and s u l p h u r - c o n t a i n i n g used i n t h e l u b r i c a n t s f o r such a p p l i c a t i o n s . additives are

Pow erful EP a d d i t i v e s can be

c o r r o s i v e , and s ho ul d t h e r e f o r e n o t be used where t h e y a r e n o t necessary.

A n a t u r a l o i l may be added t o an o i l t o decrease t h e f r i c t i o n i n boundary

l u b r i c a t i o n , and thus reduce t h e power consumption and t h e heat generated. may be p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n a mechanism which i s s e n s i t i v e t o f r i c t i o n , such as a worm g ear.

This

The n a t u r a l o i l i s then sometimes c a l l e d a l u b r i c i t y addi-

t i v e , b u t t h e t e rm i s i l l - d e f i n e d and g e n e r a l l y n o t recommended. W have now c onsi d ere d a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d t o g i v e adequate i n i t i a l e

1 u b r i c a t io n , b u t t h e r e a r e two o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n e n s u r i n g continued s a t i s f a c t o r y l u b r c a t i on.

9.3.5

Stab l i t y

An o i l w i 1 decompose c h e m i c a l l y i n s e r v i c e because o f e i t h e r heat (thermal decomposition) o r a co mbi n at i on o f h ea t and oxygen ( o x i d a t i o n ) . Thermal s t a b i -

l i t y can be improved i n man uf act uri n g i f t h e more u n s t a b l e components o f t h e o i l can be removed, b u t o t h e r w i s e t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n i s t o I n g e n e r a l, however, t u r e s than o x i d a t i o n , keep t h e temperature down.

thermal decomposition takes p l a c e a t much h i g h e r temperaand i t i s t h e o x i d a t i v e s t a b i l i t y w hich determines t h e O x i d a t i o n can be v e r y e f f e c t -

maximum t e m p e r a t ure a t wh i ch t h e o i l can be used. i v e l y reduced by t h e use o f a n t i - o x i d a n t s . presence o f oxygen, anti-oxidant.

I f t h e temperature i s h i g h i n t h e

i t may t h e r e f o r e be d e s i r a b l e t o use an o i l c o n t a i n i n g an

F i g u r e 4 shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between o i l l i f e and temperature f o r t y p i c a l mineral o i l s . Many o f t h e a d d i t i v e s used i n o i l s w i l l a l s o decompose, and t h e u s e f u l l i f e o f t h e o i l may depend on t h e d e p l e t i o n o f such a d d i t i v e s . used up i n p r e v e n t i n g o x i d a t i o n , Anti-oxidants are

so t h a t where h i g h l y o x i d a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s occur

th e a n t i - o x i d a n t s may be r a p i d l y exhausted and leave t h e o i l unprotected.

600

1
W
[L

500

LOO

- 300
200

2 W
a

5
k

100

- 100
1

L L O W E R TEMPERATLIRE LIMIT IMPOSED BY 'POUR POINT WHICH SOURCE, VISCOSITY, TREATMENT AND ADDITIVES]
I 2

VARIES WITH OIL,,+

100 ,0
2,wO 3,000 L,OOo5.000 10,000

I
10

20

I l l 30 LO 50

100

LIFE (HOURS)
Fig.4

200 ,300LOO 500

Temperature/l i f e 1 i m i t s f o r m i n e r a l o i l s

234
9.3.6 Contaminants

The q u a l i t y o f a l u b r i c a n t w i l l a l s o d e t e r i o r a t e i n use because o f contamination. The contaminants may be s o l i d p a r t i c l e s o f wear d e b r i s o r s o l i d decompo-

s i t i o n p r o d u c t s from a f u e l o r t h e l u b r i c a n t i t s e l f , or they may be d i s s o l v e d a c i d s produced by o x i d a t i o n , o r w a t e r from c o n d e n s a t i o n o r f u e l combustion. They may a l s o e n t e r t h e system f r o m o u t s i d e , e n t e r an o i l f i l l e r o p e n i n g . Some o f t h e s e c o n t a m i n a n t s can be removed by f i l t r a t i o n and o t h e r s w i l l s e t t l e o u t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , b u t i t i s sometimes necessary t o use a d e t e r g e n t o r d i s p e r s a n t a d d i t i v e t o keep t h e contaminants condition. i n a r e l a t i v e l y harmless d i s p e r s e d such as when a t m o s p h e r i c d u s t o r r a i n

U l t i m a t e l y t h e o i l change p e r i o d i n some systems may be determined

by t h e e x t e n t o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n .

9.4 9.4.1

CHOICE OF

BASE OIL

L i m i t a t i o n s o f Mineral O i l s

M i n e r a l o i l s a r e t h e most w i d e l y used l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s because they a r e t h e cheapest, and f o r many a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e y a r e a l s o t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e . The most

i m p o r t a n t l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e i r use a r i s e f r o m h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , f l a m m a b i l i t y and c o m p a t i b i l i t y problems, and t h e r e a r e a number o f o t h e r base o i l s w h i c h can t h e n be used as a l t e r n a t i v e s . T a b l e 9.2 shows some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e base o i l s .

9.4.2

H i g h Temperatures

More and more i n d u s t r i e s a r e r e q u i r i n g l u b r i c a n t s t o o p e r a t e a t temperatures t o o h i g h f o r m i n e r a l o i l s , and a l t e r n a t i v e f l u i d s a r e t h e r e f o r e becoming more and more w i d e l y used. E s t e r s were f i r s t developed f o r a i r c r a f t j e t e n g i n e s , and

a r e now p r o b a b l y t h e most common l u b r i c a n t i n a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h a r e t o o h o t f o r mineral o i l s .

At h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s i l i c o n e can be used, and

f o r even h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s p o l y p h e n y l e t h e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e , b u t b o t h s i l i c o n e s and p o l y p h e n y l e t h e r s have some s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n comparison w i t h m i n e r a l o i l s and e s t e r s . Figure oils.

5 shows t h e t e m p e r a t u r e / l i f e l i m i t s f o r s e v e r a l s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a t i n g
t h e degree o f oxygen

These l i m i t s depend on t h e a c c e p t a b l e v i s c o s i t y ,

access and t h e e x t e n t t o which d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s a c c e p t a b l e .

9.4.3
w i t h the

Flammability

Some i n d u s t r i e s , such as a v i a t i o n and c o a l m i n i n g , have l o n g been concerned f l a m m a b i l i t y o f l u b r i c a n t s and h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s . With increasing

p l a n t i n t e g r a t i o n and l u b r i c a n t system c a p a c i t i e s , t h i s concern i s now e x t e n d i n g

T a b l e 9.2

I m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s i n s e l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t base o i l s .

Fluid property

D i - e s t e r Neopentyl polyol (Conplex) Esters

Typical Phosphate Ester

Typical Methyl Silicone

Typical Phenyl Hethyl Silicone 320

Chlorinated Phenyl Hethyl S i 1icone

Polyglycol (inhibited)

Polyphenyl Ether

Nineral comparison 1 (for

Remarks

Oil

Maximum temperature pC;bsence o f oxygen

250

300

I20

220

305

260

450

200

.__ For e s t e r s t h i s temperature w i l l be h i g h e r i n the absence o f n e t a l s

Maximum temperature i n presence of "..,~_.. -, oxyygjen ("C) Minimum temperature due t o increase j n viscositv P C l Density ( g l m l ) V i s c o s i t y index F l a s h p o i n t (OC) Spontaneous i g n i t i o n temperature Boundary l u b r i c a t i o n

210

240

120

ICO

250

230

200

320

I5O

This l i m i t i s a r b i t r a v y . I t w i l l be h i g h e r i f oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s low and l i f e i s s h o r t T h i s l i n i t depends on the power a v a i l a b l e t o o v e r c m the e f f e c t o f increased viscosity

-35

-65

-55

-50

-30

-65

-20

to -50

0.91 145

1.01 140 255 Medium

1.12
0 200 Very h i g h

0.97 200 310 High

1.06 175 290 High

1.04 195 270 Very h i g h

1.02 160 180 Medium

1.19 -60 275 High

0.88
to 140

-____
A h i g h v i s c o s i t y index i s d e s i r a b l e

230

I 5 O to
LOW

Above t h i s temperature t h e vapour o f the f l u i d m a y b e i g n i t e d by an open f l a w _.

~

Low

Above t h i s temperature the f l u i d may i g n i t e w i t h o u t any f l a r e b e i n g present This r e f e r s p r i m a r i l y t o anti-wear p r o p e r t i e s when some metal c o n t a c t i s occurring

Good

Good

Very good

Fair but

F a i r but

Good

Very good

Fair

Good

poor for
s t e e l on steel

poor f o r s t e e l on
steel Non-tox?c Non-toxic Believed t o be low Nitrile Believed t o be low (None f o r very h i g h temveraSlicht

Toxicity

Slight

Slight

Sane
toxicity Butyl, EPR

Non-toxic

be ~

S u i t a b l e rubbers

tiitrile. s? 1icone

Silicone

Neoprene, v i ton

tieoprene, viton

Viton, fluorosilicone

Nitrile

~~

E f f e c t on metals

Slightly corrosive to nonferrous metals

Corrosive t o some nanferrous metals when h o t 10

Enhances covosion

lioncorrosive

tioncorrosive

n
presecce o f water

Corrosive in presence of water t o ferrous mta1s

Noncowosive

Noncorrosive

Noncorrosive when pure

Cost ( r e l a t i v e t o

10

25

5C

60

250

lhese are rough apprOXIPlatlOnS. and vary d i t h q u a l i t y and supp1:r p o s i t i o n .

mneral

011)

u1

0)

I 1
-100
'

L-POUR

POINT LIMIT FOR SILICONES AND ESTERS-'

Fig.5

Temperature/life limits for some synthetic oils.

237 t o most i n d u s t r i e s . The b e s t f i r e - r e s i s t a n t l i q u i d i s w a t e r , b u t i t i s a poor l u b r i c a n t and i n To mprove

i t s r e l a t i v e l y u n m o d i f i e d form i s o n l y used as a h y d r a u l i c f l u i d . i t s l u b r i c a t i n g performance f o r m e t a l - c u t t i n g , used.

d e t e r g e n t s and EP a d d i t ves a r e

For more g e n e r a l l u b r i c a n t use, v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s a r e employed t o i n -

crease i t s v i s c o s i t y , i n c l u d i n g t h i c k e n i n g w i t h c l a y s and n a t u r a l o r g a n i c substances, m i x i n g w i t h p o l y g l y c o l s , and e m u l s i f i c a t i o n w i t h m i n e r a l o i l . Other f i r e - r e s i s t a n t l i q u i d s w i t h good l u b r i c a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d e phos-

phate e s t e r s , c h l o r i n a t e d hydrocarbons and c h l o r i n a t e d s i l i c o n e s , b u t these a l l have c o r r e s p o n d i n g disadvantages.

9.4.4

Compatibility Mineral o i l s are

Problems o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y can a r i s e w i t h any l i q u i d .

i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h n a t u r a l rubber s e a l s and hoses, e s t e r s a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h n i t r i l e s , and phosphate e s t e r s a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h many d i f f e r e n t r u b b e r s . M i n e r a l o i l s and most o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e l i q u i d s a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h h i g h p r e s s u r e oxygen, and c e r t a i n s p e c i a l f l u o r i n e - c o n t a i n i n g l u b r i c a n t s a r e p r e f e r r e d f o r b r e a t h i n g oxygen systems. M i n e r a l o i l s a r e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y i n con-

t a c t w i t h r e d - h o t s t e e l s because t h e y produce c a r b u r i s a t i o n , and rapeseed o i l may be used t o a v o i d t h i s problem. Most c o m p a t i b i l i t y problems can be overcome by c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e base o i l s and a d d i t i v e s , b u t i n some i n d u s t r i e s such as f o o d s t u f f s , pharmaceu-

t i c a l s and chemicals, even t h e s m a l l e s t l e a k o f any c o n v e n t i o n a l l u b r i c a n t may be unacceptable. lubricant. I n such a case i t may be p o s s i b l e t o use a process f l u i d as a

For example, i n sugar r e f i n i n g t h e h i g h v i s c o s i t y o f syrups and Where t h e

molasses enables them t o p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n o f b e a r i n g s .

a v a i l a b l e process f l u i d s have i n s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y f o r e f f e c t i v e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n , e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r i s a t i o n can be used. Such use o f process f l u i d s

may sometimes be p r e f e r r e d t o c o n v e n t i o n a l l u b r i c a t i o n , because i t may e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r s e a l s and g l a n d s .

9.5

GREASES

A l u b r i c a t i n g grease i s a l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t which has been t h ckened t o a

semi-solid consistency. The base o i l may be m i n e r a l o i l , e s t e r silicone, or

one o f t h e o t h e r s y n t h e t i c o i l s , and many o f t h e a d d i t i v e s used i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s a r e e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n greases. I n a d d i t i o n , s o l i d l u b r c a n t s such as

g r a p h i t e or molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e can c o n f e r i m p o r t a n t advantages i n greases.

I t has been s a i d t h a t more i n d u s t r i a l b e a r i n g s a r e l u b r i c a t e d by grease than

by o i l .

To understand t h e reason f o r t h i s we s h o u l d c o n s i d e r a g a i n t h e s i m p l e s t namely t h e use o f a small quanThere a r e two disadvantages

f o r m o f l u b r i c a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 9.2,

t i t y o f p l a i n mineral o i l i n place i n the bearing.

600

500

100

300

2 00

100

WITH UNLIMITED OXYGEN I

0

- 100
~~

1 5

1 0

20

30 10 50

100

LIFE (HOURS1

200 300 100500

1.000

2.000 3.0001.wO

10,000

Fig.6

Temperature/life

l i m i t s f o r greases.

239
o f t h a t system wh i c h a r e due o n l y t o t h e f l u i d n a t u r e o f t h e o i l . The f i r s t i s

t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e t a i n t h e o i l i n t h e b e a r i n g f o r any l e n g t h o f tim e . The second i s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s t o p d i r t o r o t h e r c o n ta m in a n ts g e t t i n g i n t o the bearing. The use o f a g r e a s e may overcome b o t h o f t h e s e problems w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e s i m p l i c i t y and economy o f t h e system. The grease i n a b e a r i n g o f t e n d i s t r i b u t e s

i t s e l f q u i t e q u i c k l y i n such a way t h a t a v e r y s m a ll p r o p o r t i o n i s a c t i v e l y l u b r i c a t i n g the bearing, while the bulk i s outside the faces, c r i t i c a l bearing sur-

f o r m i n g a s e a l a g a i n s t loss o f l u b r i c a n t o r i n g r e s s o f c o n ta m in a n ts .

The c h i e f l i m i t a t i o n on t h e use o f g r e a s e s i s t h e l a c k o f c o o l a n t f l o w t o remove s u r p l u s h e a t when t h e b e a r i n g i s l a r g e , f a s t o r h e a v i l y loaded, b u t t h e r e a r e greases w h i c h w i l l o p e r a t e temperature/life a t t e m p e r a t u r e s as h i g h as 250C. F i g u r e 6 shows

l i m i t s f o r some t y p i c a l g r e a s e s .

9.6

S O L I D LUBRICANTS
S t r i c t l y speak i n g , s o l i d l u b r i c a n t s a r e s o l i d m a t e r i a l s w h ic h can be i n t r o -

duced between b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s t o reduce f r i c t i o n or wear, b u t t h e t i t l e i s n o r m a l l y used i n a more r e s t r i c t e d sense t o c o v e r o n l y r e d u c t i o n i n f r i c t i o n o r p r e v e n t i o n o f adh e s i o n o r s e i z u r e . I t t h e r e f o r e e x c lu d e s h a r d w e a r - r e s i s t a n t

c o a t i n g s and f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s such as n o n - s k i d c o a t i n g s and b r a k e m a t e r i a l s . Tabl e 9 . 3 l i s t s a l a r g e number o f d i f f e r e n t s o l i d l u b r i c a n t s , b u t t h e m a j o r i t y o f appl i c a t i o n s use e i t h e r molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e , g r a p h i t e or PTFE ( p o l y t e t r a fluoroethylene). They can a l l be used i n a v a r i e t y o f ways, bonded f i l m o r s p u t t e r e d f i l m . including free

powder, rubbed f i l m ,

G r a p h i t e and PTFE may a l s o

be used i n t h e f o r m o f s o l i d b l o c k s , as may many o t h e r p o ly m e r s , and i n t h i s form t hey a r e commonly known as d r y b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l s . The i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e , g r a p h i t e and PTFE a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 9.3. The advantages o f t h e common s o l i d l u b r i c a n t s a r e t h e i r w id e te m p e r a tu r e ranges, chem i cal i n e r t n e s s , low v o l a t i l i t y , and t h e f a c t s t h a t t h e y do n o t need s e a l i n g , do n o t need f e e d systems and g e n e r a l l y do n o t cause c o n t a m i n a t i o n .

T h e i r di sadvant ag e s compared w i t h o i l or grease a r e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h f r i c t i o n , l a c k o f h e a t removal, f a i l u r e t o p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n , and s te a d y wear i n s e r v i c e . They a r e t h e r e f o r e o n l y used where t h e i r advantages o v e r o i l s and greases o u t weigh t h e i r di sa d v a n t a g e s , such as a t h i g h o r v e r y l o w te m p e r a tu r e s , i n vacuum,

where v e r y l o n g l i f e i s r e q u i r e d w i t h o u t r e l u b r i c a t i o n , o r where c o n t a m i n a t i o n is critical.

9.7

GAS LUBRICATION
Gases can be used as l u b r i c a n t s i n t h e same way as o i l s , and t h e p h y s i c a l

laws g o v e r n i n q hydrodynamic o i l l u b r i c a t i o n a o o l v a l s n

tn naqe4

The v p r v

Inw

240

m
. r

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0 L

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v
0

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7

v
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w
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0

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. r

( n m w l m

a
mv,

w 3
.rC,

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EC, 5:

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0
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7

W I
0
7

w w w I l l
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0 0 0

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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

N m

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. . . .
N N

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241
v i s c o s i t y o f gases means t h a t t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s i s a l s o v e r y low, so t h a t hydrodynamic gas b e a r i n g s ("gas-dynamic bearings") are 1 imited t o conditions

o f h i g h speed, low load, small c l e a r a n c e s and v e r y c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d t o l e r a n c e s . For t h i s reason e x t e r n a l l y p r e s s u r i s e d gas b e a r i n g s a r e more commonly used which can c a r r y h i g h e r loads, a r e l e s s c r i t i c a l on c l e a r a n c e s and t o l e r a n c e s , and can be used a t lower o r even z e r o speeds. Gas l u b r i c a t i o n can be used a t h i g h e r o r lower temperature than o i l o r grease, but t h e i r main advantages a r e i n g i v i n g h i g h s t i f f n e s s i n h i g h speed p r e c i s i o n bearings, such as i n d e n t a l d r i l l s and p r e c i s i o n g r i n d i n g s p i n d l e s , and i n a v o i d i n g s e a l i n g and c o n t a m i n a t i o n problems where a s u i t a b l e process gas i s a v a i l a b l e t o a c t as t h e gas l u b r i c a n t .

242

I() LUBRICANT ADDITIVES

Their Application

, Performance and Limitations

D . M . SOUL, L u b r i z o l I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r i e s , Hazelwood, Derby, U.K.

10.1

I NTRODUCT I ON

The l u b r i c a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t and equipment covers t h e whole range o f requirements f o r machinery i n c l u d i n g t h e i n t e r n a l combustion engine and t h e gas turbine. Dis c u ssi o n o f such a wide s u b j e c t i n one chapter would be impossible

b u t a v e r y wide f i e l d o f a d d i t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s e x i s t s a p a r t from those f o r en g in e and t r a n s m i s s i o n systems. metal c u t t i n g and f ormi n g f l u i d s , These i n c l u d e h y d r a u l i c and gear l u b r i c a n t s , t u r b i n e o i l s , compressor and r e f r i g e r a t o r

o i l s , f i r e - r e s i s t a n t f l u i d s , greases, and a m i s c e l l a n y o f s p e c i a l i s e d products.

L u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s a r e chemicals i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o e i t h e r a l i q u i d base (m in e r a l o i l , s y n t h e t i c f l u i d or w a t e r ) , a semi-fluid, o r a grease. I n general,

th e a d d i t i v e s a r e s o l u b l e o r u n i f o r m l y di sp ersed throughout t h e c a r r i e r medium. I n t h i s r e s p e c t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n does n o t cover s o l i d l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s such as g r a p h i t e , molybdenum d l s u l p h i d e and polytetrafluoroethylene.

A d d i t i v e s a r e used t o improve t h e performance o f t h e base c a r r i e r m a t e r i a l t o p r o v i d e a d e s i r e d p h y s i c a l , chemical, o r mechanical p r o p e r t y . They a r e manufac-

t u r e d t o s t r i c t q u a l i t y c o n t r o l standards t o assure c o n s i s t e n t performance i n s i m i l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n many environments t hroughout t h e w o r l d , base m a t e r i a l and t h e a d d i t i v e system. f o r both the

Many l u b r i c a n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s c o v e r i n g

a wide range of i n d u s t r i a l processes can o n l y be s a t i s f i e d by t h e use o f these a d d i t i o n a l chemicals and c e r t a i n t e s t s a r e designed s p e c i f i c a l l y t o assess such factors. 10.2
B A S I C PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

All types o f l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d s d i s p l a y c e r t a i n b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s .

These may

be used t o advantage i n s e l e c t i n g t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e l u b r i c a n t f o r any

243 application. I n a p p l i c a t i o n s where hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n f i l m s a r e formed,

an u n t r e a t e d base o i l o f t h e c o r r e c t v i s c o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s can p r o v i d e a p e r f e c t l y adequate l u b r i c a t i n g medium. The p r o p e r t i e s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t

references f o r s t an da rd e v a l u a t i o n t e s t s a r e g i v e n i n Table 10.1. M in e r a l o i l p r o p e r t i e s a r e dependent on t h e crude o i l source and t h e r e f i n e r y processes o f s e p a r a t i o n and t rea t me nt . v i s c o s i t y a r e produced. Lubricating o i l fractions o f varying

By s e l e c t i o n o f t h e processes used i n t h e r e f i n e r y ,

p r o p e r t i e s such as pour p o i n t , c o l o u r and v i s c o s i t y index may be c o n t r o l l e d o r m o d ifie d so as t o produce b e t t e r f i n a l p r o d u c t s .

10.3

LUBRICANT ADDITIVES

I n Ta b le 10.2 i s a l i s t o f t he a d d i t i v e s n o r m a l l y employed i n l u b r i c a n t s . This t a b l e g i v e s t h e g en era l name o f each t ype t o g e t h e r w i t h a summary o f i t s purpose and a suggested mechanism o f a c t i o n . 10.3.1 10.3.1.1 Detergent and D i s p e r s a n t A d d i t i v e s De t e r g en t Types

A v a r i e t y o f me t a l c o n t a i n i n g compounds c a l l e d detergents' have been described

i n the l i t e r a t u r e . T h e i r f u n c t i o n appears t o be one o f e f f e c t i n g a d i s p e r s i o n a c i d s r a t h e r than one o f c l e a n i n g up

o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r and n e u t r a l i s i n g

d i r t and d e b r i s .
emu 1 s i f i e r s .

Some o f t he se m a t e r i a l s a l s o f u n c t i o n as r u s t i n h i b i t o r s and

The compounds a r e g e n e r a l l y mo l ecu l es h a v i n g a l a r g e hydrocarbon t a i l and a "polar group" head. The t a i l s e c t i o n serves as a s o l u b i l i z e r i n t h e base o i l ,

w h i l e t h e p o l a r group serves as t h e f u n c t i o n a l p a r t o f t h e molecule, which a t t r a c t s p a r t i c u l a t e contaminants i n t h e l u b r i c a n t . The most w i d e l y used members o f t h e o r g a n o m e t a l l i c c l a s s a r e t h e sulphonates and phenates. These i n c l u d e b o t h t h e n e u t r a l barium, c a l c i u m and magnesium

s a l t s , and t h e a l k a l i n e o r h i g h l y b a s i c p r o d u c t s prepared from these o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e s by i n c o r p o r a t i n g metal i n excess o f t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c q u a n t i t i e s i n t o those compounds. Phosphonates and s a l i c y l a t e s a r e a l s o used commercially

as s u b s t r a t e s f o r met al c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e s . Commercial i n t e r e s t i n barium compounds i s d e c l i n i n g due t o c o s t o f product i o n and e n v ir o n me nt al c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The meaning o f t h e terms " n e u t r a l " Neutral s a l t and "ba sic" metal s a l t used above:

i s a s a l t o f an a c i d which c o n t a i n s t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c amount o f metal r e q u i r e d f o r n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a c i d i c group present.

Basic s a l t

i s a s a l t o f an a c i d which c o n t a i n s more metal than i s required f o r the n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f the a c i d i c groups p r e s e n t . Such excess metal may be present

Lu

Table 10.1 Standard L u b r i c a t i n g O i l Tests

P P

Test S p e c i f i c Gravi t y

Scope o f T e st Q u a l i t y o f o i l . Naphthenic h i g h , P a r a f f i n i c medium. A ro matic low. B a t ch c o n t r o l . R e l a t i o n o f 'b od y' o i l t o t emp era t u re. Norma l l y e v a l u a t e d a t two temperatures, A l s o v a r i o u s methods f o r low tempera t u r e s and v a r y i n g shear r a t e s . Volatility, classification o f fluids, inflammability. Depth o f c o l o u r r e l a t e d t o r e f i n e r y processes. R e f i n i n g processes dewaxing. E f f e c t o f low temperatures. T ra ce resi d ue s from r e f i n e r y processes. Carbon r e s i d u e a f t e r b u r n i n g o f f oil.

P r a c t i c a l use o f

Data

I . P e t . Method Number and Related Methods 160/68, 59/72, 189179

Volume t o w e i g h t conversions

V i scos i t y

V i s c o s i t y Index. R e f i n i n g processes. 'Flow ' o f o i l i n machinery.

71/79

Flash P o i n t Colour Pour/Cloud P o i n t Acidity Carbon Residue

Storage and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f o i l . 34/75 (Pensky-Martin) T a x a t i o n and s h i p p i n g o f Petroleum products. 170/75 (Abel) 36/67 (Cleveland) Contamination. 15/72

Low temperature v i s c o s i t y and o p e r a t i o n .

N ormally low f o r new o i l . D e t e r i o r a t i o n o f used o i l . Performance o f h i g h q u a l i t y base high. Paraffinic low. Naphthenic

15/67 (Pour) 219/67 (Cloud) 1 /74 13/78 (Conradson) 14/65 (Ramsbottom)

245 due t o a t r u e b a s i c s a l t s t r u c t u r e , b u t a more l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h e excess metal i s present i n the f orm o f d i s p e r s e d metal compounds. 10.3.1.1.1

Sul phonates
a c i d s ( t h e mahogany-coloured

Normal metal sul p ho na t e s d e r i v e d from "mahogany"

petroleum s u l p h o n i c a c i d s o b t a i n e d as a b y-product d u r i n g w h i t e o i l manufacture) were f i r s t employed as d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s i n commercial crankcase o i l s d u r i n g World War 1 1 . Almost w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , t h e metal p r e s e n t i n such sulphonates

was c a l c i u m o r barium.

P e t ro l eu m sul p ho na t e s were n o t o n l y s u p e r i o r t o e a r l i e r b u t were much l e s s c o r r o s i v e t o s e n s i t i v e They can be

a d d i t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o detergency, bea r in g metal

a l l o y s and responded w e l l t o c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s .

rep r e s e n te d by t h e g en era l f o rmul a : RxArS03M where R A r r e p r e s e n t s complex a l k y l a r o m a t i c r a d i c a l s d e r i v e d from petroleum and

M i s one e q u i v a l e n t o f a p o l y v a l e n t met al .

Supplementing t h e su pp l y o f

n a t u r a l p et roleum sulphonates a r e t h e s y n t h e t i c polydodecyl

sulphonates d e r i v e d f ro m l on g-ch ai n a l k y l s u b s t i t u t e d benzenes (e.g.

benzene bottoms) o b t a i n e d as b y-pro du ct s i n t h e manufacture o f household d e t e r gents o r wh ic h a r e manufactured s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h i s use. Highly basic su l ph on at es c o n t a i n from 3 t o 10 o r 15 times as much metal as C a l l e d "overbased", "superbasic" or

the c o r r e s p o n d in g normal su l ph on at es. "hyperbasic" sulphonates,

t he se p r o d u c t s a r e manufactured by h e a t i n g a m i x t u r e

o f c e r t a i n promoters o r s o l v e n t s w i t h a n e u t r a l sulphonate and a l a r g e excess o f metal o x i d e o r h yd roxi d e and c a r b o n a t i n g w i t h carbon d i o x i d e t o c o n v e r t the metal base t o c o l l o i d a l l y - d i s p e r s e d metal carbonate. Overbased sulphonates possess

t h e a b i l i t y t o n e u t r a l i z e a c i d i c contaminants formed i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s and thus reduce c o r r o s i v e wear o f en gi n e components. 10.3.1.1.2 Phosphonates and/or Thiophosphonates

These d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s can be re pre sen t ed by t h e general formula:

8
P (XM12 X is

where R i s a l a r g e a l i p h a t i c r a d i c a l o f a t l e a s t 500 m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t . oxygen and/or s u l p h u r , and metal.

M i s one e q u i v a l e n t o f a monovalent o r p o l y v a l e n t

They a r e pre pa red by f i r s t h e a t i n g a p o l y o l e f i n such a s polybutenes of

500

2,000 m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t w i t h a phosphorus reagent, g e n e r a l l y phosphorus

p e n t a s u l p h i d e , t o form a complex o r g a n i c phosphorus-sulphur compound which i s the n n e u t r a l i z e d w i t h a metal base. By steam treatment o r prolonged h y d r o l y s i s

p r i o r t o o r d u r i n g n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , a p o r t i o n o r s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l l o f the sulphur

TABLE 1 0 . 2
Lubricant A d d i t i v e

Additive

Chemicals

Purpose o f A d d i t i v e

How Additive Works

Antioxidant

Hindered phenols hines Organic sulphides Zinc dithiophosphate Zinc d i thiophosphates Sulphurized terpenes Phosphosulphurized terpenes Sulphurized o l e f i n s h i n e phosphates Sodi um.ca1 c i urn and Magnesi um sulphonates A l k y l succinic acids F a t t y acids Normal or basic, calcium, b a r i um, magnesium phosphonates, phenates and sul phonates Polymers such as n i t r o g e n containing polymethacrylates, a l k y l succinimides, and succinate esters high molecular weight amines and amides F a t t y acids F a t t y amines Fats Zinc d i a l k y l d i thiophosphate T r i c r e s y l phosphate

Minimizes the formation o f resins, varnish, acids, sludge and polymers Protects bearing and other metal surfaces from corrosion

Reduces organic peroxides terminating the oxidation chain. Reduces formation o f acids by decreasing oxygen taken up i n the o i l . Prevents c a t a l y t i c reactions. Acts as a n t i c a t a l y s t . Coats metal surfaces which p r o t e c t against a c i d and peroxide attack.

Corrosion I n h i b i t o r

Rust I n h i b i t o r

Protects ferrous metal surfaces against r u s t

Polar molecules are absorbed p r e f e r e n t i a l l y on the metal surface and serves as a b a r r i e r against water. Neutralizes acids.

Detergent

Reduces o r prevents deposits i n engines operated a t high temperatures Prevents and r e t a r d s sludge formation and deposition under low temperature operating conditions

Controls buildup of varnish and sludge by r e a c t i n g w i t h o x i d a t i o n products t o form o i l soluble material which remains suspended i n the o i l . Dispersants have a strong a f f i n i t y for d i r t p a r t i c l e s and surround each w i t h o i l soluble molecules which keep the sludge frm agglomerating and depositing i n the engine.

Dispersant

F r i c t i o n Modifier

To increase o i l f i l m strength
t o prevent o i l f i l m rupture Reduce r a p i d wear i n steel-onsteel applications

Highly p o l a r molecules are absorbed on the metal surface and remain i n place t o cushion and keep metal surfaces apart. A d d i t i v e reacts w i t h the metal t o form a compound which i s deformed by p l a s t i c f l o w t o allow a new d i s t r i b u t i o n of load.

Antiwear

Extreme Pressure

Sulphurized f a t s , o l e f i n s Chlorinated hydrocarbons Lead s a l t s o f organic acids. Amine phosphates Polyisobutylenes Polymethacrylates Polyacryl ates Ethylene propylene copolymers Styrene maleic e s t e r copolymers Hydrcgenated styrene butadiene copolymers Wax a l k y l a t e naphthalene Wax a k l y l a t e d phenols Polymethacrylates S i l i c o n e polymers Polymthacrylates

Prevents seizure and welding between metal surfaces under c o n d i t i o n o f extreme pressure and temperature Reduces the r a t e o f change o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h temperature

EP agent reacts w i t h metal surfaces t o form new compounds having lower shear strength than the base metal and i s sheared p r e f e r e n t i a l l y t o the base metal.

V i s c o s i t y Index Improver

Polymer molecule assumes a compact curled form i n a poor solvent ( c o l d o i l ) and an uncurled high surface area i n a b e t t e r solvent ( h o t o i l ) . The uncurled form thickens the o i l .

Pour Depressant

Lowers the pour p o i n t of t h e o i l

Retards the formation o f f u l l - s i z e wax c r y s t a l s by coating o r c o - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n w i t h the wax. Appears t o attack the o i l f i l m surrounding each bubble reducing i n t e r f a c i a l tension. The small bubbles l i b e r a t e d combine t o form large ones which f l o a t t o the surface. Emulsifier i s absorbed a t the o i l - w a t e r i n t e r f a c e t o reduce i n t e r f a c i a l tension r e s u l t i n g i n an i n t i m a t e dispersion o f one l i q u i d i n the other. Increases v i s c o s i t y . and s t r i n g y . Materials themselves are tacky

Anti foam

Prevents the fonnation o f s t a b l e foam

Emu1s i f ie r

Sodium s a l t s of sulphonic acids, sodium s a l t s o f organic acids, f a t t y mine salts Soaps, polyisobutylene and p o l y s c r y l a t e polymers

To nake mineral o i l m i s c i b l e w i t h water

Tackiness Antiseptic Metal Deactivator

To provide the o i l w i t h greater cohension

Phenols, c h l o r i n e compounds, Increases emulsion l i f e and formaldehyde bases prevents odour T r i a r y l phosphi tes Sulphur compounds Diamines. Dimercapto t h i a d i a z o l e derivatives. Stop the c a t a l y t i c e f f e c t o f metals on o x i d a t i o n and corrosion

Prevents and reduces microorganism growth.

A p r o t e c t i v e f i l m i s absorbed on metal surfaces which prevents contact between corrosive agents and base metal.

P
4

248
pr e s e n t i n t h e thiophosphonate group, -P(S) (SMl2, can be s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h oxygen t o y i e l d a phosphonate. The h i s t o r y o f these d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t o f sulphonate a d d i t i v e s i n t h a t b a s i c and overbased s a l t s have r e p l a c e d normal s a l t s i n a l l b u t a few commercial a p p l i c a t i o n s . The manufacture o f such b a s i c and overbased

s a l t s i s c a r r i e d o u t by t h e use o f methods l i k e those d e s c r i b e d i n t h e SULPHONATES sect ion.

10.3.1.1.3

Phenates have p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e as d e t e r g e n t Among t h e e a r l i e s t

Phenates and p he na t e -sul p hi d es

a d d i t i v e s e v e r s i n c e t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g World War 1 1 . a d d i t i v e s o f t h i s t y p e t o g a i n commercial acceptance were:

Calcium and ba ri um phenates o f t e r t i a r y - o c t y l p h e n o l s u l p h i d e and t e r t i a r y - a m y l p h e n o l t h e ge ne ral f ormu l a: sulphide having

011

Calcium phenates o f t e r t i a r y - a m y l p h e n o l -formaldehyde condensation p rod uct s.

OH

OH

Calcium and b ari u m phenates o f p a r a f f i n wax s u b s t i t u t e d phenol h a v i n g t h e g en era l f ormula:

OM

I n a d d i t i o n t o p e r f o r m i n g a d e t e r g e n t r o l e , phenates sulphides

and e s p e c i a l l y phenate

e x h i b i t s u b s t a n t i a l a n t i - o x i d a n t p r o p e r t i e s and a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

u s e f u l f o r h i g h temperature f l u i d s . L i k e t h e o t h e r f a m i l i e s o f d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s discussed, phenates have r e p l ace d normal phenates i n most a p p l i c a t i o n s . b a s i c and overbased Manufacturing

249
te c h n iq u e s f o r such p r o d u c t s a r e s i m i l a r t o those employed f o r b a s i c sulphonates o r phosphonates. 10.3.1.1.4 Alkyl Substituted Salicylates

These a d d i t i v e s can be rep rese nt ed by t h e general formula:

II
C

OM

where R i s an o i l - s o l u b i l i z i n g o r g a n i c r a d i c a l and M i s one e q u i v a l e n t o f a polyvalent metal.

One o f t h e f i r s t a d d i t i v e s o f t h i s t ype t o see commercial use was t h e z i n c

carboxylate o f di-isopropyl s a l i c y l i c acid. More r e c e n t l y , c a l c i u m c a r b o x y l The manufacture of at e s of lo n g - c h ai n a l k y l s a l i c y l i c a c i d s have been used.

such a d d i t i v e s i n v o l v e s c a r b o x y l a t i o n o f a metal phenate w i t h carbon d i o x i d e . As w i t h t h e o t h e r d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s discussed, overbasing techniques have been employed t o p rep are improved p r o d u c t s . 10.3.1.2 Mode of A c t i o n o f Det erg en t A d d i t i v e s

A lt h o u g h t h e mechanism o f d et erg en cy i n non-aqueous media such as m i n e r a l o i l s i s n o t f u l l y understood, o f "soap m i c e l l e s " re sea rche rs have found evidence f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e There i s reason, then, t o believe

i n non-aqueous s o l v e n t s .

t h a t d e t e r g e n t a d d i t i v e s i n m i n e r a l o i l s o l u t i o n can a c t i n a manner s i m i l a r t o aqueous soap s o l u t i o n s . B a s i c and overbased d e t e r g e n t s a l s o possess t h e a b i l i t y

t o n e u t r a l i z e h armf ul i n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c a c i d s w hich accumulate i n crankcase lubricants during service. They can a l s o a c t as h i g h temperature s t a b i l i s e r s as

means o f r e d u c in g thermal d eco mpo si t i o n o f o t h e r a d d i t i v e s by n e u t r a l i s i n g small amounts o f a c i d i c p r o d u c t s which c o u l d cause c a t a l y t i c decomposition r e a c t i o n s

t o occur.

10.3.1.3

Dispersant A d d i t i v e s i s p r e s e n t l y used t o designate a d d i t i v e s w hich a r e

The te r m " d is pe rsan t "

capable o f d i s p e r s i n g t h e " c o l d sl ud ge '' formed i n engines operated f o r t h e most p a r t a t r e l a t i v e l y low b u l k crankcase o i l temperatures. Unless maintained i n

f i n e suspension i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l , t h i s sludge d e p o s i t s on o i l f i l t e r s , v a lv e t r a i n components, and o i l c o n t r o l r i n g s where i t i n t e r f e r e s w i t h good engine performance. Since known m e t a l - c o n t a i n i n g d e t e r g e n t s d i d not appear t o o f f e r a s o l u t i o n

t o t h e c o l d s lu d ge problem, re sea rche rs t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o m e t a l - f r e e

250
o r g a n i c compounds i n t h e hope t h a t an "ash l ess detergent" would p r o v i d e the answer. Such p r o d u c ts can a l s o be used t o e f f e c t d i s p e r s i o n o f i n s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l in oil, i.e. c o l l o i d a l dispersions, and a l s o t o d i s p e r s e w ater i n o i l t o produce

s t a b l e i n v e r t emulsions c o n t a i n i n g up t o f o r t y percent w ater. The compounds which a r e u s e f u l f o r t h i s purpose a r e a g a i n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p o l a r group a t t a c h e d t o a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t hydrocarbon c h a i n . The p o l a r group g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n s one or more o f t h e elements: n i t r o g e n , oxygen and phosphorus. The s o l u b i l i z i n g c h a i n s a r e based on p o l y i s o b u t y l e n e .

D i s p e r s a n t s may be d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s chemical f a m i l i e s . 10.3.1.3.1 Copolymers

Copolymers which c o n t a i n a c a r b o x y l i c e s t e r f u n c t i o n and one o r more a d d i t i o n a l p o l a r f u n c t i o n s such as amine, imide, h y d r o x y l , e t h e r , epoxide, phosph-

o r u s e s t e r , c a r b o x y l , an hyd ri de , o r n i t r i l e g e n e r a l l y have d i s p e r s a n t p r o p e r t i e s . Some o f t h e s e polymers e x h i b i t v i s c o s i t y m o d i f y i n g p r o p e r t i e s and thus f i n d a p p l i c a t i o n as m u l t i - f u n c t i o n a l a d d i t i v e s . a r e i n used today: Three types o f d i s p e r s a n t V I improver

p o l y m e t h a c r y l a t e s , s t y r e n e - m a l e i c e s t e r copolymers and

ethy le n e - p r o p y le n e copolymers. 10.3.1.3.2 S u b s t i t u t e d Succinimides

Hydrocarbon polymers may be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o molecules by chemical r e a c t i o n . T y p i c a l p r o d u c t s o f t h i s t y p e a r e o b t a i n e d by t r e a t i n g a p o l y o l e f i n , w i t h a molec u l a r w e i g h t i n t h e range 500-2000,

w i t h phosphorus c h l o r i d e and phosphorus sul-

p h i d e and t h e n w i t h rea ge nt s such as ure a, e t h y l e n e o x i d e and b o r i c a c i d . The N - s u b s t i t u t e d l o n g c h a i n a l k e n y l su cci nimides c o n t a i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u c c i n im id e g r o u p i n g

where R c o n t a i n s upwards o f 50 carbon atoms. extensively i n 10.3.1.3.3

T h i s group o f p r o d u c t s i s used

many t yp es o f crankcase l u b r i c a n t .

Amides

H ig h m o le c u la r w e i g h t amides and polyamides a r e u s u a l l y prepared by t h e r e a c t i o n o f h i g h e r f a t t y a c i d s o r e s t e r s w i t h p o l y a l k y l e n e amines. Products o f

t h i s t y p e a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n t h e l u b r i c a t i o n o f tw o-cycle engines and l i t t l e i n a u t o m o tiv e crankcase l u b r i c a n t s .

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10.3.1.3.4 Other Chemicals

E x t e n s iv e r e s ea rch i n t o o t h e r cl asse s o f d e t e r g e n t c h e m i s t r y c o n t i n u e s . Products may be produced f rom t h e f o l l o w i n g : P o ly and benzyl amines H ig h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t e s t e r s whi ch may be used f o r e m u l s i f i c a t i o n purposes Amine s a l t s o f h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t a c i d s 10.3.1.4 Mode o f A c t i o n o f Di spe rsan t A d d i t i v e s

Based on microscopy and chromatography s t u d i e s , several groups o f researchers have concluded t h a t a shl e ss d i s p e r s a n t s f u n c t i o n by a d s o r p t i o n on contaminant p a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t i n o i l s , t h us keeping them i n suspension. Although these r e -

searchers have c o n t r i b u t e d much t o an u nd erst anding o f t h e mechanism o f d i s p e r sancy, t h e r e i s wide agreement t h a t i t i s necessary t o e v a l u a t e t h e p r o d u c t s i n p r a c t i c a l t r i a l s s i n c e t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n t h e way o f l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g which can compare p r o d u c t s w i t h t h i s f u n c t i o n . 10.3.2 A n t i o x i d a n t s and B e ari n g C o r r o s i o n I n h i b i t o r s

A n t i o x i d a n t s a r e p r o b a b l y employed i n a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f l u b r i c a n t s than any othe r k i n d o f a d d i t i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r use i n crankcase o i l s and steam

t u r b i n e o i l s , they w i l l be found i n gas t u r b i n e l u b r i c a n t s , automatic t r a n s m is s io n f l u i d s , gear o i l s , c u t t i n g o i l s , greases and h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s . The f u n c t i o n o f an o x i d a t i o n i n h i b i t o r i s t h e p r e v e n t i o n of d e t e r i o r a t i o n ass o c ia t e d w i t h oxygen a t t a c k on t h e l u b r i c a n t base f l u i d . Inhibitors function The

e i t h e r t o d e s t r o y pe roxi d es o r t h e f r e e r a d i c a l s d e r i v e d from p e r o x i d e s .

most w i d e l y used a n t i o x i d a n t s i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i e l d a r e the p h e n o l i c types, s u l p h u r i s e d p o l y o l e f i n s and t h e z i n c d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s . The phenols a r e c o n s i -

dered t o be t h e cha i n-b rea ki ng t y p e whereas t h e l a t t e r two a r e b e l i e v e d t o be p e r o x i de d e s t r o y e r s

The c o r r o s i o n o f b e a r i n g m e t a l s i n i n t e r n a l combustion engines i s g e n e r a l l y c on s id e r e d t o be due l a r g e l y t o a c i d o r a c t i v e s u l p h u r a t t a c k on t h e b e a r i n g m e t a ls . The a c i d s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a t t a c k o r i g i n a t e e i t h e r from p r o d u c t s o f

incomplete combustion o f t h e f u e l which f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e l u b r i c a n t as blow-by gases o r from t h e o x i d a t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . O x i d a t i o n i n h i b i t o r s can

reduce o r e l i m i n a t e t h e l a t t e r m a t e r i a l s and, hence, reduce b e a r i n g c o r r o s i o n . G e n e r a lly , re 1 ease. I n most environments i n which a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i s employed,
i t comes i n con-

i n most i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s ,

o x i d a t i o n i s t h e major cause o f a c i d

t a c t w i t h a i r o f t e n a t h i g h temperatures and i n t h e presence o f m e t a l s o r chemic a l compounds wh i ch promote o x i d a t i o n o f t h e o i l . The o i l undergoes a complex

s e r i e s o f o x i d a t i o n r e a c t i o n s and t h e h armf ul r e s u l t s i n c l u d e , p r i n c i p a l l y , an

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i nc r e a s e i n v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c i d i c contaminants such as " p e tr o le u m oxya ci ds" and t h e development o f carbonaceous m a t e r i a l . Among t h e more e f f e c t i v e chemicals employed as commercial a n t i o x i d a n t s today are:10.3.2.1 Dith ioph osp ha t e s

Zinc diorganodithiophosphates ( a l s o e f f e c t i v e i n the r o l e o f corrosion i n h i b i t o r s ) . Other me t a l s may a l s o be used. Ashless d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s , 10.3.2.2 Hin d e re d Phenol r e p l a c i n g me t a l by amine can be e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e .

Hin d e r e d phenols ( i . e . phenols i n whi ch t h e h y d r o x y l group i s s t e r i c a l l y bl o c k e d or "hindered") : 2, 6-di-tertiary-butyl-4-methylphenol

4, 4'-methy 1ene b i s (2,6-d i- t e r t ia r y - b u t y 1phenol ) 4, 4'- t h i o b is (2-methy 1-6-t e r t ia r y - b u t y 1 phenol

10.3.2.3 N i t r o g e n Bases

Amines such as:

N-phenyl-alpha-naphthylamine
N-phenyl-beta-naphthylamine

Tetramethyldiaminodiphenylmethane
Anthranil i c acid P h e n ot h i azi n e and a l k y l a t e d d e r i v a t i v e s 10.3.2.4 S u l p h u r i s e d p o l y o l e f i n s , where t h e sulphur a c t s i n a s i m i l a r manner

t o n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g s u l p h u r chemicals found i n crude o i l b u t removed d u r i n g refining. O f a l l these a n t i o x i d a n t s , phosphates. t h e most w i d e l y used a r e t h e z i n c d i o r g a n o d i t h i o -

These have a dual f u n c t i o n o f behaving a l s o as a n t i w e a r agents t o These compounds

p r o t e c t cam and t a p p e t s c u f f i n g when used i n crankcase o i l s .

a r e a l s o used e x t e n s i v e l y as m i l d l o a d - c a r r y i n g a d d i t i v e s i n gear oils and i n hydraulic o i l s . more t h a n Performance req ui re men t s today g e n e r a l l y d i c t a t e the use o f

one a n t i o x i d a n t .

Hindered phenols a r e f a vou red f o r h y d r a u l i c and t u r b i n e o i l s because they g i v e e x c e l l e n t o x i d a t i o n l i v e s f o r l o n g f i e l d use. antioxidants, The phenyl naphthylamine

e s p e c i a l l y t h e b e t a form, or t hose c o n t a i n i n g t r a c e s o f i t , a r e They a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t used t o a g r e a t e x t e n t

now regarded as c a r c i n o g e n i c ,

and a r e more s p e c i f i c t o some types o f grease. 10.3.2.5 Mode o f A c t i o n o f A n t i o x i d a n t s

There i s g e n e ral agreement among independent i n v e s t i g a t o r s t h a t t h e o x i d a t i o n o f a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l i n v o l v e s a c h a i n o x i d a t i o n r e a c t i o n i n w hich i n i t i a l l y -

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formed o r g a n i c p ero xi de s a t t a c k u n o x i d i z e d o i l and a r e subsequently regenerated by oxygen i n t h e a i r t o c o n t i n u e such a t t a c k . "peroxide theory", A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s w i d e l y accepted

an e f f e c t i v e a n t i o x i d a n t i s a chemical compound which reduces

org a n ic p e r o x id e s and co nse qu en t l y causes t h e c h a i n r e a c t i o n t o cease. 10.3.3 Co r r o s ion I n h i b i t o r s t h e t erm " c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r ' ' i s app1ied;to a

I n the a d d i t i v e industry,

m a t e r i a l which p r o t e c t s c o r r o s i o n - s u s c e p t i b l e non-ferrous metal components, p r i n c i p a l l y b e a r i n g s , a g a i n s t a t t a c k by a c i d i c contaminants i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g oil.

A d i f f e r e n t t erm

rust inhibitor

i s used t o d e s i g n a t e m a t e r i a l s w hich

p r o t e c t f e r r o u s metal s u r f a c e s a g a i n s t r u s t . Among t h e e a r l i e s t t yp es t i o n were o r g a n i c p h o s p h i t e s . m ix tu r e s o f mono-, di-, o f c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s t o see commercial a p p l i c a Most o f t h ese were n o t p u r e chemicals b u t r a t h e r

and t r i - o r g a n o p ho sphites o b t a i n e d from t h e r e a c t i o n of methyl l a c t a t e , t r i m e t h y l c i t r a t e ) w i t h phos-

alc o h o ls o r h y d r oxyest ers (e.g. phous t r i c h l o r i de.

The m a jo r c l a s s e s o f c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s i n commercial use a t t h e present time a r e : 10.3.3.1 D ith iop ho sph at es

Metal d i o r g a n o d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y z i n c diorganodithiophosphates. They possess t h e s t r u c t u r e :

RO

RO

'

QS

MS'

where R i s an a l i p h a t i c o r a roma t i c r a d i c a l and M i s a p o l y v a l e n t metal such as zinc o r n i c k e l . T h e i r man uf act ure i n v o l v e s f i r s t h e a t i n g an a l c o h o l o r phenol

w i t h phosphorus p e n t a s u l p h i d e t o form d i o r g a n o d i t h i o p h o s p h o r i c a c i d , then neut r a l i z i n g such a c i d w i t h a metal base.

10.3.3.2

Dith io ca rba mat es

Metal diorganodithiocarbamates, e s p e c i a l l y z i n c diorganodithiocarbamates They a r e d e s c r ib e d by t h e g en era l f ormu l a:

\
N - C

HS
SM

I
R

254 where R and M a r e as d e f i n e d i n 10.3.3.1. T h e i r manufacture i n v o l v e s t h e reac-

t i o n o f an o r g a n i c amine, carbon d i s u l p h i d e , and a metal base. 10.3.3.3 Sulphur P ro du ct s f o r example, s u l p h u r i z e d dipentene. These p r o d u c t s a r e

S u l p h u r i z e d terpenes,

manufactured by h e a t i n g elemental s u l p h u r w i t h a terpene hydrocarbon and then o p t i o n a l l y washing t h e cru de p r o d u c t w i t h aqueous a l k a l i o r a l k a l i metal s u l p h i d e t o remove d i s s o l v e d o r " c o r r o s i v e " 10.3.3.4 sulphur.

Phosphorus-Sulphur P ro du ct s

Phosphosulphurized t erp en es, f o r example, phosphorus p e n t a s u l p h i d e - t r e a t e d turpentine. These a d d i t i v e s a r e manufactured by h e a t i n g phosphorus p e n t a s u l -

phid e w i t h a te r p ene hydrocarbon.

O f t h e f o u r m aj or cl asse s o f c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s l i s t e d above, metal d i t h i o -

phosphates

p a r t i c u l a r l y zinc dialkyldithiophosphates

have achieved t h e w idest

commercial acceptance.

Many o f t h e compounds l i s t e d above may n o t be t r u e c o r r o -

s i o n i n h i b i t o r s b u t f u n c t i o n by i n h i b i t i n g o x i d a t i o n and so reducing t h e format i o n o f c o r r o s i v e c a r b o x y l i c acids. 10.3.3.5 T r i a z o l e s and C h e l a t i n g Agents

B e n z o t r i a z o l e and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s a r e used t o form a s u r f a c e l a y e r on copper and s i l v e r based a l l o y s by c h e l a t i o n . T h i s process p a s s i v a t e s t h e s u r f a c e and

reduces i t s a b i l i t y t o a c t as a c a t a l y s t towards f l u i d d e g r a d a t i o n by p r e v e n t i n g s o l u b i l i s a t i o n o f sma l l q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e m e t a l . There a r e v e r s i o n s o f t h e chemical whi ch a r e n o t s o l u b l e s o l u b l e i n b o t h s y n t h e t i c base f l u i d s and aqueous systems. 10.3.3.6 Dirnercapto T h i a d i o z o l e D e r i v a t i v e s These a r e p r e pa red by r e a c t i n g h y d r a z i n e and carbon d i s u l p h i d e f o l l o w e d by v a r i o u s r e a c t i o n s t o make t h e m a t e r i a l o i l s o l u b l e . ucing corrosion. 10.3.3.7 Mode o f A c t i o n o f C o r r o s i o n I n h i b i t o r s and 10.3.3.6 are t r u e corrosion They a r e e f f e c t i v e i n redand o t h e r which a r e

I t can be s a i d t h a t compounds l i k e 10.3.3.5 inhibitors.

They f u n c t i o n by r e a c t i n g c h e m i c a l l y w i t h t h e non-ferrous s u r f a c e (e . g .
in

o f t h e metal component:

an engine, copper-lead o r lead-bronze b e a r i n g s ) T h i s f i l m must adhere

t o form t h e r e o n a c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t , p r o t e c t i v e f i l m .

t i g h t l y t o t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e l e s t i t be removed by d i s p e r s a n t s o r d e t e r g e n t s and expose th e u n d e r l y i n g metal s u r f a c e t o a t t a c k by a c i d i c components lubricating o i l . 10.3.4 Rust I n h i b i t o r s n the

The presence o f wat er i n l u b r i c a n t s v a r i e s between v e r y small l e v e l s t o values as h i g h as f o r t y p erce nt (40) i n i n v e r t e mul sion h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s and n n e t y - f i v e

(95) p e r c e n t i n e mul si o n f l u i d s .

I n h i b i t i n g f e r r o u s surfaces a g a i n s t r u s t i n g i s oil.

t h e r e f o r e a r e q u i reme nt i n a l l types o f

A range o f r u s t i n h i b i t i n g ch emi ca l s i s necessary t o cope w i t h d i f f e r e n t environments, and t h e i r chemical o r p h y s i c a l a c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t . The s t r o n g s u r -

face a d s o r p t i o n e x h i b i t e d by these chemicals t o r e s t r i c t t h e c o n t a c t w i t h w ater means t h a t c a r e f u l c h o i c e i s necessary t o ensure t h a t o t h e r s u r f a c e a c t i v e chemi c a l s , n o t a b l y t h e a n t i w e a r and extreme p ressure members, a r e a b l e t o perform their function. T y p i c a l chemicals used f o r o i l s o l u b l e systems i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : A l k e n y l s u c c i n i c a c i d s and d e r i v a t i v e s A l k y l t h i o a c e t i c a c i d s and d e r i v a t i v e s Turbine, Gear o i l s Preservative o i
S

hydrau i c and c i r c u -

) Substituted imidazolines
Amine phosphates Sulphonates, n e u t r a l o r low base

Engine preserva i v e o i l s . Storage, e t c .

A d d i t i o n a l f i l m s t r e n g t h i s a chi e ved by t h e a d d i t i o n o f f a t t y m a t e r i a l s such as l a n o l i n i n t h e case o f t h i c k f i l m s t o r a g e co mposition.

10.3.5

V i s c o s i t y Improvers

V i s c o s i t y improvers a r e m a t e r i a l s which improve t h e v i s c o s i t y temperature relationship o f a lubricant. They a r e g e n e r a l l y o i l s o l u b l e polymers w i t h moleThe polymer moleThe h i g h e r t h e

c u l a r w e ig h t r a n g i n g from a pp roxi ma t e l y 50,000 t o 1,000,000. c ul e i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e o i l t o e f f e c t t h e f i n a l o i l v i s c o s i t y .

tempature o f t h e system, t h e l a r g e r t h e polymer volume, t h e g r e a t e r t h e t h i c k e n ing e f f e c t , and hence t h e l e s s t h e " t h i n n i n g " sed temperature. I n a d d i t i o n t o v i s c o s i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e performance o f these polymers i s dependent on t h e shear s t a b i l i t y o r r e s i s t a n c e t o shear and on t h e i r chemical and thermal s t a b i l i t y . W i t h a g i v e n polymer, t h e shear s t a b i l i t y decreases w i t h The loss due t o shear i s r e f l e c t e d i n a detendendy o f t h e o i l due t o i n c r e a -

an in c r e a s e i n m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t .

crease i n v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i n t h e mechanical system. V i s c o s i t y Index o r " V . I . " i s an a r b i t r a r y number

c a l c u l a t e d from t h e obser-

ved v i s c o s i t i e s o f a l u b r i c a n t a t two w i d e l y separated temperatures

which

i n d i c a t e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t t o v i s c o s i t y change w i t h temperature. The h i g h e r t h e V . I . va l ue , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t t o thicken

a t low temperatures and t h i n o u t a t h i g h temperatures.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f V . I .

i s much l e s s w i t h c u r r e n t o i l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . For motor o i l s such

Measured low t e m pe rat ure v i s c o s i t y i s now most i m p o r t a n t .

values a r e r e p o r t e d u s i n g t h e Cold Cranking S i m u l a t o r and f o r automatic t r a n s m i ss io n f l u i d s and gear o i l s u s i n g t h e B r o o k f i e l d Viscometer. The use o f hydrocarbon polymers o f low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t makes i t p o s s i b l e t o form u la t e m u l t i g r a d e d a x l e o i l s . Reduction i n o i l drag and consequent f u e l

256
s a v in g s may be achieved w i t h lower v i s c o s i t y index values b u t a h i g h degree o f shear s t a b i l i t y .

A l l im p o r ta n t v i s c o s i t y improvers a r e manufactured by processes o f p o l y m e r i sation. The groups o f polymers, s o l u b l e i n o i l , a r e : (i) (ii) P o l yi sob ut en es A l k y l m e t h a c r y l a t e and a c r y l a t e copolymers (OCP)

( i i i ) Rubber t ype chemicals such as o l e f i n e co-polymers and b ut ad i en e-st yren e copolymers

10.3.5.1
V.I.

Mode o f A c t i o n o f V . I .

Improvers

improvers e x e r t a g r e a t e r t h i c k e n i n g e f f e c t on o i l a t h i g h temperatures The r e s u l t o f such s e l e c t i v e

than they do a t r e l a t i v e l y lower temperatures.

t h i c k e n i n g i s t h a t t h e o i l s u f f e r s l e s s v i s c o s i t y change w i t h changing temperature.

I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e l e c t i v e t h i c k e n i n g occurs because t h e polymer

assumes a compact,

c u r l e d form i n a poor s o l v e n t such as c o l d o i l , and an un-

c u r l e d h i g h surFace a rea form i n a b e t t e r s o l v e n t such as h o t o i l . Polymers whose s o l u b i l i t y i n o i l changes v e r y l i t t l e w i t h temperature a c t as thickeners, b u t a r e n o t as e f f e c t i v e V . I . improvers as a r e those polymers whose
V.I.

s o l u b i l i t y i s poor a t low temperatures b u t good a t h i g h e r temperatures.

improvers a r e more e f f e c t i v e i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y o r d e r o f low v i s c o s i t y o i l s and become p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s e f f e c t i v e as t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e base o i l i nc r e a s e s .

V.I.

improvers undergo temporary v i s c o s i t y r e d u c t i o n under shear because o f T h i s temporary

th e a lig n m e n t o f t h e polymer mo l ecu l es i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l o w .

v i s c o s i t y r e d u c t i o n has t h e e f f e c t o f re du ci ng f r i c t i o n i n h i g h shear zones and g i v e s a s i g n i f i c a n t advantage f o r t h e V . I . o f t h e same v i s c o s i t y . s i t y o f the treated i m p r o v e r - t r e a t e d o i l o v e r a base o i l

Another advantage i s t h a t i n low shear zones t h e v i s c o Polymer-

t r e a t e d o i l remains h i g h , thus m i n i m i z i n g o i l consumption.

o i l s a l s o e x h i b i t lower b e a r i n g wear than t h e i r comparable m i n e r a l o i l These f a c t o r s have been i m p o r t a n t i n t h e acceptance o f m u l t i g r a d e

counterparts. engine oils.

Polymers used as v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x improvers must be r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e t o c h a i n s c i s s i o n under h i g h shear r a t e s . shearing, index. M o l e c u l a r w e i g h t i s d r a s t i c a l l y reduced by

thus c a usi n g a d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e p r o p e r t i e s w hich improve v i s c o s i t y

The shear s t a b i l i t y o f a polymer t y p e i s dependent on m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t

and m o le c u la r w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n and i n crea ses w i t h decreasing m o l e c u l a r w eight.

I t can be seen t h a t shear s t a b i l i t y and v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x

improvement r e q u i r e

d i v e r g e n t m o le c ul ar w e i g h t s . based on a compromise between

The m o l e c u l a r w eights o f commercial polymers a r e t he se two p r o p e r t i e s . I n many cases, t h i s has polymers f o r a

r e s u l t e d i n t h e use o f l a r g e r amounts o f l ower-molecular-w eight given a p p l i c a t i o n .

257
Chemical and thermal index improver. s t a b i l i t y a r e i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s o f a good v i s c o s i t y i t i s i mportant t h a t c a t a l y s t residues be

For good s t a b i l i t y ,

completely removed d u r i n g t h e man uf act uri n g process.

Some commercial polymers Several o f the i n t h a t they may be

are f o r m u la te d w i t h i n h i b i t o r s t o enhance t h e i r s t a b i l i t y . commercial v i s c o s i t y - i n d e x improvers a r e m u l t i - f u n c t i o n a l

e f f e c t i v e p o u r - p o i n t d ep ressa nt s and possess dispersency performance.

10.3.6

Pour P o i n t Depressants

Ever s i n c e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s were p rep are d from crude o i l s , r e f i n e r s have experienced d i f f i c u l t y w i t h c o n g e l a t i o n o f these p r o d u c t s a t low temperatures. P a r t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s f rom a n a t u r a l t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e hydrocarbons comprising t h e b u l k o f t h e o i l ; something which can u s u a l l y be c o r r e c t e d by t h e The r e s t o f t h e d i f f i -

use o f a s o l v e n t such as kerosene t o reduce v i s c o s i t y .

culty

t h e more s e r i o u s

part

a r i s e s from c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n a t low temperatures Upon c r y -

o f t h e p a r a f f i n wax p r e s e n t i n a l most a l l l u b r i c a t i n g o i l f r a c t i o n s .

s t a l l i z a t i o n , t h i s wax tends t o form i n t e r l o c k i n g networks w hich adsorb o i l and form a voluminous g e l - l i k e mass which r e s t r i c t s t h e f l o w o r "pour" o f the o i l .

Pour p o i n t d e pre ssan t s a r e chemicals whi ch modify t h e wax c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n process i n such a manner t h a t t h e o i l w i l l pour a t low temperatures. Although

some monomeric compounds such as t e t r a ( l o n g c h a i n a l k y l ) s i l i c a t e s , phenyl t r i s t e a r y l o x y s i l a n e , and p e n t a e r y t h r i t o l t e t r a s t e a r a t e have been shown t o be e f f e c t i v e , a l l c o m m e rci a l l y i m p o r t a n t pour p o i n t depressants a r e polymers: (i) A l k y l m e t h a c r y l a t e polymers and copolymers V i n y l c a r b o x y l a t e - d i a l k y l fumarate copolymers

( ii )

( i i i ) A l p h a - o l e f i n polymers and copolymers (iv) F r i e d e l - C r a f t s co nd en sat i on p r o d u c t s o f c h l o r i n a t e d wax and a r o m a t i c compounds such as n ap ht halene o r phenol (some i n v e s t i g a t o r s do n o t c l a s s t y p e ( i v ) p r o d u c t s as polymers; others maintain that

they a r e r e l a t i v e l y low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t polymers having a p l u r a l i t y o f a r o m a t i c r i n g s and p a r a f f i n wax r a d i c a l s ) . The m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t range o f polymers e f f e c t i v e as pour p o i n i s g e n e r a l l y below t h a t o f polymers used as V . I . the a r e a o f 500 t o 100,000. improvers, and depressants s usually i n

10.3.6.1

Mode o f A c t i o n o f Pour P o i n t Depressants i z i n g w i t h the

Pour p o i n t depressants f u n c t i o n by ad sorb i ng on o r c o - c r y s t a l p r e c i p i t a t i n g wax, thus i n h i b i t i n g l a t e r a l c r y s t a l growth.

T h i s promotes growth

o f s m a l l e r c r y s t a l s t h an t h e p l a t e l e t s formed i n t h e absence o f pour p o i n t depressants. T h i s change d i m i n i s h e s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e wax c r y s t a l s t o o v e r l a p

and i n t e r l o c k t o f o rm l a r g e conglomerates o f wax w hich would impede t h e f l o w o f the o i 1 .

258
There i s evidence t h a t a l i p h a t i c polymers f u n c t i o n by a c o - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n mechanism, and t h a t a l k y l a r o m a t i c t y p e s such as c h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n wax-aromatic compound condensation p r o d u c t s f u n c t i o n by a d s o r p t i o n on t h e nascent wax c r y s t a l . 10.3.7 Extreme Pressure A d d i t i v e s commonly c a l l e d "E.P." agents, a r e chemicals which a r e addec contact during l u b r i c a t i o n .

These a d d i t i v e s ,

t o l u b r i c a n t s t o prevent d e s t r u c t i v e metal-to-metal P l a i n mineral

o i l s p r o v i d e good l u b r i c a t i o n when a f i l m o f o i l i s m a i n t a i n e d be. p r o v i d e ade-

tween t h e moving s u r f a c e s (hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n ) b u t f a i l t o

quate l u b r i c a t i o n when p r e s s u r e and r u b b i n g speeds a r e such t h a t t h e f i l m o f o i l i s squeezed o r wiped o u t . rication", The l a t t e r k i n d o f l u b r i c a t i o n , c a l l e d "boundary lub-

i s governed l a r g e l y by parameters o f t h e c o n t a c t i n g s u r f a c e s such as

s u r f a c e f i n i s h , metal shear s t r e n g t h and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n between t h e c o n t a c t i n g metal s u r f a c e s . Unless such parameters can be chosen t o meet expected pressures and r u b b i n g needs, d e s t r u c t i v e m e t a l - t o - m e t a l 10.3.7.1 Commercial E.P. contact w i l l take place.

A d d i t i v e s and t h e i r A p p l i c a t i o n a d d i t i v e s a r e o r g a n i c compounds t h a t c o n t a i n onc

V i r t u a l l y a l l commercial E.P.

o r more elements o r f u n c t i o n s such as s u l p h u r , halogen, phosphorus, c a r b o x y l , o r c a r b o x y l a t e s a l t w h i c h can r e a c t c h e m i c a l l y w i t h t h e metal s u r f a c e under condit i o n s o f boundary l u b r i c a t i o n . The ease w i t h which an E . P . a d d i t i v e t h e metal s u r f a c e , i . e . i t s "activity", reacts w i t h

determines t o a l a r g e e x t e n t whether i t

would be used i n a l u b r i c a n t such as a c u t t i n g o i l , a hypoid gear o i l , h y d r a u l i c o i l , o r a steam t u r b i n e o i l . A n assignment o f l i k e l y f i e l d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f commercial E . P . a d d i t i v e s T a b l e 10.3 based on t h e i r r e l a t i v e a c t i v i t y i s shown i n T a b l e 10.3 Additives
" M i Id" o r Low A c t i v i t v Additives

F i e l d s o f A p p l i c a t i o n o f E.P.

High A c t i v i t y A d d i t i v e s Straight cutting o i l s Drawing compounds Metal-forming l u b r i c a n t s Some hypoid gear o i Is

"Moderate" o r I n t e r m e d i a t e A c t i v i t v Additives Hypoid gear o i l s (e.g. m u l t i - p u r p o s e gear 1 ub r i c a n t s ) I n d u s t r i a l gear o i l s (e.g. "open gear" o i Is)

Worm gear o i l s S p i r a l bevel gear o i l s Manual gear box o i l s Motor o i l s Steam t u r b i n e o i l s Jet aircraft turbine oils Gas t u r b i n e o i l s Automatic t r a n s m i s s i o n fluid Hydraulic o i l s ( f i r e r e s i s t a n t emulsion type) I n d u s t r i a l gear o i l s f o r closed o r c i r c u l a t i n g systems

I n d u s t r i a l gear o i l s f o r general a p p l i c a t i o n

259

10.3.7.2

A u t o mot i ve E . P .

Gear Oils

These o i l s a r e used t o l u b r i c a t e t h e worm, s p i r a l b e v e l , or hypoid gear d r i v e s o f a u t o m ot i ve v e h i c l e s . o f E.P. S i n ce hyp oi d gears r e q u i r e t h e g r e a t e s t measure

p r o t e c t i o n o f a l l commercial gear d r i v e s , most a d d i t i v e treatments a r e

designed t o g i v e s a t i s f a c t o r y performance i n t h i s environment. H i s t o r i c a l l y , E.P. general c a t e g o r i e s . a d d i t i v e s f o r use i n gear s e r v i c e f a l l i n t h e f o l l o w i n g T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n sh ou l d n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d as i n d i c a t i n g i n f a c t , a l l o f t h e l i s t e d treatments a r e The more r e c e n t l y

t h a t e a r l y treatments a r e obsolete;

i n commercial use today, many on i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . developed a d d i t i v e s , however, en j oy most o f t h e market.

E a r l i e s t s u c cessf ul t rea t me nt

Lead soap (e.g.

lead naphthenate p l u s an organic sulphur

a c t i v e o r "corrosive" compound. L a t e 1930's

C h l o r i n e and "Moderately a c t i v e ' ' s u l p h u r p r e s e n t i n t h e same o r d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i c mo l ecu l es

World War I I p e r i o d

Sulphur, c h l o r i n e and phosphorus i n s u i t a b l e organic c a r r i e r s

Most r e c e n t typ es (1960-

Sulphur and phosphorus i n s u i t a b l e o r g a n i c carriers

Typical E.P. i nc lu d e d : -

a d d i t i v e s used comme rci al l y i n f o r m u l a t i n g gear l u b r i c a n t s have

C h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n wax (40%

60% c h l o r i n e ) and a l k a l i

Chlornaphtha x a n t h a t e ( r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t o f c h l o r i n a t e d naphtha metal x a n t h a t e )

C h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n wax s u l p h i d e s ( r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t o f c h l o r i n a t e d paraf f i n wax and a l k a l i metal s u l p h i d e s ) S u l p h u r i s e d f a t t y o i l s (e.g. sulphurised l a r d o i l , sulphurised f i s h o i l ,

s u l p h u r i s e d sperm o i I ) S u l p h u r i s e d hydrocarbons such as po l ybu t e nes S u l p h u r i s e d s y n t h e t i c e s t e r s (e.g. s u l p h u r i s e d methyl o l e a t e o f f a t t y a c i d s )

S u lp h u r c h l o r i d e - t r e a t e d f a t t y o i l s (e. g. S 2 C I 2

treated f i s h o i l )

A 1 i p h a t i c and a r o m a t i c p o l y s u l p h i d e s (e.g.
d i s u l p h i d e , b u t y l d i s u l p hi d e) Phosphosulphurized f a t t y o i l s (e.g. phorus pen t a s u 1 ph i d e )

benzyl d i s u l p h i d e , c h l o r o b e n z y l

l a r d o i l heated w i t h s u l p h u r and phos-

Organic p h o s p h i t e s ( o b t a i n e d by t r e a t i n g a l c o h o l s w i t h P C I )

A l k a r y lp h o s p hat es ( o c t y l p h e n o l t r e a t e d w i t h P205)

260 A l k y l phosphates ( a l c o h o l s t e a t e d w i t h P 0 )

2 5

Lead naphthenate Z i n c and l e a d d i - o r g a n o d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s Z i n c and le a d d i - a l k y l dithiocarbamates

An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a hypoid gear l u b r i c a n t must be c a r r i e d o u t i n f u l l - s c a l e equipment i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y and i n t h e f i e l d . Bench t e s t r i g s have n o t been a b l e t o p e r f o r m t h i s t a s k , a l t h o u g h they a r e useful i n s c r e e n in g l i k e l y ca nd i da t e s f o r f u l l - s c a l e e v a l u a t i o n .

A l i s t o f these

t y p i c a l bench t e s t s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 10.4.

10.3.7.3

A n t iwe ar A d d i t i v e s t h e advent o f h i g h performance Engine i n s p e c t i o n

A lt h o u g h d i s c u s s i n g p r i m a r i l y gear systems,

engines f o r passenger c a r s posed new l u b r i c a t i o n problems.

began t o r e v e a l un mi st a kab l e evi d en ce o f e xcessive wear and s c u f f i n g o f v a l v e t r a i n components; h i g h r o t a t i o n a l speeds and i n c r e a s i n g pressures between cams

and l i f t e r f o o t su rf a ces had a p p a r e n t l y combined t o s h i f t l u b r i c a t i o n r e q u i r e ments i n t o t h e boundary r e g i o n . The f i r s t and perhaps most e f f e c t i v e E.P. addi-

t i v e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g o r e l i m i n a t i n g wear and s c u f f i n g i n t h e v a l v e t r a i n area was found t o be t h a t v e r s a t i l e a d d i t i v e

zinc dialkyldithiophosphate.

Other a d d i t i v e s found u s e f u l f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f v a l v e t r a i n wear i n c l u d e : T r i c r e s y l phosphate D i l a u r y l phosphate Didodecyl p h o s p h i t e S u l p h u r i z e d terpenes S u l p h u r i z e d sperm o i l C h l o r i n a t e d compounds Zinc d i a l k y l dithiocarbamate I t has been mentioned e a r l i e r t h a t t h e z i n c d i o r g a n o d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e p l a y s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n a n t i w e a r h y d r a u l i c o i l s and i n m i l d EP gear o i l s . The

c h o i c e o f t h e c o r r e c t t ype o f compound depends upon t h e d e s i r e d performance characteristics. alcohols.

A z i n c d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e may be prepared u s i n g a v a r i e t y of

P r im a ry and secondary a l k y l groups a r e used f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s such a s

g a s o l i n e e n g in e and h y d r a u l i c systems and aro matics ( s u b s t i t u t e d phenols) f o r d i e s e l engines where t h e maj o r r o l e i s as a h i g h temperature a n t i o x i d a n t . It is e s s e n t i a l t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e performance o f these m a t e r i a l s i s r e l a t e d G e n e r a l l y , good a n t i w e a r performance means low thermal For h y d r a u l i c system use t h e a d d i t i v e must

t o the application.

s t a b i l i t y , b u t a good a n t i o x i d a n t .

be r e s i s t a n t t o h y d r o l y s i s a t t emp era t u res t y p i c a l o f h y d r a u l i c c i r c u i t s . An i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e ma j or performance p r o p e r t i e s o f a range o f z i n c diorganod i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s i s g i v e n i n T ab l e 10.5.

T a b l e 10.4 L u b r i c a n t , F r i c t i o n , Wear and Gear T e s t Machines Type o f Measurement Type o f Load ing Mechanical steps Mechanical continuous Dead w e i g h t steps Range o f Load ing (kg) Speed
m/s

T e s t Machine

Type o f Contact

Other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Almen-Weiland

Conforming area, pin/bearing s h e l l s M u l t i p l e line/area Multiple point hardened s t e e l b a l Is B l o c k and r i n g . Line

F r i c t i o n , wear, load-carrying F r i c t i o n , wear, load-carrying F r i c t i o n , wear, 1 oad- ca r r y ing

0-2000

0.2

A l s o used f o r c o r r o s i o n t e s t on specimens a f t e r r u n n i n g Also f o r corrosion t e s t A l s o w i t h d i f f e r e n t loads speed and specimens f o r wear t e s t s . "Roll ing" u n i t f o r b e a r i n g studies A l s o f o r grease s t u d i e s

F a l e x I P 241/77T Shell 4-Ball I P 239179 T

0-2000 0-1800

0.1-0.25
1500 rprn

T i mken I P 240/76 T

F r i c t i o n , wear, load-carrying

Dead w e i g h t continuous o r step Dead w e i g h t step, s t a r t under l o a d

0-50

0-400 (0-800rpm)

Niemann-FZG I P 33h/77 T

Gear. Two t o o t h Load-carrying forms. P i n i o n t e e t h wear r a t e 16. Wheel t e e t h 24. Spur/Case hardened Gear-one t o o t h Load-carrying form p i n i o n t e e t h 16. Wheel 16. Spur/ Case hardened

1600 'Normal' load

7.3

A l s o runs a t 2175 r.p.m. O i 1 temperature 9OoC

I .A.E. I P 166/77

Dead w e i g h t step, s t a r t under l o a d

Up t o a t l e a s t 70 Lever

7.9 4000 rpm

A l s o runs a t 2000 and 6000 rpm O i l temperature 200O-6O0C, 400O-7O0C

Ryder FTMS 791a-6508

Gear-one t o o t h form pinion/wheel t e e t h 28

Load-carrying

Hydraulic a p p l i e d when running

10000
rpm

oil

temperature 7 4 ' ~ S t a r t up a t no l o a d
N
CL Q,

262
TABLE 10.5 R e l a t i v e Performance o f Z i n c Di t hiophosphates Substrate Performance AntiOxidancy 2 Hydrolytic Stabi 1 it y 2 AntiWear 2 Bearing Protection 2
1

A1 coho1
Secondary-1 Secondary-2 P r im a r y - 1
P r ima r y - 2

Thermal STabi 1 i t y

4 5
2 3

4
3

4
3

3
5 5

Aromatic-1 Aromatic-2

1
1

5 5

5 5

5 5

These a d d i t i v e s a r e t y p i c a l o f those used f o r l u b r i c a n t s Rating

T :

worst c o n d i t i o n

1 = best c o n d i t i o n EP a d d i t i v e s f o r T u r b i n e O i l s
and j e t a i r c r a f t t u r b -

10.3.7.4

Advances i n t h e de si gn o f steam t u r b i n e , gas t u r b i n e ,

i n e engines and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d g e a r i n g have i n t r o d u c e d problems o f boundary lubrication.

To s o l v e these problems, t h e a d d i t i v e i n d u s t r y has developed E.P.

a d d i t i v e s o f t h e "low a c t i v i t y " v a r i e t y whi ch p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t excessi v e wear a n d s c u f f i n g o f t u r b i n e en gi n e components. Such a d d i t i v e s must w i t h -

s ta n d h i g h temperatures -and i n t h e case o f steam t u r b i n e s , w a t e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i t h o u t p r o m o tin g c o r r o s i o n o f t u r b i n e e ng i ne components. For use i n gas t u r -

b i n e and j e t a i r c r a f t t u r b i n e engines f o r m u l a t e d w i t h s y n t h e t i c ester-base f l u i d s d i f f e r e n t ch emi ca l s may be r e q u i r e d . For steam t u r b i n e o i l s a d d i t i v e s based on phosphorus and h y d r o l y t i c a l l y s t a b l e c h l o r i n e c o n t a i n i n g chemicals have been used. t i v e s a r e a l s o known t o have been used. C e r t a i n sulphur-phosphorus a d d i -

I n t h i s case, t h e s u l p h u r i s i n a c t i v e

towards copper a t normal temperatures and becomes r e l e a s e d o n l y a t h i g h operat i ng temperatures

.
b o t h phosphites and phosI n c e r t a i n cases p o l y g l y c o l f l u i d s may a c t i n t h e same way

For gas t u r b i n e a p p l i c a t i o n s phosphorus compounds, phates, a r e used.

presumably by s t r o n g a d s o r p t i o n o f t h e hydroxy groups t o metal s u r f a c e s . 10.3.7.5 EP A d d i t i v e s f o r C u t t i n g O i l s

Very h i g h p r e ssu res and temperatures a r e developed l o c a l l y between t h e work and t h e c u t t i n g t o o l i n machining o p e r a t i o n s . The s o - c a l l e d " s t r a i g h t c u t t i n g

o i l s " w i d e l y employed t o c o o l and l u b r i c a t e t h e work and c u t t i n g t o o l a r e m i n e r a l 0 1 1 s which have been blended w i t h s u i t a b l e E.P. additives. Since the

l u b r i c a t i o n o f a m e t a l - c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n i s almost completely w i t h i n t h e boundary

263
region, E . P . a d d i t i v e s o f high a c t i v i t y are required f o r best r e s u l t s . I n the

case o f an o r g a n i c s u l p h u r compound, i t s a c t i v i t y s h o u l d be such t h a t a d i l u t e s o l u t i o n (e.g.

1 o r 2 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e compound i n a m i n e r a l o i l w i l l completely
Sulphur compounds having t h i s

blacken a copper s t r i p w i t h i n one hour a t 100C.

degree o f a c t i v i t y a r e known i n t h e i n d u s t r y as " c o r r o s i v e s u l p h u r " a d d i t i v e s and a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e compounding o f commercial c u t t i n g o i l s . Examples o f E.P. a d d i t i v e s developed f o r use i n c u t t i n g o i l s i n c l u d e s u l p h u r i z e d m i n e r a l

o i l , sulphurized f a t t y o i l s , sulphur chloride-treated f a t t y o i l s , sulphurized o l e f i n s , s u l p h u r c h l o r i d e - t r e a t e d o l e f i n s , benzyl p o l y s u l p h i d e s , c h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n wax, and c h l o r i n a t e d m i n e r a l o i l s . However, metal w o r k i n g and f o r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e many types o f chemical a d d i t i v e a p a r t f r o m t h e a c t i v e o r c o r r o s i v e s u l p h u r type. sulphur a d d i t i v e s a r e used i n metal removal o p e r a t i o n s . the i n c r e a s i n g degree o f s e v e r i t y : (i) (ii) T u r n i n g and M i l l i n g D r i l l i n g and Reaming Generally, the a c t i v e The l i s t below i n d i c a t e s

( i i i ) Tapping and Threading (iv) As v e r y h i g h Broaching

emperatures a r e reached, t h e c h o i c e o f s u i a b l e a d d i t i v e depb e i n g machined, so t h a t t h e b e s t c o o l i n g , s u r f a c e

ends a l s o on t h e m a t e r i a l

f i n i s h and t o o l l i f e a r e r e t a i n e d . The chemical a c t i v i t y o f s u l p h u r compounds may be chosen t o g i v e p a r t i c u l a r performance i n c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s . When such m a t e r i a l s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o

f l u i d s h a v i n g a dual-purpose n a t u r e , such as machine l u b r i c a t i o n , then t h e choice has t o be made w i t h t h e requirements o f t h e h y d r a u l i c o r c i r c u l a t i n g o i l c i r c u i t m e t a l l u r g y matched a g a i n s t t h e metal w o r k i n g o p e r a t i o n . A d d i t i v e s a r e a l s o used i n metal f o r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s such as r o l l i n g , drawing, stamping and f o r g i n g . For r o l l i n g o i l s t h e g r e a t e s t requirement i s h i g h s u r Gen-

face f i n i s h , which means t h a t t h e a d d i t i v e s must n o t be c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e . e r a l l y , f a t t y a l c o h o l s and e s t e r s a r e p r e f e r r e d . Drawing and f o r g i n g o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i s e d p r o d u c t s .

Fatty-

based systems a r e used c o n t a i n i n g a v a r i e t y o f a d d i t i v e s i n c l u d i n g s o l i d l u b r i cants such as g r a p h i t e and molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e .

10.3.7.6

Mode o f A c t i o n o f E.P.

Additives

E.P.additives

f u n c t i o n by r e a c t i n g w i t h r e l a t i v e l y moving s u r f a c e s under

boundary l u b r i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s t o f o r m an adherent f i l m which has lower shear s t r e n g t h than t h a t o f t h e metal s u r f a c e s themselves. T h i s f i l m a c t s as a s o r t

o f s o l i d l u b r i c a n t , and t a k e s o v e r t h e t a s k o f l u b r i c a t i o n when t h e o i l i s no longer a b l e t o p r o v i d e a s e p a r a t i n g and p r o t e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i n g f i l m . W i t h an

264
a p p r o p r i a t e E.P. additive, t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no f o r m a t i o n o f such " s o l i d l u b r i I t forms o n l y a t t h e eleva-

c a n t " under c o n d i t i o n s o f hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n .

t e d temperatures which develop l o c a l l y between metal surfaces under c o n d i t i o n s o f boundary l u b r i c a t i o n . Because t e mpe rat ure has been shown t o be t h e most l u b r i c a n t s , F.P.Bowden and co-

i n f l u e n t i a l parameter i n t h e f u n c t i o n o f E.P.

workers have suggested t h a t t h e t erm "Extreme Temperature" l u b r i c a n t s and a d d i t i v e s m ig h t be more a p p r o p r i a t e .

10.3.8

Emulsifiers

G e n e r a l l y , an e m u l s i f i e r i s a chemical f o r d i s p e r s i n g e i t h e r w a t e r i n o i l o r o i l i n wa t e r . The former, t h e more d i f f i c u l t system, produces f i r e - r e s i s t a n t

hydraulic fluids,

r o c k d r i l l l u b r i c a n t s , and many types o f w ire-draw ing media.

The e m u l s i f i e r may be o f t h e a l k e n y l s u c c i n i m i d e type, f a t t y e s t e r s , o r o t h e r s c o n t a i n i n g f a t t y resi d ue s. For me t a l wo rki ng and h y d r a u l i c media o f t h e s o l u b l e The c h o i c e

o i l ( o i l i n w a t e r ) type, a l a r g e range o f e m u l s i f i e r s i s a v a i l a b l e .

depends upon whether i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o have a chemical w i t h i o n i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a s a l t , o r one w i t h n o n - i o n i c p r o p e r t i e s such as e s t e r s , phenol e t h e r s and o t h e r oxygenated chemicals. chemicals: Sodium sul p ho na t es T a l l o i l amides E t ha no l amines Qu at ern ary Ammonium s a l t s P o l y a l k y l e n e phenol e t h e r s and a s s o c i a t e d oxygenated p r o d u c t s Ethoxylated f a t t y acids Salts o f f a t t y acids E m u l s i f i e r s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o a nu merical value, t h e
A s h o r t l i s t i s g i v e n below o f some o f t h e

HLB

number,

o b t a i n e d by e s t i m a t i n g t h e emu l si on s t a b i l i t y when prepared i n a standard way. For o i l - i n - w a t e r s o l u b l e o i l emulsions, t h e HLB range f o r e m u l s i f i e r s i s i n v e r t emulsions i t i s 4-6 when checked i n a naphthenic

12-15,

f o r water-in-oil

base s t o c k .

10.3.9

F r i c t i o n Modifiers observed w i t h l u b r i c a n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o

C e r t a i n d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e sometimes their f r i c t i o n a l characteristics.

Where metal s u r f a c e s a r e designed t o s l i d e ,

two opposing r e q ui re men t s may o ccur: (i) Smooth s l i d i n g w i t h no v i b r a t i o n and minimum c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n .

( i i ) No s l i d i n g maximum c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n f o r engagement o f c l u t c h
s u r fa ces o r f r i c t i o n l o c k i n g d evi ces.

265
Additives f o r ( i ) a r e generally fatty-based, such as f a t t y e s t e r s and amides. as machine t o o l sl i d eways. I n t h e case o f t y p e ( i i ) , t h e c l u t c h o r f r i c t i o n mechanism should engage o r disengage smoothly w i t h o u t v i b r a t i o n . t o control. (i) Two t ypes o f a p p l i c a t i o n a r e d i f f i c u l t n a t u r a l l y - o c c u r r i n g products

They f i n d use i n s l i d i n g motion systems such

A c h o i c e o f d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t s may be made:i n l i m i t e d s l i p a x l e s , o r o t h e r metal/metal f r i c t i o n

I t i s necessary t o reduce t h e s t i c k - s l i p a c t i o n o f

Anti-chatter

locking units.

lubricated steel/steel Amide

contacts.

metal d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e combinations

Amine d i t h i o p h o s p h a t e s ( i i ) Anti-squawk a d d i t i v e s reduce v i b r a t i o n w hich g i v e s r i s e t o a u d i b l e noise i n clutches o f d i s s i m i l a r material on s t e e l , e t c . ) . (bronze on s t e e l , asbestos

Chemicals used f o r t h i s purpose i n c l u d e :

N -acyl sa rcosi n es and d e r i v a t i v e s S u l p h u r i s e d f a t s and e s t e r s Organophosphorus a c i d and f a t t y a c i d m i x t u r e s Esters o f dimerised f a t t y acids Fo r m u la t io n s which meet t h e complex performance d e s i r e d i n automatic t r a n s m is s io n f l u i d s , u n i v e r s a l t r a c t o r e n g i n e - t r a n s m i s s i o n o i l s o r machine t o o l systems a r e t h e r e s u l t o f c a r e f u l ma t ch i ng o f f r i c t i o n m o d i f i e r s i n t h e whole

a d d i t i v e system.

10.4

CONCLUSIONS

The c h a p te r w i l l se rve t o i n d i c a t e t h e complex n a t u r e o f t h e chemicals used i n lubricant formulations. M a i n l y , t h e d i s c u s s i o n has been about a d d i t i v e s f o r

m i n e r a l l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s a l t h o u g h t h e r e has been r e f e r e n c e made t o s y n t h e t i c f l u i d s and w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g h y d r a u l i c and metal w orking f l u i d s . I n f o r m u l a t i n g l u b r i c a n t s o f any type, t h e presence o f these a d d i t i v e s re-

q u i r e s t h a t n o t o n l y sh ou l d each i n d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t c a r r y o u t i t s d e s i r e d funct i o n b u t t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n s between more t ha n one chemical must n o t cause d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f performance. s o l u b l e b y - p r o d u ct s. N e i t h e r must m i x t u r e s r e a c t t o g e t h e r t o form o i l i n t h e range

The f i n a l o i l f o r m u l a t i o n must be s t a b l e o v e r

o f o p e r a t i n g and s t o r a g e temperatures. M i x t u r e s o f a d d i t i v e s may be f o r m u l a t e d and used as a package a t a g i v e n tre a tm e n t l e v e l , r e q u i r i n g o n l y the c a r r i e r f l u i d . Again, t h e r e must be no

d e t e r i o r a t i o n a f t e r ma nu f a ct u re o r s t o r a g e and the combination must be s e l e c t e d w i t h g r e a t c a r e so t h a t maximum performance i s achieved a t an economic c o s t . The a u t h o r wishes t o acknowledge t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f h i s colleagues i n t h e L u b r i z o l C o r p o r a t i o n f o r r e v i e w i n g t h i s ch ap ter and suggesting a d d i t i o n a l data;

266
also to the Lubrizol Corporation for permission to compile the information REFERENCES
1

Smallheer and Kennedy-Smith, Lubricant Additives, The Lezius-Hiles Co., Cleveland, Ohio. C.V.Smallheer, Lectures on Lubricant Additives, Imperial College, London, March 1970.

267

11 CONSUMPTION AND CONSERVATION OF LUBRICANTS

A.R.

LANSDOWN

D i r e c t o r , Swansea T r i b o l o g y Centre, U.K.

11.1

CONSUMPTION

Apart f r o m t h e r e l a t i v e l y small q u a n t i t i e s o f v e g e t a b l e and animal o i l s , almost a l l modern l u b r i c a n t s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m petroleum, e i t h e r by f r a c t i o n a l d i s t i l l a t i o n o r chemical conversion. I t i s now g e n e r a l l y recognised t h a t t h e

w o r l d ' s remaining s u p p l i e s o f p e t r o l e u m have o n l y a l i m i t e d l i f e . The v a r i o u s e s t i m a t e s o f t h e remaining l i f e o f p e t r o l e u m reserves depend on many assumptions. The r a t e o f f u t u r e consumption i s i t s e l f dependent on such as t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f a l t e r n a t i v e incentives. The

several assumptions, fuels,

improvements i n e f f i c i e n c y o f u t i l i s a t i o n , and f i s c a l

estimates o f r e m a i n i n g r e s e r v e s a l s o depend on s e v e r a l assumptions, such as t h e r a t e o f d i s c o v e r i n g new r e s e r v e s and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r u s i n g low-grade sources. For energy purposes t h i s l a s t f a c t o r reaches i t s l i m i t when t h e energy r e q u i r e d t o e x p l o i t a source i s equal t o t h e energy u l t i m a t e l y o b t a i n e d from t h e source. There i s a general tendency t o d i s c u s s t h e f u t u r e o f p e t r o l e u m p u r e l y from the energy s t a n d p o i n t , and t o r e l a t e i t t o t h e phasing i n o f a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources. There a r e however many p r o d u c t s f r o m p e t r o l e u m which w i l l be l e s s

r e a d i l y r e p l a c e d f r o m non-petroleum sources, and l u b r i c a n t s a r e i n t h i s category

.
The U n i t e d Kingdom's N o r t h Sea o i l i s i n f a c t g e n e r a l l y

A f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n on f u t u r e l u b r i c a n t s u p p l i e s i s t h a t n o t a l l crude o i l s
can be used t o produce l u b r i c a n t s w i t h o u t expensive, and energy-expensive, chemical p r o c e s s i n g .

u n s u i t a b l e f o r l u b r i c a n t manufacture. W a r e t h u s f a c e d w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a t w i t h i n t h e w o r k i n g l i f e o f some o f e our younger l u b r i c a n t t e c h n o l o g i s t s petroleum-based l u b r i c a n t s w i l l cease t o be p l e n t i f u l and may become e x t r e m e l y expensive. Conservation o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s

should t h e r e f o r e a l r e a d y be a m a t t e r o f s e r i o u s concern, and w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be recognised as such w i t h i n one, o r a t most two, decades.

268
Table 11.1 shows a breakdown o f t h e t o t a l U n i t e d Kingdom consumption o f pe tr o le u m f o r t he ca l en da r year 1977, and i t can be seen t h a t l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s and greases r e p rese nt j u s t o v e r one m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons, o r 1.17% o f t h e t o t a l . A c c u r a t e f i g u r e s f o r t h e breakdown o f l u b r i c a n t types a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n , b u t Table 11.2 g i v e s e s t i m a t e s o f U.K. th e more im p o r t ant c a t e g o r i e s . l u b r i c a n t consumption i n some o f

The b i g g e s t s i n g l e c a t e g o r y c o n s i s t s o f a u t o -

m o t i v e e n g in e o i l s , c o m p r i s i n g perhaps one t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l l u b r i c a n t consumpt io n . Table 11.1 U n i t e d Kingdom Consumption o f P e troleum Products 1977 ( F i g u r e s from I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum "Petroleum S t a t i s t i c s " )

Product c a t e g o r y

Consumption (thousand tonnes) 17,336 oils 47,920 4,218 9,639

Motor s p i r i t Gas, d i e s e l and f u e Aviation fuels Other f u e l s Naphtha/Light d i s t i l a t e L u b r i c a t i n g o i l s and greases Other p r o d u c t s Tota 1

5,179
1,029 2,835 88,156

Table 11.2

E s tima t e d L u b r i c a n t Consumption by Types End Use Av i a t i o n Marine Tractor Motor Motor Industrial Industrial lndust r i a l Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Oils Greases Hydraul i c o i 1 s B e ari n g o i l s Me t a l wo rki ng Process o i l s
I.C.E.

TY Pe

Consumption (%) 0.4

8.5
3.0
35.0 0.1 16.0 22.5

5.5 5.5
1.5

oils

Greases Fuel as l u b r i c a n t

1 .o

1 .o

269
O v e r a l l l u b r i c a n t s account f o r o n l y a l i t t l e o v e r 1 % o f t h e t o t a l p e t r o l e u m consumption, b u t t h e importance o f t h i s 1 % i s increased by t h e two f a c t o r s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, namely t h e g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y o f f i n d i n g s u b s t i t u t e sources f o r l u b r i c a n t s and t h e l i m i t e d range o f crude o i l s which can be used t o produce l u b r i c a n t s . The u l t i m a t e f a t e o f t h e v a r i o u s l u b r i c a n t s i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o assess accurately. Table 11.3 shows some e s t i m a t e s made i n 1973 o f t h e f a t e o f a u t o From t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n p o i n t o f view t h e r e a r e two i n t e r The f i r s t i s t h a t some 185 000 t o n s were The second

motive engine o i l s .

e s t i n g aspects o f these e s t i m a t e s .

a p p a r e n t l y p o t e n t i a l p o l l u t e r s o f l a n d and water. 258,000 tons c o u l d t h e o r e t i c a l l y be reclaimed. An a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e AA "Drive" t h a t the 58,000

s t h a t some
1974 suggested

magazine i n January,

t o n s o f engine o i l s changed each year by motor s t s a t home was The l a r g e r quant t y changed i n

p o s s i b l y disposed o f as shown i n Table 11.4.

garages was, however, g e n e r a l l y disposed o f more l e g a l l y . Since 1974 t h e r e have been more d e t a i l e d surveys, b u t t h e i n c r e a s i n g awareness o f t h e need f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n , has a l s o l e d t o a tendency t o l o n g e r o i l change p e r i o d s and t o a g r e a t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n o f r e - r e f i n i n g t o t h e d i s p o s a l prob 1 em. Both o f these f a c t o r s , r e d u c t i o n i n consumption and r e - r e f i n i n g , w i l l in-

e v i t a b l y assume g r e a t e r importance i n coming years.

Table 11.3

Estimates o f t h e Fate o f Motor O i l s Burned (exhaust) Changed (garages) Changed (home) Leaked Scrapped w i t h v e h i c l e Spi 1 l e d Railway ( ? ) 25% 95,000 t o n s 190,000 t o n s 58,000 tons

50%

15%

5%
1%
1%

19,000 t o n s 4,000 tons

4,000 t o n s 5,000 tons

1%

Table 11.4

Estimates o f O i l Disposal by " D o - i t - y o u r s e l f " B u r i e d i n garden Poured down d r a i n s Burned Taken t o garage e t c . f o r p r o p e r d i s p o s a l Otherwise disposed o f

Car Owners 20% 8% 18%

17%

37%

11.2

REDUCING CONSUMPTION

There a r e o f cou rse p u r e l y mechanical ways t o reduce consumption, such as e l i m i n a t i n g leakage and i mpro vi ng s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o f engines. Improvement may

sometimes a l s o be p o s s i b l e by t h e use o f a more v i s c o u s o i l , b u t t h i s must o b v i o u s l y be done w i t h c a u t i o n . Not o n l y must c a r e be used t o ensure t h a t a

s u i t a b l e v i s c o s i t y i s used, b u t as a ge ne ral r u l e t h e use o f a h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l w i l l mean h i g h e r power consumption, and the r e s u l t i n g energy wastage w i l l pr o b a b ly more t h an o f f s e t any l u b r i c a n t saving. The b e s t p r o s p e c t f o r red uci n g consumption l i e s i n e n s u r i n g t h a t o i l changes a r e n o t c a r r i e d o u t any more f r e q u e n t l y t ha n they need t o be. Even i n i d e n t i c a l systems t h e r a t e o f o i l degradation can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y . The f o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e f a c t o r s whi ch l e a d t o r a p i d degradation. Dusty o r d i r t y environments High temperatures Very low t e m pera t u res Temperature f l u c t u a t i o n s , High a l t i t u d e Poor f i l t e r maintenance Low o i l l e v e l s Frequent s t o p - s t a r t o p e r a t i o n Short j o u r n e y l e n g t h s i n a v e h i c l e Contamination by ch emi ca l s Contamination by unburned f u e l Contamination by combustion p r o d u c t s Contamination by wear d e b r i s W i t h i n t h e o i l f o r m u l a t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s can a l s o lead t o r a p i d de g r a d a t io n . Poor q u a l i t y base o i l , c o n t a i n i n g u n s t a b l e molecules Inadequate a n t i - o x i d a n t c o n t e n t I n s u f f i c i e n t dispersant o r detergent a d d i t i v e s I n s u f f i c i e n t a nt i -we ar o r EP a d d i t i v e s I n s u f f i c i e n t basic additives w i t h sulphur-containing fuel Excessively r e a c t i v e o r unstable a d d i t i v e s Because o f a l l these v a r i a b l e s , t h e r e q u i r e d o i l change p e r i o d i n two l e a d i n g t o con densation

i d e n t i c a l e n g in e s may v a r y by a f a c t o r o f t e n i n d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

I n an e r a o f r e l a t i v e l y cheap l u b r i c a n t s , recommended o i l change p e r i o d s

w i l l te n d t o be s h o r t enough t o ensure s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y i n t h e w o r s t s e t o f

c o n d i t i o n s , because t h e economic p e n a l t y f r o m u s i n g an o i l f i l l t o o l o n g w i l l be f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t he v a l u e o f t h e o i l saved.

271
The s o l u t i o n i s o i l q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g , which enables t h e o i l r e m a i n i n g i n an i n d i v i d u a l system t o be assessed p e r i o d i c a l l y , and o n l y changed when i t s cond i t i o n i s approaching an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l . As a bonus, o i l m o n i t o r i n g w i l l

a l s o g i v e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e engine o r o t h e r l u b r i c a t e d system. O i l m o n i t o r i n g i s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f machinery h e a l t h m o n i t o r i n g , which i s described i n d e t a i l i n Chapter 18.

I t i s t h e r e f o r e unnecessary t o d e s c r i b e t h e

various techniques a t l e n g t h here, b u t t h e r e a r e two a s p e c t s which should be mentioned. The f i r s t o f these i s t h e need t o t a i l o r t h e m o n i t o r i n g techniques t o t h e s i z e and importance o f t h e o i l system b e i n g monitored.
A l a r g e c r i t i c a l system

w i l l j u s t i f y t h e e f f o r t and c o s t i n v o l v e d i n f r e q u e n t s p e c t r o g r a p h i c o i l a n a l y s i s
or ferrography. Even a small system, such as a c a r engine, may w e l l j u s t i f y t h e

use o f a magnetic p l u g t o m o n i t o r wear d e b r i s , examination o f a drop o f o i l from

the d i p s t i c k by t h e f i l t e r paper technique, o r v i s c o s i t y by t h e F l o s t i c k method. The second f a c t o r i s t h e need t o e s t a b l i s h f o r any system a c r i t e r i o n f o r d e c i d i n g when t o change t h e o i l . T h i s may be a l e v e l o f a c i d i t y i n t h e T o t a l

Acid Number, a degree o f v i s c o s i t y change, o r t h e v i s i b l e appearance o f contaminants on a f i l t e r - p a p e r , essential b u t an o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n o r c r i t e r i a w i l l be I t i s a salutary

i f o i l change i s t o be determined by o i l q u a l i t y .

thought t h a t t h e i n c i d e n c e o f i n f l i g h t engine f a i l u r e s i n c e r t a i n U n i t e d States

A i r Force a i r c r a f t decreased when n o t o n l y r o u t i n e o i l change, b u t r o u t i n e

engine overhaul p e r i o d s were d i s c o n t i n u e d i n f a v o u r o f s c h e d u l i n g i n accordance with spectroscopic o i l analysis.

11.3

RECLAMATION AND RE-REFINING

Even when a l u b r i c a n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d so t h a t i t i s no l o n g e r f i t f o r service, t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f i t w i l l s t i l l be unchanged. Much o f t h e degradation Only a

i s by c o n t a m i n a t i o n , w h i l e a f u r t h e r f a c t o r i s d e p l e t i o n o f a d d i t i v e s .

very small p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e base o i l w i l l u s u a l l y have been degraded, and t h i s w i l l c o n s i s t o f t h e most u n s t a b l e molecules, u s u a l l y o x i d i s e d t o aldehydes, ketones o r c a r b o x y l i c a c i d s . I t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o remove a l l t h e contaminants and t h e degraded a d d i t i v e s and base o i l molecules, t o add f r e s h a d d i t i v e s , and t h u s t o produce a l u b r i c a n t which d i f f e r s l i t t l e i f a t a l l f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l . The processes

used a r e d e s c r i b e d as r e c l a m a t i o n o r r e - r e f i n i n g , depending on t h e e x t e n t o f treatment i n v o l v e d . I n t h e s i m p l e s t case t h e use o f an i n - l i n e f i l t e r t o remove s o l i d contami n a n t s i s a r e c l a m a t i o n technique. Another example i s t h a t o f a t r a n s f o r m e r

o i l , which degrades i n s e r v i c e t o generate a small b u t unacceptable l e v e l o f

272
o f e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y and can be c l e a n e d up i n s i t u t o recover t h e r e -

quired insulation l e v e l .

Such techniques a r e commonly known a s " l a u n d e r i n g "

and have been w i d e l y used f o r many y e a r s .

A well-established

system f o r more i n t e n s i v e r e - r e f i n i n g i s t h e a c i d - c l a y The

system, which b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e f i v e components shown i n F i g . 1 .

s t r a i n e r a t t h e i n l e t t o t h e waste o i l s t o r a g e tank removes major s o l i d contaminants, w h i l e water and sludge a r e d r a i n e d o f f f r o m t h e bottom. ContaminThe

a t i n g f u e l o r o t h e r v o l a t i l e m a t e r i a l s a r e removed i n t h e steam s t r i p p e r .

c l a r i f i e d o i l from t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s t o r a g e i s t r e a t e d w i t h h o t s u l p h u r i c a c i d , which r e a c t s w i t h most o f t h e r e a c t i v e compounds p r e s e n t and removes them a s a c i d sludge. Treatment w i t h heated a c t i v e " e a r t h " or " c l a y " removes t h e

remaining p o l a r compounds, and t h e s o l i d s a r e f i n a l l y removed i n a f i l t e r - p r e s s . The cleaned o i l o b t a i n e d by t h i s process can be made s u i t a b l e f o r use a s l u b r i c a n t base o i l , b u t i s o f t e n blended i n t o heavy f u e l o i l s .

Strainer

sludge treatment

Clay and clean oil

Figure 1

A c i d - c l a y r e - r e f i n i n g process

The main disadvantage o f t h i s process i s t h e problem of d i s p o s i n g o f l a r g e amounts o f a c i d and a c i d c l a y . An a l t e r n a t i v e process developed by t h e

I n s t i t u t e F r a n c a i s du P e t r o l e uses l i q u i d propane p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o remove t h e degraded m a t e r i a l s and r e s i d u a l a d d i t i v e s . T h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y reduces t h e

273
ge n e r a tio n of waste b y-pro du ct s, economic b u t a t pre sent t h e process i s probably n o t

.
The The second t a kes p l a c e a t 3 4 O o - 3 6 O 0 C and i s designed so t h a t the

A Matthys process c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y o f two d i s t i l l a t i o n stages.

carbons.

f i r s t i s a t atmospheric p ressu re and 180C and removes w ater and l i g h t hydro-

un d e s ir a b le m a t e r i a l s f o rm a coke which i s c a r r i e d o f f i n t h e l i q u i d p r o d u c t s and removed by c e n t r i f u g i n g . Most r e - r e f i n i n g processes r e q u i r e a f i n i s h i n g stage t o produce f r a c t i o n s f o r re-use as l u b r i c a n t s and t h i s may be c l a y treatment o r a conventional hydrofinishing. The r e c o v e r y o f o i l f rom d i l u t e emulsions o r o i l y p l a n t waste-water difficult, is

b u t i s i mpo rt a nt n o t o n l y f o r o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n b u t f o r e l i m i n a t i o n The st an da rd procedure i s t o c r a c k emulsions by chemical t r e a t -

of pollution.

ment and a l l o w t h e p rod uct t o s e t t l e i n h o l d i n g tanks u n t i l t h e o i l can be skimmed o f f . The o i l f r a c t i o n then tends t o c o n t a i n a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f d i r t , I t i s l i k e l y t o be uneconomical f o r r e -

water and t h e t r e at men t chemical.

r e f i n i n g and i s o f t e n blended i n t o b urn er f u e l . I n r e c e n t y e a rs, t ech ni q ue s have been developed which use p o l y m e r i c membranes t o f i l t e r o u t p a r t i c l e s and d r o p l e t s f rom t h e w ater, e i t h e r by d i r e c t u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n o r by re verse osmosis. These t ech niques a r e r e p o r t e d t o g i v e a much

cleaner o i l f r a c t i o n as w e l l as a wat er f r a c t i o n s u i t a b l e f o r discharge t o sewers. One problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e - r e f i n i n g o f engine o i l s i s t h a t t h e r e may be a s l i g h t b u i l d - u p o f p o l y n u c l e a r aro mat i cs, which a r e c a r c i n o g e n i c i n higher c o n c e n t r a t io n s . I t may t h e r e f o r e be d e s i r a b l e t o t r e a t r e - r e f i n e d o i l s by a

f i n i s h i n g process such as s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n w hich w i l l remove p o l y n u c l e a r a roma t ic s

11.4

ECONOMICS

The economics o f o p t i m i s i n g o i l - c h a n g e p e r i o d s depends m a i n l y on t a i l o r i n g the m o n i t o r i n g tech ni q ue s t o t h e s i z e and importance o f the system. Systems

which a r e e i t h e r v e r y l a r g e o r o f c r i t i c a l importance a r e a l r e a d y being moni t o r e d by s o p h i s t i c a t e d techniques. Smaller and l e s s c r i t i c a l systems may and as l u b r i c a n t a v a i l a b i l i t y

al re a d y j u s t i f y si mp l e m o n i t o r i n g techniques,

decreases, t h e balance w i l l i n e v i t a b l y s h i f t i n f a v o u r o f increased l e v e l s o f m o n it o r in g . The economics of r e - r e f i n i n g a l s o depends on a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l . During t h e second World War l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s were r e - r e f i n e d i n most c o u n t r i e s , b u t t h e i n d u s t r y d e c l i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t h i r t y years. The e x t e n t o f t h e d e c l i n e v a r i e d i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , b u t nowhere d i d i t

274
c o m p l e t e l y cease. The reason f o r t h e d e c l i n e may have been p a r t l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l ,

i n t h a t r e - r e f i n e d o i l s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n f e r i o r i n some way, b u t t h e main reason was p r o b a b l y f i n a n c i a l . The economics o f r e - r e f i n i n g d i d n o t p e r m i t more

than a token r e d u c t i o n i n r e t a i l p r i c e s o f r e - r e f i n e d o i l s . I t has been p o s s i b l e f o r many y e a r s t o produce r e - r e f i n e d o i l s o f s i m i l a r q u a l i t y t o new o i l s , b u t i n a p e r i o d o f r e l a t i v e a f f l u e n c e and p l e n t y most people have been h a p p i e r t o pay t h e m a r g i n a l l y h i g h e r p r i c e f o r "new" o i l . The main economic problem has been t h e c o s t o f c o l l e c t i n g and t r a n s p o r t i n g waste o i l , b u t a second f a c t o r has been t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f persuading o p e r a t o r s t o keep wastes o f d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s c l e a n arld separate. I n t h e Federal Republic o f Germany a d e l i b e r a t e move was made t o reduce l u b r i c a n t consumption and encourage r e - r e f i n i n g by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n 1968 o f t h e "Law on Measures t o Ensure t h e Disposal o f Waste O i l " . T h i s law enabled

o r g a n i s a t i o n s d i s p o s i n g o f waste o i l s by approved methods t o c l a i m an allowance t o cover c o s t s i n v o l v e d i n d i s p o s a l . The approved methods i n c l u d e d r e - r e f i n i n g .

The funds were r a i s e d by a s p e c i a l d u t y on imported l u b r i c a n t grade o i l , and t h i s had t h e e f f e c t o f i n t r o d u c i n g a p r i c e margin i n f a v o u r o f r e - r e f i n e d o i l s .

As a r e s u l t , i t was e s t i m a t e d i n 1973 t h a t up t o 30% o f t o t a l l u b r i c a t i n g

o i l consumption was b e i n g r e - r e f i n e d i n Germany, compared w i t h o n l y 5% i n
B r it a i n .

With d e c l i n i n g a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p e t r o l e u m l u b r i c a n t s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f r e r e f i n e d l u b r i c a n t s w i l l p r o b a b l y approach more and more t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t o f 60-70%.

275

12 HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS OF LUBRICANTS

A.R.
EYRES, M.A., M.Sc. Environmental H e a l t h & Product S a f e t y A d v i s o r , Mobil Europe Inc.

12.1

INTRODUCTION

The m a j o r i t y o f m i n e r a l o i l based l u b r i c a n t s and greases a r e r e l a t i v e l y harml es s t o man. T h e i r use n o r m a l l y i n v o l v e s n o unusual hazards p r o v i d e d t h a t

reasonable c a r e i s taken t o a v o i d e xcessi ve s k i n c o n t a c t o r i n h a l a t i o n o f m i s t s and vapours.

A small number o f p r o d u c t s may, because o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l r e q u i r e -

ments t o meet p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i c a l performance needs, p r e s e n t a h i g h e r degree of hazard. Because l u b r i c a n t s a r e m a i n l y composed o f o r g a n i c chemicals which have

some solvency f o r n a t u r a l components o f t h e s k i n , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t p r o v i s i o n

o f c o m p le te ly s a f e p r o d u c t s c o u l d be p o s s i b l e . Synthetic lubricants generally I n order t o review the are s i m i l a r i n hazard p o t e n t i a l t o m i n e r a l o i l products. hazards o f l u b r i c a n t s , composition.

i t i s f i r s t o f a l l necessary t o l o o k b r i e f l y a t t h e i r

12.2

COMPOSITION OF LUBRICANTS

M in e r a l o i l based l u b r i c a n t s a r e p rep are d from base o i l s manufactured from n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g crud e pe t ro l eu m o i l s . Crude o i l s occur i n many p a r t s o f t h e I n a d d i t i o n t o complex

wo r ld and t h e i r comp osi t i on v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o source. m ix tu r e s o f p a r a f f i n i c ,

i s o p a r a f f i n i c , n ap ht henic ( c y c l o p a r a f f i n i c ) and aromatic

hydrocarbons, some compounds o f s u l p h u r , oxygen and n i t r o g e n w i l l be present p l u s t r a c e s o f a number o f me t a l s. D i s t i l l a t i o n o f crude o i l , f o l l o w e d by

v a r io u s o t h e r r e f i n i n g processes such as s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n , hydrogenation o r a c i d t r e a t m e n t y i e l d s v a r i o u s f r a c t i o n s i n t h e broad c a t e g o r i e s shown i n Table

12.1. A l u b r i c a t i n g o i l f r a c t i o n t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n s several thousand i n d i v i d u a l

hydrocarbon compounds.

A base s t o c k i s u s u a l l y described as p a r a f f i n i c o r

naphthenic depending on t h e predominant t yp e o f hydrocarbon compound p r e s e n t . This i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e cru de source. Crude o i l a l s o n o r m a l l y c o n t a i n s p o l y c y c l i c a r o m a t i c hydrocarbons, some o f which (4 t o 6 r i n g compounds) a r e known t o be c a r c i n o g e n i c , eg. benz(a) pyrene. Some r e f i n i n g processes, such as

s o lv e n t o r severe a c i d t r e a t m e n t , remove most o f these p o l y c y c l i c aromatic compounds so t h a t v e r y few a r e p rese nt i n t h e f i n a l l u b r i c a n t base stock. However,

276 Table 12.1

Mol ecu 1 a r Size Gases L i g h t Naphtha Gasol i n e Heavy Naphtha/Kerosine Gas O i l s Lubricating Oils Residuum c1

Boi 1 i n g Range, "C

c4
'8 c12

so
0 20

'3
'4
'9 '10-

'16
'26

100
170

100

200
270 400

C,7 upwards
CZ6 upwards

> 300

i t should be n o t e d t h a t t h e p o l y c y c l i c compounds a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e e x t r a c t e d

material.

Because o f t h e i r b o i l i n g p o i n t s , t h e 4 t o 6 r i n g p o l y c y c l i c compounds

a r e n o t n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t i n d i s t i l l a t e f r a c t i o n s b o i l i n g below about 370C. To o b t a i n l u b r i c a n t performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which c o u l d n o t be p r o v i d e d by t h e base o i l s themselves, v a r i o u s a d d i t i v e s such as a n t i o x i d a n t s , d e t e r g e n t s / d i s p e r s a n t s , e m u l s i f i e r s , b i o c i d e s , a n t i - c o r r o s i v e s and anti-wear/extreme pressure compounds a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d . t h e r e f o r e a l s o need t o be considered. For s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , a v a r i e t y o f s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s have been developed. These a r e based on s y n t h e t i c hydrocarbons and e s t e r s , p o l y g l y c o l s , A d d i t i v e s o f s i m i l a r t y p e s t o those used i n P o t e n t i a l h e a l t h hazards o f such a d d i t i v e s

s i l i c o n e s and phosphate e s t e r s .

m i n e r a l o i l based l u b r i c a n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d .

12.3 12.3.1

MINERAL BASE OIL FACTORS Acute T o x i c i t y

A l l types o f m i n e r a l o i l base s t o c k s have a low o r d e r o f a c u t e ( s h o r t - t e r m )

toxicity.

Acute o r a l LD5O'S ( t h e dose t o t e s t a n i m a l s r e s u l t i n g i n 50 p e r c e n t Extrapolated

m o r t a l i t y ) f o r t h e r a t a r e w e l l above 109 p e r kg of body w e i g h t .

t o man t h i s equates t o i n g e s t i o n o f m r e than one l i t r e o f o i l t o cause death. Low v i s c o s i t y p r o d u c t s such as k e r o s i n e p r e s e n t a somewhat g r e a t e r hazard because o f t h e danger o f a s p i r a t i o n i n t o t h e lungs, f o l l o w e d by pneumonitis, v o m i t i n g occurs. M i n e r a l o i l s a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - t o x i c by a b s o r p t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s k i n . Dermal L O 5 0 ' s f o r t h e r a b b i t a r e w e l l above log p e r kg body w e i g h t , a l e v e l g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d as harmless. if

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12.3.2 Dermatitis

D e r m a t i t i s i s undoubtedly t h e maj o r p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h problem w i t h m i n e r a l o i l p r o d u c ts , r e s u l t i n g f ro m re pe at ed o r p rolonged s k i n c o n t a c t and inadequate skin care. Primary i r r i t a t i o n and d e f a t t i n g o f t h e s k i n can occur t o v a r y i n g The

e x t e n t s , depending on t h e t y p e o f p r o d u c t and t h e degree o f exposure. l i g h t e r p e t r o le u m o i l s w i t h f i n a l b o i l i n g p o i n t s below about 350C, k e r o s in e , t e n d t o be d i r e c t s k i n i r r i t a n t s .

f o r example,

Since the chemical n a t u r e o f

min e r a l o i l ensures t h a t t h e r e w i l l be some solvency e f f e c t on the n a t u r a l f a t s o f t h e s k i n i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t p o t e n t i a l problems can be t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d by product development. However, a d o p t i o n o f simple measures t o prevent repeated

and prolonged c o n t a c t , t o g e t h e r w i t h good pe rsonal hygiene p r a c t i c e s and c a r e o f the s k i n , can v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d e r m a t i t i s problems. D e r m a t i t i s from l u b -

r i c a n t s i s an a v o i d a b l e o c c u p a t i o n a l di se ase i n t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f cases.

12.3.3

O i l Mist

A lt h o u g h i t has o f t e n been suggested t h a t i n h a l a t i o n o f o i l m i s t over extended p e r i o d s may l e a d t o an i n crea sed r i s k o f l u n g cancer, evidence from animal t e s t i n g and exposed human p o p u l a t i o n s does n o t support t h i s . animal exposures t o w h i t e o i l m i s t a t increased l u n g cancer r i s k . For example,

5 and 100 mg/m3 showed no i n d i c a t i o n s o f

I n f u r t h e r work, no i n j u r y o r i n d i s p o s i t i o n from

i n h a l a t i o n o f o i l m i s t was observed amongst animals exposed f o r 18 months t o m i s t f r o m a s u l p h u r i s e d s o l v e n t - e x t r a c t e d n aphthenic base o i l a t 50 m per g c u b ic meter [1,2,3]. Deco uf l e o f t h e U.S. N a t i o n a l Cancer I n s t i t u t e [4,5] has

pu b lis h e d two e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e cancer m o r t a l i t y o f workers exposed t o c u t t i n g o i l mists. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t exposure t o o i l m i s t s does

n o t pose a hazard i n terms o f r e s p i r a t o r y cancer and f a t a l non-malignant r e s p i r a t o r y disease, b u t may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s l i g h t increase i n cancer o f t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l system.

A st ud y o f worke rs i n metal machining p l a n t s i n

Germany by Oraschs [ 6 ] showed no adverse r e s p i r a t o r y e f f e c t s among 443 employees i n 17 f a c t o r i e s . About 63 p e r c e n t o f these employees were r e p o r t e d t o have Comparison been exposed t o h i g h o i l m i s t l e v e l s i n t h e range 40 t o 80 mg/m3.

of smokers and non-smokers i n exposed and non-exposed p o p u l a t i o n s suggested i n f a c t t h a t i n h a l a t i o n o f o i l m i s t may p r o v i d e some p r o t e c t i v e e f f e c t a g a i n s t t h e harmful e f f e c t s o f smoking on t h e b r o n c h i a l system. The c u r r e n t T hresh ol d L i m i t Value ( t h e atmospheric c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o which i t i s b e l i e v e d most workers can be exposed f o r 8 hours d a i l y w i t h o u t adverse e f f e c t s on h e a l t h ) p u b l i s h e d by t h e American Conference o f Gernmental Indu s t r i a l Hygienists i s

mg/m3.

T h i s has been s e t on t h e b a s i s o f p r e v e n t i n g

nuisance and unpleasantness t o wo rkers r a t h e r than on h e a l t h e f f e c t aspects and

i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y an index o f good i n d u s t r i a l hygiene p r a c t i c e s .

I t i s believed

t h a t t h e 5 mg/m3 l i m i t p r o v i d e s a s a f e t y f a c t o r o f a t l e a s t t e n a g a i n s t even r e l a t i v e l y minor changes i n t h e lungs. As w i t h many chemicals, i n h a l a t i o n o f very h i g h concentrations o f o i l mists

( o r vapours o f more v o l a t i l e p r o d u c t s such as k e r o s i n e ) may cause i r r i t a t i o n o f t h e lungs and may l e a d t o a chemical pneumonia.

12.3.4

O i l Vapours

A t normal temperatures, t y p i c a l l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s do n o t produce any s i g n i f -

i c a n t l e v e l s o f vapour i n t h e working atmosphere.

S a t u r a t e d vapour concent-

r a t i o n s f o r a t y p i c a l l u b r i c a t i n g o i l have been c a l c u l a t e d by Sanderson [7] t o be 0.016 ppm a t 20C and

1.4

ppm a t 100C

these a r e so low t h a t any

adverse h e a l t h e f f e c t s w i l l n o t occur.

L i g h t e r p r o d u c t s such as d i e s e l o i l and

k e r o s i n e do have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e v a p o r a t i o n o f l i g h t ends t o produce s i g n i f i c a n t vapour c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . For example, t h e s a t u r a t e d vapour c o n c e n t r a t i o n

f o r k e r o s i n e a t 20C i s about 2000 ppm. i r r i t a t i o n o f mucous membranes.

These l i g h t e r p r o d u c t s may produce

I n metal machining o p e r a t i o n s , s i g n i f i c a n t

v a p o r i s a t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s may o c c u r a t t h e h i g h t o o l / w o r k p i e c e tempera t u r e s , b u t on c o o l i n g i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g atmosphere, t h i s vapour w i l l be condensed t o d r o p l e t s o f o i l m i s t .

12.3.5

Skin Cancer

I t has been known f o r many y e a r s t h a t some t y p e s o f m i n e r a l o i l can cause

s k i n cancer w i t h repeated and p r o l o n g e d exposure o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f years. should be n o t e d however t h a t s k i n cancer i s n o r m a l l y l e s s s e r i o u s than o t h e r forms o f cancer and i s u s u a l l y c u r a b l e w i t h e a r l y t r e a t m e n t . I n 1922, L e i t c h [ 8 ] r e p o r t e d t h a t S c o t t i s h s h a l e o i l d i s t i l l a t e s caused cancer o f t h e s k i n when p a i n t e d on t o animals.

It

I t i s not possible t o review a l l

o f t h e e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t s i n c e t h a t t i m e , b u t among t h e most i m p o r t a n t were those r e p o r t e d i n 1966 by Bingham and Horton 191, sponsored by t h e American Petroleum I n s t i t u t e .
I t was shown t h a t base s t o c k s prepared by

s o l v e n t r e f i n i n g , which removes p o l y c y c l i c a r o m a t i c hydrocarbons (PCAH), d i d n o t cause tumours i n mice whereas t y p i c a l a c i d r e f i n e d base s t o c k s d i d . I n 1968,

t h e UK Medical Research Council p u b l i s h e d a r e p o r t "The Carcinogenic A c t i o n o f Mineral O i l s :

A Chemical and B i o l o g i c a l Study" [lo]. The s a l i e n t c o n c l u s i o n s

from t h i s r e p o r t and o t h e r s t u d i e s can be summarised as f o l l o w s :

Some f r a c t i o n s o f c e r t a i n crudes f r o m which l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s a r e r e f i n e d have been shown t o produce tumours on s k i n s o f r a b b i t s o r mice. S o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n methods o f r e f i n i n g which remove a r o m a t i c compounds markedly reduce t h e c a r c i n o g e n i c a c t i v i t y o f t h e r e f i n e d l u b r i c a n t s .

279

.
*

C a r c i n o g e n i c i t y o f m i n e r a l o i l s appears t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e presence o f PCAH's, some o f which a r e known t o be carcinogens. I t has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e any simple a n a l y t i c a l parameters which c o r r e l a t e w i t h c a r c i n o g e n i c a c t i v i t y . An Ad-hoc Committee o f t h e UK I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum s t u d i e d a l l a v a i l a b l e

evidence and a d v i s e d member companies i n 1968 t h a t o i l s which have been s o l v e n t r e f i n e d o r t r e a t e d i n o t h e r ways t o a p p r e c i a b l y reduce t h e c o n t e n t o f p o l y c y c l i c aromatic compounds, were l e s s l i k e l y t o promote s k i n cancer n o t been t h u s r e f i n e d . The d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f i n i n g a n a l y t i c a l parameters t o c o r r e a t e w i t h c a r c i n o genic a c t i v i t y i s i l l u s t r a t e d by r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d by Scala [ 11, shown i n Table 12.2. han o i l s which had

Table 12.2

OIL Pyrene, ppm Benz ( a ) anthracene, ppm Benz (a) pyrene, ppm

A
3.5 6.6

B
18.3 7.9 1.2 15.2

4.4
2.7

4.5

0.2
12.4

% CA (carbon i n a r o m a t i c r i n g s ) 15.4
Cancer a c t i v i t y

+
inhibitors

The reason f o r t h i s i s t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e e f f e c t s o f cocarcinogens, and a c c e l e r a t o r s .

For example, i t has been shown t h a t s u l p h u r and some organo-

sulphur compounds can increase c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y , as a l s o can c e r t a i n t y p e s o f hydrocarbons.

S f a r , d e s p i t e e x t e n s i v e research, no e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y method f o r o

e v a l u a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y o f an o i l has been devised. method t o d a t e i s t h e l o n g term p a i n t i n g o f mice s k i n s .

The b e s t

Such t e s t s t a k e two they

years t o complete and r e q u i r e h i g h standards o f experimental techniques; are t h e r e f o r e v e r y c o s t l y .

There i s a l s o t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t r a n s l a t i n g r e s u l t s I t i s t h e r e f o r e impossible t o

o f animal t e s t s t o t h e human exposure s i t u a t i o n . t e s t each i n d i v i d u a l f o r m u l a t i o n .

However, a l a r g e number o f t e s t s have been

done and these f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r c u r r e n t recommendations t o m i n i m i s e hazards. Cases o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s c r o t a 1 cancer have been r e p o r t e d f r o m many c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g France, Sweden, t h e UK and t h e USA. The i n c i d e n c e i n t h e UK i s e q u i v a l e n t t o about 5 cases p e r m i l l i o n males p e r year whereas i n Sweden i t i s lower, a t about 1 case p e r m i l l i o n males p e r year. Wahlberg [ 1 2 ] has r e p o r t e d

t h a t o n l y 21 p e r c e n t o f Swedish cases had had d e f i n i t e exposure t o m i n e r a l o i l .

280
T h i s c o n t r a s t s markedly w i t h a f i g u r e o f 86 per c e n t r e p o r t e d f o r UK cases. No o b v io u s reason f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e has been i d e n t i f i e d , b u t f a c t o r s such as p l a n t and p e r s o n al hyg i en e may w e l l be s i g n i f i c a n t . As these a r e improved, The long

i nc id e n c e o f s c r o t a 1 cancer can be e xpe ct e d t o decrease e v e n t u a l l y .

l a t e n t p e r i o d f r o m f i r s t exposure t o d i a g n o s i s o f the cancer (10 t o 43 years) means t h a t any changes i n i n c i d e n c e cannot be observed q u i c k l y .

12.3.6

Eye I r r i t a t i o n

I n common w i t h a m u l t i t u d e o f commonly used m a t e r i a l s , eg. soapy water, many l u b r i c a n t s may cause some i r r i t a t i o n i f splashes e n t e r t h e eye. W i t h the m a j o r i t y o f p r o d u c t s t h i s w i l l n o t be more t h an v e r y s l i g h t , b u t some such as n e a t s o l u b l e o i l s , may, because t he y c o n t a i n a p p r e c i a b l e amounts o f s u r f a c e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s such as soaps, be somewhat more i r r i t a t i n g .

12.4

ADDITIVE FACTORS

B e fo r e use i n l u b r i c a n t s , a d d i t i v e s a r e screened f o r t o x i c i t y and s k i n o r eye i r r i t a n c y . T h i s i s e s s e n t i a l t o assess p o t e n t i a l hazards and determine any

required handling precautions during blending o f the f i n i s h e d l u b r i c a n t .

If i t

appears l i k e l y t h a t an a d d i t i v e may l e a d t o any increased hazard i n t h e blended l u b r i c a n t , f u r t h e r t e s t i n g may be done t o d e f i n e t h i s . The e x t e n t o f p o s s i b l e

increased h a z a r d i n a f i n i s h e d f o r m u l a t i o n must be assessed t o decide whether o r n o t th e a d d i t i v e sho ul d be r e j e c t e d . I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f p rod uct s, a d d i t i v e s a r e minor i n g r e d i e n t s and t h e p o t e n t i a l hazards a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t ho se a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e base m i n e r a l o i l . a d d i t i v e c o n t e n t s a r e h i g h e r , eg. Where

i n n e a t s o l u b l e o i l s and i n some engine l u b -

r i c a n t s , t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t may be more i r r i t a t i n g than t h e base m i n e r a l o i l .

I f use o f these a d d i t i v e s i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t e c h n i c a l performance reasons, t h e

hazards must be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i mp l eme nt ation o f adequate h a n d l i n g and use precautions.

A wide range of a d d i t i v e s i s used t o a c h i e v e improvements i n l u b r i c a n t p e r formance. For each a d d i t i v e t ype , v a r i o u s chemical compounds have been found Very few o f these have been found t o p r e s e n t any s i g n i f i c a n t Among t ho se wh i ch have been t h e cause o f some concern a r e

t o be e f f e c t i v e . p o t e n t i a l hazards.

l ea d compounds, o r t h o isomers o f phosphate e s t e r s , c h l o r i n a t e d naphthalenes, sodium n i t r i t e i n co mbi n at i on w i t h amines, sodium mercaptobenzothiazole and trichloroethylene.

12.4.1

Lead Compounds

One o f t h e e a r l y e f f e c t i v e methods of i mp roving a n t i w e a r and extreme pre s s u r e p r o p e r t i e s o f a l u b r i c a n t was t o i n c o r p o r a t e l e a d soap. Although t h e r e

281
are no r e p o r t e d cases o f s u f f i c i e n t l e ad a b s o r p t i o n t o cause adverse h e a l t h e f f e c t s , Van Peteghem and Vos [13] r e p o r t e d s l i g h t increases i n b l o o d l e a d l e v e l s i n s t e e l m i l l employees w i t h f r e q u e n t o r prolonged s k i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h i s type o f l u b r i c a n t . New a d d i t i v e t e chn ol o gy has enabled t h i s t y p e o f f o r m u l a t i o n

t o be l a r g e l y r e p l a c e d o v e r t h e l a s t few ye ars by unleaded l u b r i c a n t s .

12.4.2

Or th o Phosphates

A b s o r p t i o n o f o r t h o t r i c r e s y l phosphate has been shown t o cause c e n t r a l nervous system damage l e a d i n g t o neurornuscular problems and v a r i o u s stages o f paralysis. The p ara isomer does n o t have t h i s e f f e c t and i s e s s e n t i a l l y i n e r t !Suppliers o f

p r o v i d i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f o r t h o isomer i s a t a v e r y low l e v e l .

t r i c r e s y l phosphates have f o r many ye ars r e s t r i c t e d the o r t h o c o n t e n t t o l e s s than 1 p e r c e n t i n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e n t r a l nervous system effects

12.4.3

C h l o r i n a t e d Naphthalenes

C h l o r i n a t e d naphthalenes were used f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d many years ago as e f f e c t i v e extreme p r e s s u r e a d d i t i v e s i n c u t t i n g o i l s . T h e i r use was disconThe types o f

t i n u e d when an a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h c h l o r a c n e o f t h e s k i n was found.

c h l o r i n a t e d a d d i t i v e now used, eg. c h l o r i n a t e d p a r a f f i n s , do n o t cause t h i s effect.

12.4.4

Sodium N i t r i t e and Amines

Sodium n i t r i t e i n co mbi n at i on w i t h t r i and diethanolamines has been used f o r many y e a r s t o p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r y a n t i c o r r o s i o n p r o p e r t i e s i n aqueous g r i n d i n g fluids, and, a t lower c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , i n some s o l u b l e c u t t i n g o i l s . R ecently,

small amounts o f n i t r o s a m i n e s , a t y p e o f ch emicalof which some a r e known t o be c a r c i n o g e n i c , have been found i n b o t h c o n c e n t r a t e s and d i l u t e d v e r s i o n s o f such p r o d u c t s [14,15]. Ni t ro sami n es a r e a l s o found i n many foods, d r i n k s and

cosmetics, a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e atmosphere o f c i t y s t r e e t s and a r e a l s o formed w i t h i n t h e body i t s e l f . Assessment o f any increased hazard from g r i n d i n g f l u i d s

i s d i f f i c u l t because o f t h e problems o f e s t i m a t i n g exposure and e x t e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n i n t o t h e body. Taking t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e case,

i t appears t h a t

a b s o r p t i o n c o u l d approach t h a t f ro m foods, b u t t y p i c a l l y i t i s l i k e l y t o be v e r y much l e s s t h a n t h i s . As a p r e c a u t i o n however, s u p p l i e r s have e l i m i n a t e d the

c o m b in a tio n o f n i t r i t e and amine exce pt i n some c r i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s where i t has n o t y e t been p o s s i b l e t o m e t t h e t e c h n i c a l requirements w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e formulations.

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12.4.5 Sodium Mercaptobenzothiazole

T h i s compound was used a t one t i m e a s a v e r y e f f e c t i v e c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r i n aqueous l u b r i c a n t s . I t was l a t e r i d e n t i f i e d as a s t r o n g s k i n s e n s i t i z e r and

i s no l o n g e r used i n a p p l i c a t i o n s where s k i n c o n t a c t i s l i k e l y .

12.4.6

Trichloroethylene

T r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e was used w i d e l y as a non-flammable d i l u e n t i n open gear l u b r i c a n t s t o e n a b l e a h i g h l y v i s c o u s l u b r i c a n t f i l m t o be e a s i l y a p p l i e d t o gear t e e t h s u r f a c e s . Exposure t o t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e vapour above t h e t i m e

weighted average TLV o f 100 ppm may be hazardous, c a u s i n g depression o f t h e c e n t r a l nervous system w i t h v i s u a l d i s t u r b a n c e s and l a c k o f c o - o r d i n a t i o n , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f damage t o t h e l i v e r and kidneys. t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e vapours has a l s o o c c u r r e d . Addiction t o s n i f f i n g plus

Such exposures on a c o n t i n u i n g

b a s i s a r e u n l i k e l y t o occur e x c e p t perhaps i n c o n f i n e d and p o o r l y v e n t i l a t e d spaces. However, t o p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r margin o f s a f e t y , t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e can

tri-

be s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h a s l i g h t l y more expensive s a f e r a l t e r n a t i v e , 1.1.1 c h l o r o e t h a n e , which has a TLV o f 350 ppm.

I t has a l s o been i n d i c a t e d t h a t t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e i s a c a r c i n o g e n i n animal tests. However, t h e doses g i v e n by i n g e s t i o n i n t o t h e stomach were s o massive

compared t o p o s s i b l e human exposure t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f these t e s t r e s u l t s can be s e r i o u s l y questioned.

12.5

BACTERIA AND BlOClDES

Water based l u b r i c a n t s and m i n e r a l o i l l u b r i c a n t s contaminated w i t h w a t e r , eg. marine e n g i n e o i l s , can s u p p o r t t h e growth o f b a c t e r i a , y e a s t s and f u n g i . Growth does n o t n o r m a l l y occur i n p r o d u c t s which do n o t c o n t a i n water. As s u p p l i e d t o

users, p r o d u c t s a r e n o r m a l l y f r e e o f b a c t e r i a , b u t c o n t a m i n a t i o n o c c u r s f r o m a number o f p o s s i b l e sources such as water f r o m engine c o o l i n g systems, t h e water used a s d i l u e n t , r e s i d u a l b a c t e r i a i n p l a n t c i r c u l a t i o n systems, r e f u s e such a s

c i g a r e t t e s thrown i n t o t h e c o o l a n t , employees s p i t t i n g i n t o t h e p r o d u c t o r even from b a c t e r i a l contamination o f the a i r i n the p l a n t . The b a c t e r i a , y e a s t s o r f u n g i which grow i n aqueous c o o l a n t s o r l u b r i c a n t s contaminated w i t h water a r e n o t n o r m a l l y harmful t o humans. Although concern

has been expressed t h a t b a c t e r i a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n may l e a d t o increased r e s p i r a t o r y o r s k i n i n f e c t i o n s , i n d u s t r i a l medical a d v i s e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l a r g e metal machining p l a n t s have r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y can f i n d no evidence f o r t h i s . types o f b a c t e r i a found a r e almost i n v a r i a b l y t h e non-pathogenic The

t y p e which a r e

harmless t o humans a l t h o u g h v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y a p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l pathogenic t y p e may be i d e n t i f i e d .

283
For t e c h n i c a l reasons, aqueous c o o l a n t s ,
i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o c o n t r o l b a c t e r i a l growth.

With

t h i s i s ach i eve d e i t h e r by i n c l u s i o n o f small amounts o f b i o By t h e i r

c i d e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l p r o d u c t o r by a d d i t i o n o f b i o c i d e s d u r i n g use.

na tu r e , b i o c i d e s a r e mo de rat el y t o h i g h l y t o x i c by i n g e s t i o n and may be s k i n o r eye i r r i t a n t s i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d form. T he r efore, t h e i r use must be c a r e f u l l y

c o n t r o l l e d t o a v o i d i ncre ase d h e a l t h hazards.

I n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s n o i m a l l y

used, and p r o v i d e d a p p r o p r i a t e h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s a r e observed, b i o c i d e s should p r e s e n t no hazard t o h e a l t h . "topping-up" However, use o f excessive c o n c e n t r a t i o n s W i t h marine engine o i l s , b a c t e r i a l in

may cause s k i n i r r i t a t i o n .

problems can be c o n t r o l l e d by c o r r e c t o i l s e l e c t i o n and a p p r o p r i a t e o p e r a t i n g procedures [ 1 6 ] .

12.6

SYNTHETIC LUBRICANTS

A v a r i e t y o f chemical t ype s a r e used as s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s t o meet opera t i o n a l r e q u ir e m en t s which cannot be s a t i s f i e d adequately w i t h m i n e r a l o i l prod u c t s . Types i n c l u d e v a r i o u s e s t e r s o f o r g a n i c f a t t y a c i d s , s i l i c o n e s , syn-

t h e t i c hydrocarbons such as p o l y o l e f i n e s , p o l y g l y c o l s and phosphate e s t e r s . There a r e no unusual h e a l t h hazards a s s o c i a t e d w i t h these. skin, s i m i l a r t o t h a t w i t h mineral o i l , pro lo n g e d c o n t a c t o ccurs. D e f a t t i n g o f the

i s p o s s i b l e i n most cases i f repeated o r

I n t h e case o f phosphate e s t e r s , the use o f t h e

o r t h o isomer s h o u l d be avo i de d as i n d i c a t e d i n 1 2 . 4 . 2 .

12.7

USED AND RECLAIMED OR RE-REFINED OILS

There i s s t r o n g evi d en ce t h a t PCAH c o n t e n t o f m i n e r a l o i l based l u b r i c a n t s i nc r e a s e s d u r i n g use [ 1 7 ] . type o f a p p l i c a t i o n , The e x t e n t o f t h e increase appears t o depend on t h e

b e i n g up t o about t e n - f o l d f o r c u t t i n g o i l s and d i e s e l

eng in e o i l s , b u t perhaps one h u n d r e d - f o l d or more f o r g a s o l i n e engine o i l s and quenching o i l s . Non-engine i n d u s t r i a l l u b r i c a n t s such as h y d r a u l i c , gear and

b e a r i n g o i l s would n o t be expected t o show any s i g n i f i c a n t PCAH increase d u r i n g

use because o f t h e l i m i t e d t emp era t u re i n crea ses t o which they a r e subjected.

Much o f t h e in c r e ase i n e ng i ne o i l s appears t o a r i s e from g a s o l i n e combustion products

.
I n t h e case o f c u t t i n g o i l s , c a l c u l a t i o n s based on o i l m i s t concent-

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f these i n crea ses i n PCAH c o n t e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o any i nc r e a s e d s k i n cancer r i s k i s n o t c l e a r a t present f o r t h e reasons discussed i n 12.3.5.

r a t i o n s a t t h e TLV o f

mg/m3 i n d i c a t e t h a t PCAH l e v e l s w i l l be o f the same order Provided o i l m i s t l e v e l s a r e increase i n

o f magnitude as background atmospheric l e v e l s . m a i n t a i n e d below t h e TLV, risk.

i t appears t h e r e should be no s i g n i f i c a n t

284
For e n v ir o n m en t a l c o n s e r v a t i o n reasons, t h e r e a r e a t t r a c t i o n s i n r e c l a i m i n g o r r e - r e f i n i n g used l u b r i c a n t s f o r f u r t h e r use. In specific situations there

may a l s o be economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r re cl amation.

A v a r i e t y o f processes may

be employed f r o m si mp l e c e n t r i f u g i n g and e a r t h f i l t r a t i o n t o a c i d t r e a t m e n t , r e d i s t i l l a t i o n and s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n . on t h e p o t e n t i a l hazards, U n t i l further information i s available

i t i s co nsi d ere d i t would be prudent t o l i m i t use o f

such o i l s t o a p p l i c a t i o n s i n which t h e r e i s l i t t l e s k i n c o n t a c t u n l e s s i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e o i l has o n l y been used where PCAH i n c r e a s e i s u n l i k e l y , o r has been t r e a t e d by a pro cess wh i ch w i l l remove PCAH, eg. s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n o f aroma t ic s

.
Repeated o r prolonged s k i n c o n t a c t w i t h

Used g a s o l i n e e ng i ne o i l s can c o n t a i n up t o about 1 per c e n t of l e a d [ 1 8 ] . T h i s o r i g i n a t e s m a i n l y f r o m l e a d a d d i t i v e s i n g a s o l i n e w i t h perhaps a minor c o n t r i b u t i o n fr o m wear o f e ng i ne p a r t s .

these o i l s may r e s u l t i n some i n crea sed a b s o r p t i o n o f l e a d i n t o t h e body. Used c u t t i n g o i l s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n sma l l metal c h i p s o r swarf w hich p r e s e n t an a d d i t i o n a l hazard t o t h e s k i n . Many o f t he se metal p a r t i c l e s a r e n e e d l e - l i k e l e a d i n g t o a general i r r i t a t i o n . in

shape and can cause m i c r o - l e s i o n s of t h e s k i n ,

I t i s a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t e n t r y o f swa rf i n t o t h e s k i n may d e s t r o y an e l e c t r o n e g a t i v e b a r r i e r beneath t h e s u r f a c e ove r about one square inch around t h e s i t e , thus a l l o w i n g o t h e r m a t e r i a l s such as t h e c u t t i n g f l u i d t o p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e skin.

12.8 12.8.1

HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Supplier's Responsibilities

S e c tio n 6 o f t h e H e a l t h and S a f e t y a t Mork A c t e t c .

1974 p l a c e s r e s p o n s i b i l -

i t i e s on s u p p l i e r s " t o ensure so f a r as i s reasonably p r a c t i c a b l e , t h a t t h e substance i s s a f e and w i t h o u t r i s k s t o h e a l t h when p r o p e r l y used" and t o make a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on any r e l e v a n t t e s t s and "about any c o n d i t i o n s necessary t o ensure t h a t i t w i l l be s a f e and w i t h o u t r i s k s t o h e a l t h when p r o p e r l y used." S u p p l i e r s a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d t o e l i m i n a t e o r minimise r i s k s t o h e a l t h and s a f e t y , as f a r as i s r e a son ab l y p r a c t i c a b l e . completely safe products; S u p p l i e r s cannot be expected t o produce

indeed, i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e r e i s no such t h i n g

t h e r e a r e o n l y s a f e ways o f u s i n g a p rod uct .

Even pure w ater can be harmful i f

one d r i n k s t o o much o f i t and many p eo pl e w i l l s u f f e r s k i n problems i f t h e i r hands a r e immersed i n wat er f o r se vera l h ou rs d a i l y . For many y e a r s, r e p u t a b l e l u b r i c a n t s u p p l i e r s have been assessing t h e p o t e n t i a l hazards o f p rod uct s.

O f p a r t i c u l a r importance i s t h e assessment o f

t o x i c i t y o f p o s s i b l e a d d i t i v e s and r e j e c t i o n o f those w hich may l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y in c r e a s e d r i s k . As i n d i c a t e d i n S e c t i o n 12.4, a number o f a d d i t i v e s

which may p r e s e n t hazards under some c o n d i t i o n s o f use have been r e p l a c e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s by a l t e r n a t i v e s a f e r m a t e r i a l s . Care must always be e x e r c i s e d

285
however, t o ensure t h a t a m a t e r i a l w i t h a known r i s k i s n o t r e p l a c e d by a new m a t e r i a l w i t h unknown r i s k which may i n f a c t be much g r e a t e r . The H e a l t h and S a f e t y a t Work Act does n o t r e q u i r e s u p p l i e r s t o d i s c l o s e d e t a i l s o f p r o d u c t comp osi t i on s t o u sers. W h i l s t most s u p p l i e r s w i l l make

broad c o m p o s i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e , o r even d e t a i l e d informa t i o n on a c o n f i d e n t i a l b a s i s t o a u ser h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l where necessary, f o r m u l a t i o n s a r e p r o p r i e t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l manufacturer i n a c o m p e t i t i v e b u s iness wo rl d. Co nsi d era bl e re search e x p e n d i t u r e may have been

i n c u r r e d i n d e v e l op i ng new a d d i t i v e s and i n s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t combination o f a d d i t i v e s t o p r o v i d e a performance b e n e f i t i n a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n . Sup-

p l i e r s a r e n a t u r a l l y r e l u c t a n t t o i n crea se t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s informa t i o n may pass t o t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r s . I n any case, such i n f o r m a t i o n i s u s u a l l y

o f l i t t l e v a lu e t o t h e use r i n asse ssi ng p o t e n t i a l hazards. v a lu e i s t h e t o x i c o l o g i c a l based on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n .

O f much g r e a t e r

i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e recommended h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s

Most s u p p l i e r s a l s o p r o v i d e use rs w i t h b o o k l e t s o r l e a f l e t s recommending safe h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s and r e v i e w i n g p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h hazards. T y p i c a l recom-

mendations, t o g e t h e r w i t h p r a c t i c e s o f l a r g e user companies, have been reviewed by t h e I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum and i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a Code o f P r a c t i c e f o r Metalwor k in g F l u i d s , p u b l i s h e d i n J u l y 1978 1191.

12.8.2

S k in P r o t e c t i o n

The b a s i c r e q ui re men t f o r a v o i d i n g s k i n problems i s t o minimise c o n t a c t . With t h e m a j o r i t y of l u b r i c a n t s , o ccasi o na l s k i n c o n t a c t f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s w i l l cause no problems. Compliance w i t h t h e normal recommendation t o a v o i d prolonged

o r r e p e a te d s k i n c o n t a c t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t d e r m a t i t i s and s k i n i r r i t a t i o n problems. The p r e c a u t i o n s needed t o a v o i d d e r m a t i t i s and s k i n i r r i Modern s o l v e n t r e f i n e d types o f m i n e r a l With t h e more

t a t i o n w i l l a l s o p r e v e n t s k i n cancer.

o i l s ( o r e q u i v a l e n t ) a l s o mi n i mi se t h e r i s k o f s k i n cancer.

i r r i t a n t t y p e s o f p r o d u c t , such as k e r o s i n e and n e a t s o l u b l e o i l s , occasional v e r y s h o r t c o n t a c t i s u n l i k e l y t o cause problems, b u t i f any a p p r e c i a b l e c o n t a c t i s l i k e l y , s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i v e measures sh ou ld be employed. Contact can be mi ni mi se d by u s i n g s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i v e gloves and c l o t h i n g , b a r r i e r creams, and t h e p rop er i n s t a l l a t i o n and use o f splash guards on c u t t i n g machines. P r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g which becomes contaminated w i t h o i l should be

changed f r e q u e n t l y and cl e an ed by any l a u n d e r i n g process ( d r y o r wet, o r a c o m b in a tio n o f b o t h ) which produces v i s u a l l y c l e a n garments. comes g r o s s l y contaminated, eg. by spray o r s p i l l a g e , immediately. S p e c ia l aprons a r e a v a i l a b l e , c o n s i s t i n g o f an impervious back w i t h a de ta c h a b le a b s o rbe nt f r o n t whi ch can be e a s i l y removed f o r c l e a n i n g . The use o f

I f c l o t h i n g be-

i t should be changed

286
t h i s t y p e o f p r o t e c t i o n by t o o l s e t t e r s , who a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y t o be exposed t o heavy c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n l e a n i n g o v e r o i l y machines, recommended. i s strongly

Use o f t h i s t y p e o f a pro n removes t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o stow o i l y rags

Sleeves o f

o r t o o l s i n t r o u s e r po cket s, a p r a c t i c e whi ch c o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e s k i n i n t h e g r o i n a r e a b e in g i n p rol o ng ed c o n t a c t w i t h o i l - s o a k e d c l o t h i n g .

c l o t h i n g should be s h o r t o r r o l l e d up t o a v o i d c o n t i n u a l f r i c t i o n between o i l soaked c u f f s and t h e s k i n o f forearms and w r i s t s . wear o i l - s o a k e d c l o t h i n g " . The golden r u l e i s

"Do n o t

I t sho ul d be remembered t h a t t h i s a p p l i e s a l s o * t o Under-

u n d e r c l o t h i n g which may become con t a mi na t e d f rom o i l - s o a k e d o v e r a l l s . c l o t h e s s h o u ld a l s o be changed f r e q u e n t l y . ination,

To h e l p minimise c l o t h i n g contam-

s e p a r a te l o c k e r f a c i l i t i e s f o r work and s t r e e t c l o t h e s a r e d e s i r a b l e

i n changing rooms. Employees who come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o i l should wash exposed s k i n a t t h e end o f any work p e r i o d , u s i n g warm w a t e r and soap, m i l d d e t e r g e n t o r p r o p r i e t a r y s k i n cleanser. S t ron g soaps and d e t e r g e n t s and a b r a s i v e type soaps o r c l e a n s e r s K e rosi n e, p e t r o l and o t h e r degreasing s o l v e n t s should n o t be Hands sh ou l d a l s o be washed b e f o r e e a t i n g , d r i n k i n g E a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e washing

should be avoided.

used f o r c l e a n i n g t h e s k i n .

or smoking and b e f o r e and a f t e r u s i n g t h e l a v a t o r y .

and t o i l e t f a c i l i t i e s sh ou l d be a v a i l a b l e and should be w e l l maintained. I d e a l l y , employees sh ou l d shower a t t h e end o f t h e work s h i f t t o remove a l l traces o f o i l from the skin.

I f rag s a r e used t o wipe o i l from t h e s k i n o r

machinery, a p l e n t i f u l su pp l y sho ul d be a v a i l a b l e so t h a t they can be changed frequently. P r e f e r a b l y t h e y sh ou l d be o f a d i s p o s a b l e t y p e t o a v o i d t h e poss-

i b i l i t y o f a c c u mul a t i o n o f metal c h i p s and sw arf w hich may c u t o r s c r a t c h t h e skin. B a r r i e r creams a r e o f t e n used on t h e assumption t h a t they p r o t e c t t h e s k i n from d i r e c t contact w i t h o i l o r coolant. Al t hough t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s some-

what u n c e r t a i n , the y do have a p a r t t o p l a y i n m i n i m i s i n g d e r m a t i t i s problems by i n c r e a s i n g awareness o f t h e need f o r c a r e o f t h e s k i n . They can a l s o make work i s

eve n tu a l washing o f t h e s k i n more e f f e c t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y where " d i r t y " i n v o lv e d .

Use o f creams f r o m r e p u t a b l e s u p p l i e r s i s recommended s i n c e l o n g

exp e r ie n c e has enabled them t o a v o i d use o f components w hich may harm t h e s k i n .

I t i s im p o r t a n t t o use t h e c o r r e c t t y p e o f cream f o r t h e type o f o i l i n v o l v e d

s i n c e a w a t e r r e s i s t a n t t y p e i nt en de d f o r use w i t h aqueous c o o l a n t s w i l l n o t g i v e e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t m i n e r a l o i l based l u b r i c a n t s . Use o f a s k i n r e c o n d i t i o n i n g cream a f t e r work i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h e l p r e p l a c e t h e n a t u r a l f a t s and o i l s removed f rom t h e s k i n by exposure t o l u b r i c a n t s and by washing. T h i s i s a v e r y i mp ortant p a r t o f a s k i n c a r e programme I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important w i t h o l d e r em-

t o a v o i d d e r m a t i t i s problems.

pl o y e e s who t e n d t o have d r i e r s k i n s , and i n t h e w i n t e r when low temperatures

281
and h u m i d i t y also tend t o cause dryness and c r a c k i n g o f t h e s k i n . Male

employees a r e o f t e n r e l u c t a n t t o use a s k i n cream because o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e " s o f t f e m i n i n e touch" o f consumer a d v e r t i s i n g . There i s no doubt t h a t

the common a s s o c i a t i o n o f m a s c u l i n i t y w i t h tough and rough hands which do n o t need s k i n creams has c o n t r i b u t e d t o numerous cases o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s k i n disease. E f f o r t s t o persuade more men t o use r e c o n d i t i o n i n g creams r e g u l a r l y would undoubtedly be w e l l rewarded i n reduced absence from work, o r need t o t r a n s f e r t o o t h e r j o b s , because o f d e r m a t i t i s . b a r r i e r cream suppl i e r s . F i n a l l y , an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f any s k i n p r o t e c t i o n programme i s t o ensure t h a t a l l employees who use o r a r e exposed t o any t y p e o f l u b r i c a n t o r metalworking f l u i d keep a c a r e f u l watch on a l l areas o f t h e i r s k i n and o b t a i n medical a d v i c e a t t h e f i r s t s i g n o f any a b n o r m a l i t y . Medical a t t e n t i o n should be o b t a i n e d f o r itching, swelling o r S u i t a b l e creams a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m r e p u t a b l e

any c u t s and s c r a t c h e s as w e l l as d i s c o l o r a t i o n , soreness, warty growths.

Awareness o f s k i n d i s o r d e r s and s k i n c a r e can be promoted by

d i s p l a y i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g p o s t e r s and l e a f l e t s p u b l i s h e d by t h e H e a l t h and Safety E x e c u t i v e and by t h e o i l s u p p l i e r s . Employees should be aware o f and

observe any s p e c i a l i n s t r u c t i o n s on p r o d u c t package l a b e l s o r i n t h e s u p p l i e r ' s product l i t e r a t u r e . Under t h e H e a l t h and S a f e t y a t Work A c t ,

i t i s t h e respon-

s i b i l i t y o f t h e employer t o i n f o r m h i s employees o f any known o r p o t e n t i a l hazards t o h e a l t h and t o i n s t r u c t them on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r e c a u t i o n s t o be followed. Constant reminders and proper s u p e r v i s i o n a r e necessary t o ensure

t h a t t h e contempt b r e d o f f a m i l i a r i t y does n o t o v e r r i d e prudence, o r t h e "problems o n l y happen t o o t h e r people" syndrome does n o t become predominant.

12.8.3

O i l M i s t and Vapour

Although exposure i s u n l i k e l y t o c r e a t e a hea t h hazard, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o i l m i s t and vapour i n t h e p l a n t atmosphere shou d be minimised t o a v o i d an unpleasant environment. The o i l m i s t c o n c e n t r a t on should be m a i n t a i n e d below O i l mist i s

t h e Threshold L i m i t Value o f 5mg/m3 and p r e f e r a b y below 2.5mg/m3.

determined by use o f sampling pumps t o c o l l e c t m i s t on f i l t e r papers f o r a n a l y s i s by w e i g h i n g o r o t h e r methods. The Occupational Hygiene Sub-committee o f t h e

I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum A d v i s o r y Committee on H e a l t h has p u b l i s h e d d e t a i l s o f s u i t a b l e techniques [ 2 0 ] . atmosphere, As a general guide,

i f m i s t can be seen i n t h e p l a n t

i t i s l i k e l y t o be above 5mg/m3.

I f t h e o i l m i s t l e v e l i s e x c e s s i v e , t h e f i r s t s t e p i s t o t r y t o reduce t h e
amount generated. i s produced. T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e an assessment o f t h e way i n which t h e m i s t

There a r e two b a s i c mechanisms by which m i s t i s formed:

(1)

I n some o p e r a t i o n s o i l may be atomised i n small d r o p l e t form. T h i s may occur

i n some h i g h speed c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s o r f r o m m i s t l u b r i c a t i o n systems through

288
over a p p l i c a t i o n o f m i s t o r poor r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t .
In these

cases, m i s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may be reduced by adjustments t o t h e method o f appl i c a t i o n o r by m o d i f i c a t i o n t o t he co mpo si t i on o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . I n metal

machining t h e r a t e , volume f l o w and p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n can a f f e c t t h e degree o f misting. Proper p o s i t i o n i n g o f sp l ash guards can c o n t r o l t h e escape o f o i l S p e c i a l l y formulated a n t i - m i s t c u t t i n g Mist

m i s t i n t o t h e g e n era l p l a n t atmosphere.

o i l s have s u c c e s s f u l l y reduced p l a n t m i s t l e v e l s i n some a p p l i c a t i o n s .

l u b r i c a n t f o r m u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e a c a r e f u l ba l ance between adequate m i s t i n g and reclassification properties. The r a t e o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m i s t l u b r i c a n t and

t h e design o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n system a r e a l s o important. ( i i ) V a p o r i s a t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t may be f o l l o w e d by condensation t o form small droplets o f o i l mist. I n t h i s case i t may be p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
I t i s o f t e n thought

c o o l i n g by i n c r e a s i n g t h e volume f l o w r a t e o f o i l a p p l i e d .

t h a t h i g h v e l o c i t y j e t o f o i l i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f c o o l i n g whereas i n f a c t a low v e l o c i t y h i g h volume f l o w w i l l r e s u l t i n less o i l v a p o r i s a t i o n . a h i g h v e l o c i t y j e t t h e r e may a l s o be a g r e a t e r tendency t o f o r m a t i o n o f o i l

mi st.

With

I f f o r m a t i o n o f o i l m i s t and vapour cannot be e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d by app-

l i c a t i o n o r f o r m u l a t i o n changes, l o c a l exhaust v e n t i l a t i o n should be used. Systems i n c o r p o r a t i n g f i l t e r s t o remove o i l so t h a t c l e a n a i r can be r e t u r n e d t o t h e p l a n t atmosphere a r e co mmerci a l l y a v a i l a b l e . For maximum e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,

th e exhaust hood sho ul d be l o c a t e d as c l o s e t o t h e p o i n t o f m i s t g e n e r a t i o n as poss i b l e

.
I f t h e r e i s no o t h e r way o f p e r f o r m i n g t h i s o p e r a t i o n , con-

O i l m i s t i s sometimes generated by t he use o f a i r j e t s t o remove swarf from

machined p a r t s .

s t r u c t i o n o f an e ncl o sure w i t h l o c a l exhaust v e n t i l a t i o n may be needed.

12.8.4

S k i n Cancer

I f good q u a l i t y s o l v e n t r e f i n e d o i l s ( o r t hose t r e a t e d adequately i n o t h e r

ways t o reduce t h e a r o m a t i c c o n t e n t s ) a r e used i n a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s where any s i g n i f i c a n t s k i n c o n t a c t i s l i k e l y , s k i n cancer should n o t be a problem i n f u t u r e , p r o v i d e d t h a t p r e c a u t i o n s di scu ssed under Skin P r o t e c t i o n i n sec.12.8.2 a r e followed. Because o f t h e l o ng l a t e n t p e r i o d f r o m i n i t i a l exposure t o

occ u r r e n c e ( o f t e n more t h an 20 yea rs) some cases a s s o c i a t e d w i t h prolonged o r rep e a t e d exposure t o p o o r l y r e f i n e d m i n e r a l o i l s many years ago, o r w i t h unsati s f a c t o r y hygiene p r a c t i c e s i n t h e p a s t , can s t i l l be expected t o a r i s e . However, f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s o l v e n t r e f i n e d o i l s i n c u t t i n g f l u i d f o r m u l a t i o n s and t h e i mp l eme nt at i on o f b e t t e r hygiene p r a c t i c e s , fewer cases as t ime passes. t h e r e should be

289
Because changes o ccur i n co mpo si t i o n o f used o i l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h gasol i n e engine l u b r i c a n t s and quenching o i l s ,
i t would be prudent t o e x e r c i s e c a r e

w i t h these p r o d u c t s and a v o i d s k i n c o n t a c t as much as p o s s i b l e .

12.8.5

B a c t e r i a and B i o c i d e s

B a c t e r i a i n aqueous c o o l a n t s and m i n e r a l o i l l u b r i c a n t s contaminated w i t h water need t o be c o n t r o l l e d f o r t e c h n i c a l performance reasons. Section 12.5, As i n d i c a t e d i n

t h e r e i s no evidence o f h e a l t h hazards a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o c c u r However, a d d i t i o n o f b i o c i d e s t o c o o l a n t systems may Biocides a r e normally i r r i t a n t

rence o f these b a c t e r i a .

present hazards i n hand1 i n g these m a t e r i a l s . and t o x i c . T h e r e f o re,

t h e s u p p l i e r ' s h a n d l i n g recommendations should be c a r e -

f u l l y followed.

12.9

CONCLUSIONS

P r o v id e d t h a t use rs a r e aware o f p o t e n t i a l hazards and f o l l o w recommended h a n d l i n g p r a c t i c e s i n co mbi n at i on w i t h good personal and p l a n t hygiene standards, l u b r i c a n t s s h o u ld p r e s e n t n o undue h e a l t h r i s k s . The major p o i n t s which need t o

be r e p e a t e d l y s t r e s s e d can be summarised as f o l l o w s : Use good q u a l i t y s o l v e n t r e f i n e d ( o r e q u i v a l e n t ) m i n e r a l o i l s i f t h e r e i s t o be s i g n i f i c a n t s k i n c o n t a c t . Ensure t h a t adequate i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e t o enable products t o be used s a f e l y . Develop p r o p er awareness o f hazards t hro ugh t r a i n i n g , c a u t i o n a r y notices, supplier publications etc. A v o id r e p e a t ed or pro l on ge d s k i n c o n t a c t . Encourage good p erso na l h ygi e ne w i t h p roper s k i n c l e a n i n g p r a c t i c e s . Provide s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g . Encourage p r o p e r use o f b a r r i e r and r e c o n d i t i o n i n g creams. Keep o i l m i s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w e l l below 5mg/rn3. E s t a b l i s h good o i l and machine maintenance p r a c t i c e s . Ob t a in e a r l y medical a d v i c e f o r any s k i n problems. Ensure good p r a c t i c e s a r e ma i nt ai n ed w i t h d i l i g e n t s u p e r v i s i o n .

REFERENCES

1 2 3

4 5 6

Wagner,W.D., e t . a l . , Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 1964, 5 , 158. Lushbaugh,C.C., e t . a l . , Arch. Ind. Hyg. 1950. 237. Wagner,W.D., e t . a l . , Unpublished r e s u l t s , USPHS, 1014 Broadway, C i n c i n a t t i , U.S.A. Decoufle,P., Ann. New York Acad. S ci . 1976, 94. Decoufle,P., J. Nat. Cancer I n s t . 1978, 1025. Drasche,H., e t . a l . , Z en t b l . Arb. Med. Arbschutz 1974, lo. Sanderson,J., O i l M i s t - Recent I n t e r e s t s i n Europe. Presented a t Esso Symp. on O i l M i s t and Ni t rosa mi ne s, Stockholm, March 1977.

1,

271, 5,

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8 9 10 Leitch,A., B r i t . Med. J., 1922, 2, 1004. Bingham,E., and Horton,A.W., 'Advances i n B i o l o g y o f S k i n ' , Vol . V I I Carcinogenesis, 1966, Pergamon Press, New York. Medical Research Council, 'The Carcinogenic A c t i o n o f M i n e r a l O i l s : A Chemical and B i o l o g i c a l S t u d y ' . Special Report S e r i e s No. 306, 1968, H.M.S.O. London. J. Occ. Med. 1975, 1_z, 784. Scala,R.A., Wahlberg,J.E., Acta.Derrn. (Stockholm), 1974, 54, 471. Th. Van Peteghem and H. De Vos, B r i t . J. I n d . T e d . 1974, 2, 233. Zingmark,P.A. and Rapp,C. Ambio, 1977, 237. .NIDSH T e c h n i c a l Report ' C o n t r o l o f Exposure t o M e t a l w o r k i n g F l u i d s ' , February 1978, (Pub1 i c a t i o n No. 78-165). Technical B u l l e t i n , ' M i c r o b i o l o g i c a l Degradation o f L u b r i c a t i n g O i l s ' . Mobil O i l Co. L t d . , 1977. Thony,C., e t a l . , Arch. Mal. Prof de Med Trav e t Sec. SOC. ( P a r i s ) , 37. 1975, Clausen,J., and Rastogi,S.C., B r i t . J. Ind. Med. 1977, 208. I n s t i t u t e of Petroleum "Code o f P r a c t i c e f o r M e t a l w o r k i n g F l u i d s " , 1978, Heyden & Son L t d . , London. I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum Occupational Hygiene Sub-committee, Ann. Occup. 293-297. Hyg. 1975,

11 12 13

14
15 16

6,

17
18 19 20

36,

2,

18,

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13

EFFECTIVE CONTAMINATION CONTROL IN FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

J.B.SPENCER,

Manager, User Support D i v i s i o n , S p erry V i c k e r s .

13.1

INTRODUCTION

The s e l e c t i o n o f a f i l t e r and i t s p r o p e r l o c a t i o n i n a h y d r a u l i c system needs as much c a r e and t h e same l e v e l o f e x p e r t i s e as t h e s e l e c t i o n o f o t h e r components such as pumps, v a l v e s and c y l i n d e r s . Many system designers l o o k no f u r -

t h e r t h a n t h e h y d r a u l i c equipment m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s catalogue f o r guidance, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y i t i s s t i l l common f o r h y d r a u l i c equipment manufactuers t o s p e c i f y one g e n e r a l l e v e l o f f i l t r a t i o n such as 25 micrometre, w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o the working p r e s s u r e , environment, o r d u t y c y c l e . a lower s t a n d a r d may be a ccep t a bl e ; With c e r t a i n types o f equipment

an example o f t h i s being t h e e a r l i e r designs

of pumps, many o f whi ch g i v e l o n g t r o u b l e - f r e e s e r v i c e p r o t e c t e d o n l y by a 0.13

mm s t r a i n e r .

On t h e o t h e r hand, more modern equipment such as t h e m i n i a t u r i z e d

c o n t r o l s w i t h s m a l l e r cl e ara nce s t ha n many servo v a l v e s , w i l l need much h i g h e r standards o f p r o t e c t i o n . U s u a l l y t h e n e x t s t e p i s t o de ci de on t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e f i l t e r and, again, th e g e n e r a l i z e d recommendations o f t h e f i l t e r manufacturer a r e o f t e n accepted w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r system requirements. F i n a l l y , the s i z e o f the

f i l t e r i s f i x e d and sometimes t h e o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s simply a d e s i r e t o match t h e f i l t e r p o r t s i z e t o t h e di a met er o f t h e a d j o i n i n g pipework. T h i s may

w e l l ensure t h a t recommended v e l o c i t i e s a r e n o t exceeded b u t much more important and o f t e n o v e r lo oke d i s t h e f i l t e r e f f i c i e n c y and d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y . I t must be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e h i t - o r - m i s s approach described above o f t e n

appears t o a c h ie ve an a c c e p t a b l e r e s u l t , b u t w i t h over 70% o f h y d r a u l i c system f a i l u r e s known t o be due t o poor f l u i d c o n d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a c l e a r need f o r a more s y s t e m a t i c approach t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n c o n t r o l . The need has been a ccen t u at ed by t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y arduous c o n d i t i o n s under whic h systems o p e r a t e . For example, a p r e s s u r e o f about 70 bar was common i n today,

i n d u s t r i a l h y d r a u l i c systems f o r many ye ars;

140-210 bar systems a r e

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commonplace and much o f t h e contaminant f o r m e r l y washed away i s now f o r c e d i n t o t h e c le a r a n c e s where i t does c o n s i d e r a b l e damage. Smaller o i l r e s e r v o i r s mean Higher

more r a p i d c i r c u l a t i o n and l e s s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p a r t i c l e s t o s e t t l e o u t .

o p e r a t i n g temperatures r e s u l t i n t h i n n e r o i l , w hich i n some s i t u a t i o n s may g i v e l e s s p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t wear g i v i n g r i s e t o i ncreased contamination. I n t h e f a c e o f t h ese t re nd s, t h e h y d r a u l i c equipment user wants improved

r e l i a b i l i t y and i t must be e a s i e r and l e s s c o s t l y f o r him t o achieve t h i s i f he works w i t h c l e a n o i l . I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o keep t h e o i l i n good c o n d i t i o n

p r o v i d e d t h e machine d esi g n i s r i g h t , and t h e rewards f o r doing so a r e b e t t e r r e l i a b i l i t y and l o ng er l i f e f rom b o t h t h e equipment and o i l .

13.1.1

A S y s te ma t i c Approach t o F i l t r a t i o n

To work towards t h e most e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h economy, we must f i r s t d e f i n e o u r aim.

I t i s n o t , as i s w i d e l y assumed, s i m p l y t o separate

o u t p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r t h an a c e r t a i n s i z e chosen a r b i t r a r i l y .

I n s t e a d , we must

ach ie v e s t a b l e l e v e l s o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n a c c e p t a b l e and a p p r o p r i a t e t o v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e system. For a s t a b i l i s e d c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l , e c t e d by t h e system f i l t e r s ) . ' d i r t i n ' must equal ' d i r t o u t ' (coll-

' D i r t i n ' i s made up o f i n - b u i l t contaminant,

c o n t a m in a t io n i n t h e i n i t i a l charge o f o i l , and c o n t a m i n a t i o n drawn i n from t h e atmosphere t h r o u gh t h e a i r b r e a t h e r and c y l i n d e r s e a l s t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s by t h e process o f wear. The e f f e c t o f t h e i n - b u i l t c o n t a m i n a t i o n must be c a r e f u l l y considered. Inev-

a l l o f w hich c o n t r i b u t e

i t a b l y i t w i l l be h i g h , even when c a r e i s taken i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f pipework and m a n i f o l d b lo cks. F l u s h i n g w i l l remove some i n i t i a l contaminant, but there

a r e many systems where t h i s i s n o t done, and a t t h e f i r s t s t a r t - u p h i g h pressures a r e generated w i t h h i g h c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s p r e s e n t . The r e s u l t i s u s u a l l y

r a p i d pump wear and v a l v e m a l f u n c t i o n , t h e f i r s t o f which w i l l almost c e r t a i n l y go u n d e t e c te d a t t h i s time.

A l l h y d r a u l i c systems should be run i n an o f f - l o a d

c o n d i t i o n u n t i l the desired contamination l e v e l i s a t t a i n e d . F i g u r e 1 shows a t y p i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e design c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l and t h e a c t u a l l e v e l p r i o r t o s t a r t - u p . T h i s convenient method o f p r e s e n t a t i o n

f o l l o w s n a t u r a l l y f ro m t h e l o g a r i t h m i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e t h a t occurs i n practice. The r e l a t i v e sl o pe s o f t h e i n i t i a l and a c c e p t a b l e Contamination needed.

l i n e s are a c l e a r p o i n t e r t o the type o f f i l t r a t i o n

The methods used t o d et ermi n e and c o n t r o l c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s w i l l be d i s cussed i n more d e t a i l l a t e r , b u t a t t h i s st ag e we can summarize t h e p r a c t i c a l and performance req ui re men t s o f t h e f i l t r a t i o n system as f o l l o w s : -

293

Initial contamination level

Fig. 1: Typical relationship between the desired design contamination level and the actual level prior to start up. It is essential that the system is flushed and run at no-load until the acceptable contamination level is achieved.

level

5 10 15 Parliclasire

- micrometres(lopa)

25

50

100

(i)

I t must be ca pa bl e o f red uci n g t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n t o t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l w i t h i n an a c c e p t a b l e p e r i o d o f t i me, w i t h o u t causing premature wear o r damage t o t h e h y d r a u l i c components.

(ii)

I t must be cap ab l e o f a c h i e v i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l , i n c l u d i n g a s u i t a b l e f a c t o r o f s a f e t y t o c a t e r f o r a c o n c e n t r a t e d ingress which c o u l d o ccur; f o r example, when a system i s 'topped-up'.

( i i i ) The q u a l i t y o f maintenance a v a i l a b l e t h e end u s e r l o c a t i o n must be acknowledged. (iv) (v) F i l t e r s must be e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e f o r maintenance purposes. I n d i c a t i o n o f f i l t e r c o n d i t i o n t o s u i t t h e end u s e r ' s requirements must be p r o v id e d. (vi) I n c o n tin u ou s p roce ss p l a n t , f a c i l i t i e s must be p r o v i d e d t o a l l o w changing o f elements w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h p l a n t o p e r a t i o n . ( v i i ) The f i l t e r s must p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y f o r an a c c e p t a b l e i n t e r v a l between element changes. ( v i i i ) T h e i n c l u s i o n o f a f i l t e r i n t h e system must n o t produce u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s on t h e o p e r a t i o n o f components, seal drains.
(ix)

e.g.

h i g h back pressures on

Sampling p o i n t s must be p r o v i d e d t o m o n i t o r i n i t i a l and subsequent l e v e l s

of c o n ta m i na t i o n.

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13.2 13.2.1 DIRT INPUT New O i l

TYPES AND SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION

A lt h o u g h o i l i s r e f i n e d and blended under r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n c o n d i t i o n s , i t i s u s u a l l y s t o r e d i n drums o r i n a b u l k t a n k a t t h e u s e r ' s f a c t o r y . A t t h i s point

i t i s no lo n g e r c l e a n , because t h e f i l l i n g l i n e s c o n t r i b u t e metal and rubber

p a r t i c l e s and t h e drum always adds f l a k e s o f metal o r scale.

Storage tanks can

be a r e a l problem because wat er condenses i n them t o cause r u s t i n g and contamin a t i o n fr o m t h e atmosphere f i n d s i t s way i n unless s a t i s f a c t o r y . a i r f i l t e r s are f i t t e d .
I f t h e o i l i s b e i n g s t o r e d under reasonable c o n d i t i o n s ,

breather

t h e p r i n c i p a l contamWith o i l s t o 50,000

i n a n t s on d e l i v e r y t o a machine w i l l be me t a l, s i l i c a , and f i b r e s .

from r e p u t a b l e s u p p l i e r s , sampling has shown average counts o f 30,000

p a r t i c l e s above 5 mi crome t re p e r 100 m l , w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y low s i l t l e v e l . Using a p o r t a b l e t r a n s f e r u n i t o r some o t h e r f i l t r a t i o n arrangement, i t i s possible t o

remove much o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r e s e n t i n new o i l b e f o r e i t e n t e r s t h e system and i s ground down i n t o f i n e r p a r t i c l e s . I t must be s a i d i n pa ssi ng t h a t c o n t a m i n a t i o n a r i s i n g f r o m d e l i v e r y and s t o r age v a r i e s w i t h t h e i n d u s t r y . For example, a i r c r a f t o p e r a t i o n g e n e r a l l y needs

h i g h standards o f c l e a n l i n e s s and f a i r l y q u i c k t u r n o v e r o f s t o r e s , whereas much l on g e r s t o r a g e p e r i o d s a r e t h e r u l e f o r ma ri ne systems and t h e environment may be more d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l .

13.2.2

B u i l t - i n Con t a mi na t i o n Care i n

New machinery always has a c e r t a i n amount o f b u i l t - i n contamination.

assembly and i n f l u s h i n g t h e system reduces t h i s , b u t never e l i m i n a t e s i t . T y p i c a l b u i l t - i n contaminants a r e b u r r s , c h i p s , m o is t u r e , p i p e dope, wel d s p l a t t e r , f l a s h , d i r t , dust, f i b r e , sand,

p a i n t s , and f l u s h i n g s o l u t i o n s .

The amount o f contaminant removed d u r i n g f l u s h i n g depends n o t o n l y on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e f i l t e r used b u t a l s o t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e f l u s h i n g f l u i d . Unless h i g h v e l o c i t i e s a r e a t t a i n e d , much o f t h e contaminant w i l l n o t be d i s lodged u n t i l t h e system i s i n o p e r a t i o n , w i t h component f a i l u r e t h e almost certain result. I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e st a nd ard o f f l u s h i n g , an o f f - l o a d runningSome b u i l t - i n contaminant, such as

i n p e r i o d s h o u ld be regarded as e s s e n t i a l .

weld s c a l e , o f t e n remains i n t a c t u n t i l h i g h p r e s s u r e o i l i s f o r c e d between i t and t h e p a r e n t m e t a l , thus l o o s e n i n g i t .

13.2.3

Environmental Contamination

Contaminants f r o m t h e immediate surro un di n as can be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a f l u i d power system. On l a r g e i n s t a l l a t i o n s such as those w i t h i n steelw orks,
it is

r e l a t i v e l y easy t o a s c e r t a i n t h e e nvi ro nme nt al c o n d i t i o n s , siderably.

though they v a r y con-

For example, a coke oven system operates i n c o n d i t i o n s v e r y d i f f e r e n t

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from a c o l d m i l l .

Sometimes t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n i s t o p r o t e c t t h e h y d r a u l i c

equipment by p r o v i d i n g a c l e a n room where maintenance can be c a r r i e d o u t under controlled conditions. Unfortunately, i t i s n o t uncommon t o see h y d r a u l i c power

sources exposed t o t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e environment, w h i l e a l o n g s i d e t h e e l e c t r i c s are p r o t e c t e d by p r e s s u r i s e d and temperature c o n t r o l l e d cabins. I n most machine shops t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e contaminant p a r t i c l e s o f 10-15 micrometres do n o t demand a h i g h st an da rd o f a i r f i l t r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h g r i n d i n g machines w i t h o u t e f f e c t i v e e x t r a c t i o n equipment can r e s u l t i n l o c a l i s e d p r o blems. O t h e o t h e r hand, f o u n d r i e s and st on e q u a r r i e s demand a v e r y h i g h n

standard o f f i l t r a t i o n because o f t h e a i r b o r n e a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s . The m o b i l e equipment f i e l d p r e s e n t s s p e c i a l problems because t h e o r i g i n a l manufacturer u s u a l l y s e l l s a st an da rd machine t o o p e r a t e i n a w ide v a r i e t y of environmental c o n d i t i o n s .

13.2.4

E n t r y P o i n t s f o r Environmental Con t amination

13.2.4.1

A i r breathers.

Very l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n appears t o be a v a i l a b l e on

what t h e f i l t e r w i l l a c t u a l l y ach i eve and p u r e l y nominal r a t i n g s a r e u s u a l l y specified. There have been i nst an ces where t h e element has shrunk l e a v i n g a

f r e e passage f o r t h e a i r , wh i ch h i g h l i g h t s t h e need f o r more r i g i d e n g i n e e r i n g standards on t h i s t y p e o f p r o d u c t . t e r w i l l depend on d r a w - o f f , The amount o f a i r passing through t h e f i l -

whi ch means f o r example t h a t s i n g l e a c t i n g c y l i n -

ders i n bad environments must r e s u l t i n a g r e a t e r ingress o f contaminant. I t i s encouraging t o see some ma nu f a ct u rers now o f f e r i n g b e t t e r grades of f i l t e r paper and t h a t i n c e r t a i n areas t h e combined f i l l e r / b r e a t h e r unacceptable. has become

A sep ara t e b r e a t h e r i s more e f f i c i e n t and h e l p s t o r e l e a s e t h e

a i r w h i l e f i l l i n g t a kes p l a c e t hro ug h a s u i t a b l e gauze s t r a i n e r .

13.2.4.2

Power u n i t access p l a t e s .

I n some p l a n t s i t cannot be assumed t h a t

access p l a t e s w i l l always be re pl a ced , though h a p p i l y t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i s no t as common as i t once was. I n power u n i t design, good s e a l i n g i s v i t a l , and

i n bad environments such items as s t r a i n e r s should n o t be p o s i t i o n e d i n s i d e t h e r e s e r v o i r i f access r e q u i r e s t h e r e f i t t i n g o f removable p l a t e s . Other removable

items w i l l a l l o w i n g r e s s d u r i n g maintenance and good design p r a c t i c e should minimize t h i s .

13.2.4.3

Cylinder seals.

Wiper s e a l s cannot be 100% e f f e c t i v e i n removing

very f i n e contaminant f rom t h e c y l i n d e r rod. I f they were, t h e y would remove t h e o i l f i l m from t h e p i s t o n rod, producing a r e s u l t t h a t i s u s u a l l y diagnosed as a l e a k y seal. d r y r o d would q u i c k l y wear o u t t h e se al s. I n any case, a completely

Where c y l i n d e r s remain extended i n a

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h e a v i l y contaminated atmosphere c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s can g e t i n t o t h e system un l ess p r o t e c t i o n such as a b e l l o w s i s p r o v i d e d . I t has been shown t h a t c y l i n d e r p i s t o n r o d s e a l s n a t u r a l l y i n g r e s s about one p a r t i c l e o v er 10 mi cro met re f o r each square c e n t i m e t r e o f swept rod area. Wear o f s e a l s o r wi p ers can i n c r e a s e t h e i n g r e s s i o n r a t e c o n s i d e r a b l y . i n bad ambient c o n d i t i o n s a 50mm di a met er r o d i n a 100mm b o r e c y l i n d e r , c y c l i n g a t a speed o f 12 metres p e r minute, c o u l d i n g r e s s about 20,000 p a r t i c l e s ove r 1Omicrometres e very mi nu t e , and t h i s q u a n t i t y c o u l d i n c r e a s e by a f a c t o r o f 100 f o r every 100 hours o f ru nn i ng . Thus

13.2.5

Generated Co nt ami n at i on

Contamination i s c r e a t e d i n t e r n a l l y by t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a h y d r a u l i c system. The generated contaminants a r e p r o d u c t s o f wear, c o r r o s i o n , c a v i t a t i o n , and f l u i d breakdown, i.e. decomposition, oxidation, etc. Experience shows t h a t i n

a system which has been c a r e f u l l y f l u s h e d and has f i l t e r e d o i l added t o t h e sealed r e s e r v o i r ( i n c o r p o r a t i n g an e f f e c t i v e b r e a t h e r ) , t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i l l be m a i n l y system generated.

I f t h e i n i t i a l l e v e l i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y , t h i s induces wear w hich g r e a t l y

a c c e l e r a t e s t h e b u i l d - u p o f generated contaminant.

13.3

EFFECTS OF TYPES AND S I Z E S OF PARTICLES

W know t h a t contaminant p a r t i c l e s a r e o f a l l shapes and s i z e s and t h a t t h e e f i n e r t h e y a r e , t h e more d i f f i c u l t i t i s t o count them and t o determine t h e m a t e r i a l o f wh ic h t h e y a r e composed. a b r a s i v e and t h a t , However, we can say t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y a r e

i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h s u r f a c e p r o t r u s i o n s , t h e y plough and c u t T h i s wear accounts f o r about 90% o f f a i l u r e s due t o

fragments f r o m a s u r f a c e . c o n ta m in a tio n .

F a i l u r e s a r i s i n g from contamination f a l l i n t o t h r e e categories:

13.3.1 v a lv e .

C a t a s t r o p h i c F a i l u r e o c c u r s when a l a r g e p a r t i c l e e n t e r s a pump o r For in s tan ce,

i f a - p a r t i c l e causes a vane t o jam i n a r o t o r s l o t , t h e

I n a spool t y p e valve

r e s u l t may w e l l be complete s e i z u r e o f t h e pump or motor.

a l a r g e p a r t i c l e t rap pe d a t t h e r i g h t p l a c e can s t o p a spool c l o s i n g c o m p l e t e l y . Another example of c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e o c c u r s when t h e p i l o t o r i f i c e of a v a l v e i s b lo c k e d by a l a r g e p a r t i c l e . F i n e p a r t i c l e s can a l s o cause catastrop.hic

f a i l u r e , for i n s t a n c e i f a v a l v e f a i l s t o o p e r a t e due t o s i l t i n g .

13.3.2

I n t e r m i t t e n t F a i l u r e i s caused by contaminant on t h e s e a t o f a poppet

v a l v e w h ic h p r e v e n t s i t f ro m r e s e a t i n g p r o p e r l y .

I f t h e seat i s t o o hard t o

a l l o w t h e p a r t i c l e t o b e embedded i n t o i t , t h e p a r t i c l e may be washed away when t h e v a l v e i s opened ag ai n . L a t e r , a n o t h e r p a r t i c l e may p r e v e n t complete c l o s u r e

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o n l y t o be washed away when t h e v a l v e opens. m i t t e n t f a i l u r e occurs. Thus a v e r y annoying t y p e o f i n t e r -

13.3.3

D e g r a d at i o n F a i l u r e f o l l o w s wear, c o r r o s i o n ,

and c a v i t a t i o n e r o s i o n .

They cause increased i n t e r n a l leakage i n t h e system components, b u t t h i s condition i s often d i f f i c u l t t o detect. The e v e n t u a l r e s u l t , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h pumps, failure. i s l i k e l y t o be c a t a s t r o p h i c

The p a r t i c l e s most 1 i k e l y t o cause wear a r e c l e a r a n c e - s i z e p a r t i c l e s

which j u s t pass t h r o u g h t h e cl e ara nce s between moving p a r t s ( F i g . 2 ) .

Particles of similar size to the clearances between moving parts cause the most abrasive wear. Larger particlescannot enter clearance,smaller particlespass through without contact.

a
0
Clearancesize particles interact with both faces simultaneously. Extra contaminationis generated by the disintegrationof the moving parts. Larger particlesare'ground up' by the interactionin the clearances.

F i g. 2

I n t e r a c t i o n o f moving p a r t s .

M a n u fa c t u r in g cl e ara nce s w i t h i n h y d r a u l i c components can be d i v i d e d i n t o two p r i n c i p a l zones, i.e. around 5 micrometres f o r h i g h pressure u n i t s , and 15-40 The a c t u a l clearance may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y Good component

micrometres f o r low p r e s s u r e u n i t s .

depending on t h e t y p e o f u n i t and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i t sees.

d e s i g n i s im p o r t an t , t hu s m i n i m i s i n g t h e e f f e c t o f small clearances. W s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e l o o k a t t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g c r i t i c a l clearances and e a l s o a t t h e t y p e o f f a i l u r e o c c u r r i n g i n v a r i o u s groups o f components.

13.3.4

Pumps

A l l h y d r a u l i c pumps have component p a r t s which move r e l a t i v e t o one another,

s e p a r a t e d by a s mal l o i l - f i l l e d cl e ara nce . G enerally, these components a r e

loaded toward each o t h e r by f o r c e s r e l a t e d t o pressure, and t h e p r e s s u r e always tend s t o f o r c e f l u i d t h rou gh t h i s cl e ara nce . As t h e f i n i t e l i f e o f most pumps i s determined by a v e r y small q u a n t i t y o f m a t e r i a l b e in g removed f r o m a few su rf a ces, i t f o l l o w s t h a t i f the f l u i d w i t h i n

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t h e c l e a r a n c e i s h e a v i l y contaminated, could occur. r a p i d d e g r a d a t i o n and e v e n t u a l s e i z u r e

W i t h low p r e s s u r e u n i t s t h e d e s i g n p e r m i t s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e c l e a r A l s o a t t h e lower p r e s s u r e t h e r e i s Increasing

ances and c o n t a m i n a t i o n has l e s s e f f e c t .

less force a v a i l a b l e t o d r i v e p a r t i c l e s i n t o c r i t i c a l clearances.

c o n t a m i n a t i o n on a pump.

t h e p r e s s u r e t h e r e f o r e i s o f major s i g n i f i c a n c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f

Another f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g clearances i s t h e o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s , which i s a l s o related t o f l u i d viscosity. An optimum v i s c o s i t y i s used f o r d e s i g n which p r o -

v i d e s good f i l m t h i c k n e s s t o s u p p o r t loads hydrodynamically b u t which i s a l s o low enough t o a l l o w adequate f i l l i n g o f t h e pump w i t h o u t c a v i t a t i o n .

I t i s gen-

e r a l l y found i n p r a c t i c e t h a t f i l t r a t i o n requirements become l e s s c r i t i c a l where h i g h e r v i s c o s i t i e s a r e used, and f o r t h i s reason t h e maximum v i s c o s i t y which i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i n l e t c o n d i t i o n s should be chosen. t u r e c o n t r o l w i l l be o f b e n e f i t i n t h i s r e s p e c t . The areas i n pumps p a r t i c u l a r l y s u b j e c t t o these c l e a r a n c e problems a r e : Vane pump Gear pump A x i a l p i s t o n pump S i m i l a r l y , good tempera-

Vane t i p t o cam r i n g , r o t o r t o s i d e p l a t e . Tooth t o housing, gear t o s i d e p l a t e . Shoe t o swashplate, c y l i n d e r b l o c k .

F i g u r e s 3 , 4 and 5 i l l u s t r a t e t h e c r i t i c a l areas d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y .

Clearance under vane tips depends on speed, pressure and viscosity

ote Some back flow occurs from hlgh to

Fig.3

C r i t i c a l clearances i n a vane pump.

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In Low pressure

Minimum clearance

&

db Maximum clearance

Fig.4

C r i t i c a l c l e a r a n c e s i n a gear pump.

Where

= viscosity

pressure

Valve plate

Fig.5

C r i t i c a l c l e a r a n c e s i n an a x i a l p i s t o n pump. A l t h o u g h p s t o n c earance i s n o m i n a l l y f i x e d , a c t u a c l e a r a n c e v a r i e s w i t h e c c e n t r c i t y due t o l o a d and v i s c o s i t y .

I n many o f t h e f o r e g o i n g cases t h e cl e ara nces a r e e f f e c t i v e l y s e l f - a d j u s t i n g under o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , smaller. i . e . w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e clearances become

Under adverse c o n d i t i o n s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e r e i s shock loadEven

i ng , t h i s in c r e a ses t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o s m a l l e r contaminant p a r t i c l e s . where c le a r a n c e s a r e n o m i n a l l y f i xed , u nd er

h i g h loads components may t a k e up

It

e c c e n t r i c p o s i t i o n s whi ch a g a i n makes them v u l n e r a b l e t o s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s .

i s e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t t o be p r e c i s e about e i t h e r t h e magnitude o f these c l e a r ances, p a r t i c u l a r l y under dynamic l o a d i n g , o r t h e e f f e c t o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e gaps. However, fr o m t h e d at a we do have and f ro m f i e l d experience gained t o date, we a r e a b l e t o suggest c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s which, an a c c e p t a b le l i f e f o r most pumps.

i f achieved, w i l l r e s u l t i n

These a r e presented i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ,

whic h d e a l s w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s . The u s e f u l l i f e o f a pump sho ul d end when i t no longer d e l i v e r s t h e r e q u i r e d o u t p u t a t a g i v e n s h a f t speed, d i s c h a r g e p ressure, and f l u i d temperature. guid e , 15-20% l o s s o f f l o w would i n d i c a t e t h e end o f t h e u s e f u l l i f e . As a

A l l too If, foll-

o f t e n d e g r a d a t i o n goes un de t e ct e d until,finally,catastrophic f a i l u r e occurs w i t h v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n b e i n g r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e system. owing such a f a i l u r e , t h e system i s n o t t h en p r o p e r l y cleaned, replacement pump w i 1 1 be reduced. I n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e end use r, t h e system designer should s p e c i f y t h e m i n i mum a c c e p t a b l e f l o w r a t e f r o m t h e pump t o achieve s a t i s f a c t o r y machine performance. Means s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o r m o n i t o r i n g pump o u t p u t by i n s e r t i n g s u i t a b l e e i t h e r t e m p o r a r i l y o r pe rmanently, so t h a t r o u t i n e checks can

t h e l i f e o f the

instrumentation,

be c a r r i e d o u t t o reduce t h e r i s k o f c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e s . With p i s t o n u n i t s ,
i t i s u s u a l l y a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o measure case leakage, w hich can be a u s e f u l

gu id e t o pump c o n d i t i o n . Remember, t o t h e end u ser i t i s t o t a l c o s t s t h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t ; o f a low-cost pump may w e l l r e s u l t i n e xpe nsi ve downtime. the f a i l u r e

I f , by t h e i n c l u s i o n

o f a f l o w meter, such a f a i l u r e can be a voi d ed, t h e i n i t i a l investment i n a flow meter would be f u l l y j u s t i f i e d .

13.3.5

Motors

What has been w r i t t e n about pumps a p p l i e s g e n e r a l l y t o motors o f s i m i l a r des i gn.

I t must be remembered t h a t much o f the, contaminant passing through t h e pump

may be r e a c h in g t h e motor a l s o , where t h e r e w i l l be a s i m l l a r performance degradation.

I f , due t o wear, t h e v o l u m e t r i c e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e pump has f a l l e n t o 85%

o f i t s o r i g i n a l v a l u e and t h e v o l u m e t r i c e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e motor has f a l l e n t o , say, 90% o f o r i g i n a l , t h en t h e o v e r a l l v o l u m e t r i c e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e pump and 76.5% o f t h e o r i g i n a l value. For t h i s reason

motor w i l l be down t o 0.85 x 0.9

301
c o n ta m in a tio n c o n t r o l i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n h y d r o s t a t i c transmissions t o p r o v i d e t h e necessary l e v e l o f f l u i d c l e a n l i n e s s .

13.3.6

D i r e c t i o n a l Valves

The r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e s p e c i f i e d between bore and spool i n most d i r e c t i o n a l v a lv e s i s i n t h e range o f

t o 13 mi cro met res.

As i s w e l l know, t h e p r o d u c t i o n

o f p e r f e c t l y round and s t r a i g h t bores i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y d i f f i c u l t , so i t i s unl i k e l y t h a t any spool w i l l l i e e x a c t l y c e n t r a l i n t h e clearance band. inal & i n . c 1 ea rance. I n an e l e c t r i c a l l y o pe rat ed v a l v e , shown i n F i g . 6 . They a r e : Flow f o r c e s t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s o l e n o i d a r e I n a nom-

v a l v e , a good spool i s l i k e l y t o have l e s s than 2.5 micrometres

Spring f o r c e

Friction

Inertia.

Tank port

Cylinder Return Port

Pressure port

Cylinder pressure Port

Tank port

r--

Spring force

Q MI

m
Leakage carrying particles 1r--Flow force FaAx AP

r--I

l---

0
.

L---

r---

Spring lorce

IIRll a

AP = Pressure drop across spool Dotted lines show position of spool lands when closed.

Fi g . 6

Va l ve spool c r i t i c a l clearances ( w i t h f l o w s and f o r c e s )

Flow, s p r i n g , and i n e r t i a f o r c e s a r e i n h e r e n t f a c t o r s b u t f r i c t i o n f o r c e s are, t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , dependent on f i l t r a t i o n .

I f t h e system i s h e a v i l y contamin-

a t e d w i t h p a r t i c l e s s i m i l a r i n s i z e t o t h e r a d i a l and d i a m e t r a l clearances, h i g h e r f o r c e s w i l l be needed t o move t h e s p o o l . An even worse s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t s f rom s i l t i n g , where contaminant i s forced i n t o t h e c le a r a n ces under p ressu re, e v e n t u a l l y l e a d i n g t o breakdown o f t h e o i l

f i l m and spool hang-up ( F i g . 7 ) .

T h i s s i t u a t i o n o ccurs where v a l v e s s u b j e c t e d t o continuous p r e s s u r e a r e operated i n f r e q u e n t l y . Such v a l v e s sh ou l d p r e f e r a b l y have l o c a l f i l t r a t i o n o f a

v e r y h i g h o r d e r i n t h e a d j a c e n t p r e s s u r e l i n e b u t due account should be taken o f p o s s i b l e p r e s s u r e surges generated d u r i n g component o p e r a t i o n . The use o f h i g h e f f i c i e n c y f i l t e r s as a s p e c i a l p r o t e c t i o n f o r s i n g l e u n i t s o r groups o f

302
u n i t s can r e s u l t i n t h e need f o r a v e r y h i g h d i r t c a p a c i t y i f t h e general l e v e l o f f i l t r a t i o n i n t h e system i s much lower.

One large particle can bridge gap

Working pressure

1
Silt Build-up

Break in oil film due to dirt concentration

Fig.7

V a l ve spool c r i t i c a l clearance. Eccentricity i s t h e normal c o n d i t i o n i n many cases.

Some idea o f t h e f o r c e s needed t o break t h i s spool hang-up,

compared w i t h

t h e f o r c e s a v a i l a b l e f rom t h e s o l e n o i d , can be gained from t h e example o f a nominal

&

i n . v a l v e o p e r a t i n g a t 210 b ar.

I f a v a l v e o f t h i s t y p e remains s e l -

ecte d i n t h e s p r i n g o f f s e t o r e ne rgi se d p o s i t i o n f o r a l e n g t h y p e r i o d o f time, s i l t i n g t a k e s p l a c e between spool and bo re t o produce t o t a l i m m o b i l i t y . The

f o r c e needed t o overcome t h i s s t a t e has been found by experiment t o be o f t h e o r d e r o f 135 Newtons, b u t b o t h s p r i n g and s o l e n o i d c o u l d e x e r t o n l y 45 Newtons. Thus t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s i l t i s t o cause t o t a l system f a i l u r e .

13.3.7

P r e s s u re C o n t r o l s

H i g h l y a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s i n h i g h v e l o c i t y streams o f o i l erode t h e surfaces w i t h wh ic h they come i n t o c o n t a c t . T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s common t o p r e s s u r e con-

t r o l l e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l i e f v a l v e s whi ch a r e s u b j e c t e d t o maximum system pre s s u r e drop and v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e o r d e r o f 30 m/s. P i l o t c o n t r o l stages gen-

e r a l l y see low volumes a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s and heavy c o n t a m i n a t i o n a f f e c t s b o t h t h e i r s t a b i l i t y and r e p e a t a b i l i t y . 13.3.8 Flow C o n t r o l s

The c o n t a m i n a t i o n t o l e r a n c e o f f l o w c o n t r o l v a l v e s w i l l depend v e r y much on the o r i f i c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

303
F i g u r e 8, f o r example, shows two o r i f i c e s which a r e o f en't r e l y d i f f e r e n t shape, a l t h o u g h having equal areas. The groove t y p e (a) w i l l t o l e r a t e a h i g h ype (b) i s much

contamination l e v e l except when used a t low s e t t i n g , whereas more prone t o s i l t i n g a t a l l s e t t i n g s .

With a l l types o f pressure-compensated f l o w c o n t r o l s , t h e performance o f t h e pressure r e d u c i n g element can be c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t e d by c o n t a m i n a t i o n , i r r e s pective o f valve s e t t i n g . Damage t o t h e m e t e r i n g o r i f i c e can a l s o occur, which

w i l l become p a r t i c u l a r l y apparent a t lower s e t t i n g s .

Note: Throttle profile gives orifice segments of equal area

Fig.8

Flow c o n t r o l v a l v e t h r o t t l e s e c t i o n s . P r o f i l e (b) i s more prone t o s i l t i n g .

Generally speaking, a l l s p o o l - t y p e c o n t r o l v a l v e s a r e a f f e c t e d by contaminat i o n i n t h e system, e s p e c i a l l y a t h i g h p r e s s u r e s . The e f f e c t s a r e l i k e l y t o be

magnified i f p r e c i s e a x i a l p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e spool i s necessary as, f o r example, i n pressure r e d u c i n g v a l v e s where l i m i t e d f o r c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o o p e r a t e t h e spool. On t h e o t h e r hand, poppet v a l v e s , though a f f e c t e d by l a r g e p a r t i c l e s o f

contamination, tend t o be f a r more t o l e r a n t o f s i l t due t o t h e s e l f - c l e a r i n g action o f the seat, However, e r o s i o n i s s t i l l l i k e l y t o o c c u r .

13.3.9

Summary

I t can be seen from t h e f o r e g o i n g t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l l a r g e p a r t i c l e a r r i v i n g a t the wrong p l a c e a t t h e wrong t i m e can cause c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e . Surfaces w i t h i n components should be separated by an o i l f i l m , o f which may be c o n t i n u a l l y changing. the thickness

When t h i s gap i s b r i d g e d by contaminants,

wear w i l l occur thereby g e n e r a t i n g f u r t h e r p a r t i c l e s which may w e l l be ground i n t o many more s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s . F i n e p a r t i c l e s i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n small

304

Fig.9

Suggested a c c e p t a b l e c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s f o r v a r i o u s h y d r a u l i c systems Suggested Maximum Particle Level

Target Contamination Class t o CETOP RP70H

Sensitivity

Type o f System

5um 15 vm
13
9

5vm

15vm 250 Super critical

Suggested Filtration Rating Bx > 75 1-2

4 000

S i l t sensitive control system w i t h v e r y h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y . Laboratory o r aerospace.

High performance servo and h i g h p r e s s u r e l o n g l i f e systems, i.e. a i r c r a f t , machine t o o l s , e t c . High q u a l i t y r e l i a b l e systems. General machine requirements

15

11

16 000

1 000

Critical

3-5

16

13

32 000

4 000

Very important Important

10-12

18

14

130 000

8 000

General machinery and m o b i l e 2-15 systems. Medium p r e s s u r e , medium c a p a c i t y . Low p r e s s u r e heavy indust r i a l systems, or a p p l i c a t i o n s where l o n g l i f e i s not c r i t i c a l . Low p r e s s u r e systems w i t h l a r g e c 1 earances. 5-25

19

15

250 000 16 000

Average

21

17

1 000 0 0 0 6 4 0 0 0

Hain

25-40

Note: This graph assumes viscosity to be within recommended range.

I !I\,.* .

0 200

-. I .-. =-..I_ ----,Very sensitive t components

Average hydraulic components including most pumps.

f
UI

i
I

-. * =..

.-------p,yery tolerant components.

I

I
7

Figures relate to cumulative particle concentrations above5prnand 15pm respectively (see chapter 8).

Fig.10

Suggested c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l f o r good l i f e

305
q u a n t i t i e s may n o t cause damage, b u t i f p rese nt i n l a r g e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may l ea d t o f a i l u r e t h rou gh s i l t i n g . The o b j e c t i v e must be t o o b t a i n t he most economic combination o f contamina t i o n c o n t r o l and co nt ami n at i on t o l e r a n c e f o r a g i v e n r e l i a b l e system l i f e under known performance and e nvi ro nme nt al c o n d i t i o n s . 13.4 SPECIFYING CONTAMINATION LEVELS

As s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , 25 micrometres i s a t y p i c a l general l e v e l o f f i l t r a t i o n , s p e c i f i e d w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o wo rki ng pre ssure , l o c a l environment o r d u t y c y c l e . W know f r o m e x p eri e nce t h a t under s i m i l a r en vironmental and o p e r a t i n a c o n d i t i o n s e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a 25 micrometre f i l t e r w i l l v a r y depending on i t s l o c a t i o n i n t h e system. A l so , under steady f l o w c o n d i t i o n s as t h e pores tend t o c l o g the Under v a r y i n g o r i n t e r m i t t e n t

f i l t r a t i o n performance may a c t u a l l y improve.

f l o w , however, t h e r e s u l t can be v e r y d i f f e r e n t because contaminant p a r t i c l e s a r e d i s l o d g e d f r o m t h e p ore s a l l o w i n g more f i n e p a r t i c l e s t o pass through. I t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f use have t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e c ont a m in a t io n l e v e l o b t a i n e d w i t h a s p e c i f i c f i l t e r , which means t h a t i t i s gene r a l l y unwise t o o f f e r w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n o r accept w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n a b l a n k e t recommendation o f , say t h e use o f a 25 micrometre f i l t e r . For t h e user

i t means p u t t i n g h i s investment a t r i s k and f o r t h e manufacturer i t makes t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f w a r r a n t i e s ext reme l y d i f f i c u l t . From a wide spectrum o f f i e l d da t a , F i g . 9 summarises t h e l e v e l s o f contaminat i o n wh ic h a r e c on si de red a ccep t a bl e f o r most h y d r a u l i c systems. The d e c i s i o n o f whether a system i s c r i t i c a l w i l l depend l a r g e l y on t h e type o f components used and t h e system d esi g n p ressure. F i g u r e 10 has t h e r e f o r e been

produced t o g i v e t h e recommended co nt ami n at i on l e v e l s w i t h knowledge o f the system p r e s s u r e and h a v i n g an al yse d t h e d i r t s e n s i t i v i t y o f the system componen t s.

13.5

SELECTING THE FILTER

B e f o r e a c h o i c e o f f i l t e r may be made t h e v a r i o u s r a t i n g s used by manufacture r s must be examined. 13.5.1 Nominal R a t i n g

S p e c i f i c a t i o n s MIL-F5504A and MIL-F5504B were e s t a b l i s h e d for d e t e r m i n i n g nominal r a t i n g s . V e rsi on A d e f i n e s a 10 micrometre f i l t e r as b e i n g a b l e t o Version B remove 98% by w e i g h t o f a l l p a r t i c l e s o f t h e e l e c t e d contaminant (AC f i n e t e s t d u s t ) l a r g e r t h a n 10 micrometres a t a c e r t a i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n . d e f i n e s a 10 m ic ro met re f i l t e r as b e i n g a b l e t o remove 95% by w eight o f 10-20 m i cr o m e t r e g l a s s beads a t a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Although l i t t l e use has been

made o f t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , many manufacturers use s i m i l a r t e s t s t o p r o v i d e nominal r a t i n g s f o r t h e i r f i l t e r s .

306
Such t e s t s have two major l i m i t a t i o n s . Firstly, they do n o t l i m i t t h e maxi-

mum s i z e o f p a r t i c l e a l l o w e d t o pass through t h e element and from t e s t s i t has been found t h a t f i l t e r s meeting these requirements can pass p a r t i c l e s up t o 200 micrometres. Secondly, t h e h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f contaminant added i s n o t t y p i I n practice, the particles

c a l o f c o n d i t i o n s experienced i n a normal system.

approach t h e f i l t e r i n small c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and those p a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e s m a l l e r than t h e mean p o r e s i z e pass r e a d i l y through t h e f i l t e r as l o n g as t h e f i l t e r medium remains reasonably c l e a n . For t h e reasons g i v e n above t h e r e i s a good case f o r d i s c o n t i n u i n g t h e use o f nominal r a t i n g s .

13.5.2

Absolute Rating

The NFPA F l u i d Power Glossary o f Terms d e f i n e s t h e a b s o l u t e r a t i n g as b e i n g t h e diameter o f t h e l a r g e s t h a r d s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e t h a t w i l l pass through a f i l t e r under s p e c i f i e d t e s t c o n d i t i o n s . opening i n t h e f i 1 t e r - e w n t . T h i s i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e l a r g e s t

13.5.3

The Bubble T e s t

T h i s i s a t e s t used by manufacturers t o d e t e r m i n e t h e area o f g r e a t e s t porosity. I t i s achieved by a p p l y i n g a i r p r e s s u r e t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e f i l t e r e l e -

ment, which i s submerged i n a l i q u i d such as a l c o h o l , which wets t h e f i l t e r media. The o p e r a t o r r o t a t e s t h e f i l t e r element a t each p r e s s u r e l e v e l and r e c -

o r d s t h e p r e s s u r e a t which t h e f i r s t stream o f bubbles e m i t t e d f r o m t h e f i l t e r element. The t e s t can be c o n t i n u e d t o measure t h e p r e s s u r e s o f t h e second,

t h i r d , f o u r t h , e t c . l a r g e s t h o l e . By c o n t i n u i n g t o s l o w l y i n c r e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e , a p o i n t i s reached c a l l e d t h e 'open b u b b l e p o i n t ' a t which a i r bubbles appear o v e r t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e o f t h e f i l t e r element; measuring t h e mean p o r e s i z e .

I t i s claimed t h a t p r e c i s e r e s u l t s a r e n o t o b t a i n a b l e f r o m t h e b u b b l e t e s t ,

t h i s i s a s i m p l i f i e d method o f

which i s u n f o r t u n a t e because such a s i m p l e t e s t would be i n v a l u a b l e .

As i t i s ,

i t s main use i s i n t h e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f elements t o ensure t h e r e i s no damage t o t h e media o r a bad s e a l .

13.5.4

Mean F i l t r a t i n g R a t i n g

T h i s i s a measurement o f t h e average s i z e of t h e pores o f t h e f i l t e r media. T h i s i s a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t r a t i n g , s i n c e i t i s a measure o f t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e above which t h e f i l t e r s t a r t s b e i n g e f f e c t i v e . 'open bubble p o i n t ' method j u s t d e s c r i b e d .
I t can be measured u s i n g t h e

307
13.5.5 Multipass F i l t e r Test

T h i s t e s t , designed t o p r o v i d e a means o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e performance characteristics of a f i l t e r , i n v o l v e s t h e co nt i nu ous i n j e c t i o n o f a c o n t r o l l e d contaAs t h e contaminant can be removed o n l y by t h e t e s t

minant i n t o a t e s t system. filter,

i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c i r c u l a t e i n t h e system unless i t i s captured.

The

s e p a r a tio n c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e t e s t f i l t e r i s monitored by a n a l y s i n g upstream and downstream f l u i d samples. The d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y i s measured by t h e amount

i n grammes o f t e s t contaminant which can be added t o t h e system b e f o r e a s p e c i f i e d t e r m i n a l p r e s s u r e drop acro ss t h e f i l t e r i s reached. The mathematical r e l a t i o n s h i p whi ch d e s c r i b e s t h e t e s t i s developed from t h e following expression: Number o f p a r t i c l e s Number o f p a r t i c l e s Number o f downstream o f s i z e = o r i g i n a l l y o f s i z e + p a r t i c l e s > xpm > xpm injected o f s i z e >xpm 13.5.6 Beta R a t i o

Number o f p a r t i c l e s removed o f s i z e >xpm

The s e p a r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e g i v e n by t h e Beta r a t i o , which i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :

o. .
-

Number o f upstream p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r than xpm

~~

Number o f downstream p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r than xpm

A Beta r a t i o o f 1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t no p a r t i c l e contamination i s removed.

taminants.

f i g u r e o f l e s s t ha n 1 i s c l e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e unless t h e f i l t e r i s u n l o a d i n g con-

For a f i l t e r e x h i b i t i n g a Beta r a t i o g r e a t e r than 1 , t h e downstream concent r a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s above a g i v e n s i z e w i l l s t a b i l i z e t o g i v e an almost cons t a n t c o n t a m in a t io n l e v e l .

13.5.7

P r a c t i c a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f F i l t e r Performance

Whatever fo r m at i s used by t h e f i l t e r ma nufacturer t o g i v e performance i n f o r mation on h i s p r odu ct , t h e degree o f f i l t r a t i o n p r o v i d e d w i l l b a s i c a l l y f a l l Typical

i n t o one o f t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , depending on t h e degree o f s i l t c o n t r o l .

data c o r r e s p o n d ing t o these c a t e g o r i e s a r e g i v e n i n Fig.12 though i t should be the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s t a t e i n t o w hich o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s i f i c a tions h i s products f a l l .

A t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s no u n i v e r s a l l y recognised s t idard

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b u t work be i ng c a r r i e d o u t by v a r i o u s bodies should eventua 1 Y lead t o an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y agreed d e f i n i t i o n . Two adverse f a c t o r s a f f e c t t h e a c t u a l performance o f f i l t e r s i n s e r v i c e namely p u l s a t i n g f l o w , and t h e sometimes u n c e r t a i n performance o f i n t e r n a l s e a ls and bypass v a l v e s .

308
Fig.12 D e f i n i t i o n o f practical c l a s s i f i c a t i o n categories Category Nomi na 1 Absolute Rating R a t i n g pm

Beta R a t i o

S i l t Control
P a r t i a l S i l t Control No S i l t C o n t r o l (Chip removal)

f to 1

3 to 5
10 t o 15

B3-5

75

3 to 5
10 t o 15

B10-15>75 625-4075

25 t o 40

13.5.7.1

P u l s a t i n g Flow f o r c e s trirough t h e media those f i n e p a r t i c l e s w hich

would o t h e r w i s e lodge among t h e f i b r e s and between l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s a l r e a d y intercepted. The e f f e c t may be compared w i t h a s i e v e h o l d i n g a m i x t u r e o f when t h e

stones, some l a r g e r and some s m a l l e r t ha n t h e openings i n t h e mesh;

s i e v e i s s t a t i o n a r y , many o f t h e sma l l stones a r e r e t a i n e d b u t they f a l l through when t h e s i e v e i s shaken. P u l s a t i n g f l o w t h e r e f o r e increases t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f

s i l t p a r t i c l e s i n t h e system downstream o f t h e f i l t e r , and t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e performance curve o f t h e f i l t e r ( F i g . 1 3 ) .

13.5.7.2

Bypassing by i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l v a l v i n g i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r many i n a number o f passes, a l l t h e f l u i d e v e n t u a l l y goes through t h e

systems s i n c e , f i 1t e r .

For f i l t e r s o t h e r t ha n t h ose designed f o r permanent bypassing i t would n o r m a l l y be expected t h a t t h e bypass be o p e r a t i v e o n l y when t h e element i s reaching t h e end o f i t s use f u l life. T h e r e f o r e t h e e f f e c t s o f premature opening o f t h e Since bypassing, bypass v a l v e o r a f a u l t y i n t e r n a l s e a l need t o be considered.

whatever t h e cause, does n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e between f i n e and coarse p a r t i c l e s , t h e e f f e c t i s t o weigh t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n p r o f i l e h e a v i l y a t t h e coarse end.

F i g u r e 14 shows t h e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g percentages o f bypass f l o w s , and i t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t even a t 0.1% bypass t h e maximum p a r t i c l e s i z e has almost doubled. A t 1% i t has mare t h an t r e b l e d , and a t 10% i t has increased by a f a c -

tor o f five. The p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f byp assi n g and t h e need t o make p r o v i s i o n f o r

i t depend on t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e f i l t e r i n t h e system.

For example, on i n l e t

f i l t e r s a bypass v a l v e i s mandatory i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e pump from c a v i t a t i o n as th e f i l t e r becomes b l ocke d. Pressure f i l t e r s a r e i nt en de d t o p r o t e c t t h e system i f t h e r e i s c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e o f t h e pump.

I f such a f a i l u r e o ccurs when t h e f i l t e r i s bypassing,

There i s o b v i o u s l y a case f o r f i t t i n g nonAn element

th e n t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s n o n - e x i s t e n t .

bypass p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s where t h e need f o r t h i s t y p e i s e s t a b l i s h e d . the c o s t o f t h e f i l t e r .

must be f i t t e d t h a t w i l l w i t h s t a n d t h e t o t a l system pressure, w hich increases Cl o gg i ng o f t h e element causes system Performance t o f a l l o f f and a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r i s e s s e n t i a l t o g i v e e a r l y w arning o f t h i s .

309

lnterupted flow performance.

106

105

r=w)'

Q filter

103

102

1 0

Steady flow

1
102 103

Particle size

- micmmetns.

50 70 90 120 m

Fig.13

F i l t e r performance d e t e r i o r a t e s under i n t e r m i t t e n t o r p u l s a t i n g flow. The e f f e c t i s more marked w i t h f i n e r p a r t i c l e s which a r e forced through the media.

Fig.14

Influence o f by-pass leakage on the f i l t e r performance.

Where a bypass i s judged t o be permissible, the system designer must weigh c a r e f u l l y t h e e f f e c t s o f premature opening due t o c o l d s t a r t s and surge flows; the e l i m i n a t i o n o f surges, even those a t low pressure, w i l l reduce the tendency f o r t h e bypass t o open under normal o p e r a t i o n .

A t present t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e on the e x t e n t o f the adverse

e f f e c t t h a t p u l s a t i n g f l o w has on f i l t e r performance. Hopefully, Beta r a t i o s
w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be quoted which do r e l a t e t o c o n d i t i o n s which l i n e f i l t e r s a r e

subjected t o i n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e .

N a t u r a l l y , where stea,dy f l o w e x i s t s r e l a t i n g

more c l o s e l y t o l a b o r a t o r y t e s t c o n d i t i o n s , more accurate p r e d i c t i o n s o f f i l t e r performance can be made. However, using the l i m i t e d knowledge a t o u r d sposal, l i k e l y performance l e v e l s f o r each of our categories have been produced i n Fig. 15. O each graph a cumulative count o f both n has been shown.

and 15 micrometre s i z e pa t i c l e s

The reason f o r using these f i g u r e s i s because o f t h e standard

set by the CETOP RP70H. For ease i n r e l a t i n g t o t h i s document,the range numbers a r e a l s o quoted. a d d i t i o n t o f i x e d f i g u r e s a t t h e two values t h e l i n e s a r e extended t o show expected trends f o r t y p i c a l f i l t e r s . In

310

SILT REMOVER CUMULATIVE COUNT SIZE pm

16.000(14)

PARTIAL SILT REMOVER CUMIJLATIVECOUNT SIZE pm

64.000(161

25,000(18)

N.B. Range number as per CETOP RP7OH shown in brackets.

N. B. Range number as per CETOP RP7OH shown in brackets.

22
=r o l

^.

105

3 10 -

a 0 z

i
0

10

a
102

1 0

K)

152025

P*rtlCk

.I20

Fig.15A Assumed mean pore r a t i n g 3 micrometre. Curves show deterioration o f f i l t e r performance w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a r t i c l e s below t h i s s i z e under pulsating flow.

F i g . 1 5 9 Assumed mean p o r e r a t i n g 7 microm e t r e . Curves show d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f f i l t e r performance w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a r t i c l e s below t h i s s i z e under p u l s a t i n g f l o w .

311

CHIP REMOVER CUMULATIVE COUNT SIZE r m

IS

64.000 (16)

N.B. Range number as per CETOP RP70H shown in-brackets

Fig.15C Assumed mean p o r e r a t i n g 15 micrometre. Curves show d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f f i l t e r performance w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a r t i c l e s below t h i s s i z e under p u l s a t i n g f l o w . There i s l i t t l e o r no c o n t r o l o f 5 micrometre p a r t i c l e s .

312
Assuming t h e s e graphs r e l a t e t o performance o f t h e f i l t e r s u p p l i e d by t h e p a r t i c u l a r m a n u fa ct u rer chosen i t i s necessary t o show t h a t t h e actua ment when p l o t t e d s t a y s below t h e l i n e drawn f o r steady o r p u l s a t i n g As an.example, i f we have a system w i t h a w orking p r e s s u r e o f , say requirelow. 150 bar

u s i n g components w i t h average d i r t t o l e r a n c e , o u r c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l graph (Fig.10) t e l l s us t h a t t h e d e s i r e d co nt ami n ation l e v e l should be somewhere

between 15/11 and 18/14. R e f e r r i n g now t o Fig.15a and b, we see t h a t under steady f l o w c o n d i t i o n s t h i s c o u l d be achieved by o u r p a r t i a l s i l t c o n t r o l f i l t e r , b u t i f p u l s a t i n g f l o w i s p r e s e n t a s i l t removal f i l t e r i s r e q u i r e d . I t can be assumed t h a t most p ressu res and r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r s a r e s u b j e c t t o pulsating flow conditions. t i o n on f i l t e r l o c a t i o n . The reasons a r e g i v e n i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n t h e secOn t h e o t h e r hand, o f f - l i n e systems have t h e b e n e f i t

of a steady f l o w r a t e c o n d i t i o n .

I t must be emphasised t h a t t h e onus i s v e r y much on t h e f i l t e r manufacturer t o i d e n t i f y t h e l i k e l y performance o f h i s p a r t i c u l a r media. 13.5.8 F i l t e r Sizing

I t i s c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e f o r man uf act ure rs t o s t a t e a f l o w r a t i n g a t a s p e c i f i c

c l e a n p r e s s u r e drop (see F i g . 1 6). W hi l e t h i s i s a g u i d e t o c a p a c i t y ,
i t may

w e l l be necessary f o r t h e system de si gn er t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l d i r t c a p a c i t y so

07 07

c-

Flow (I/mln)
Oil vlscoslty 30 cSt. Element pressuredrop Is directly proportional to fluld viscosity.

Fig.16

T y p i c a l p r e s s u r e d rop s f o r c l e a n s i l t c o n t r o l and c h i p c o n t r o l elements o f s i m i l a r s i z e .

313
as t o ensure t h a t t h e end u s e r o b t a i n s an a cceptable element l i f e . o f t e n f i l t e r s s i z e d p u r e l y on f l o w r a t e have a s h o r t element l i f e .

A l l too
I n choosing

l a r g e r f i l t e r c a p a c i t i e s g r e a t e r i n i t i a l expense may be i n c u r r e d , b u t t h i s i s almost c e r t a i n t o be re cove red i n reduced r u n n i n g c o s t s , changes, reduced l a b o u r c o s t s and reduced downtime. Co r r e c t f i l t e r s i z i n g n e c e s s i t a t e s r e l a t i n g t h e d i r t e n t e r i n g t h e f i l t e r t o t h e e f f e c t i v e element a rea and t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e drop. The r e l a t i.e. fewer element

i o n s h i p o f a r e a t o p r e s s u r e drop i s n o t simple, however, and f i l t e r i n l e t d i r t l e v e l s a r e r a r e l y known. There i s a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t ( t h e 'co mpa rat ive l i f e ' or ' d i r t c a p a c i t y ' t e s t ) which i s designed t o compare t h e d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t i e s o f h y d r a u l i c f i l t e r s . An a r t i f i c i a l contaminant i s added a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e t o a c o n t i n u o u s l y r e c i r c l a t i n g o i l system and t h e r e s u l t a n t i n crea se i n d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e w e i g h t o f contaminant added, as shown i n Fig.17. The r e s u l t i n g

c u r v e has a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m which i s c o n s t a n t f o r a g i v e n f i l t e r media.

[ 6 7

"I

0
Total A.C. flne test dust added (grams).
Fig.17 Typical d i r t capacity curve f o r hydraul i c f i l t e r element. Fig.18

25

50 75 Percent dirt capacity.

1 100

Comparison o f . d i r t c a p a c i t i e s and d i f f e r e n t i a l pressures f o r two d i f f e r e n t f i l t e r s .

314
I n t h e f i r s t stages o f d i r t a d d i t i o n i t can be seen t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e drop increases s l o w l y , whereas l a t e r t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p increases v e r y r a p i d l y . This

i l l u s t r a t e s why v e r y l i t t l e i s gained i n terms o f element l i f e by a l l o w i n g t h e f i l t e r t o operate a t a h i g h d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure a f t e r the 'knee' o f the curve has been passed. The c u r v e also i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i r r e l e v a n c y o f a system t h e more s i g n i f -

designer c o n c e r n i n g h i m s e l f s o l e l y w i t h c l e a n p r e s s u r e drops;

icant f a c t o r i s the d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure across the f i l t e r a f t e r a s p e c i f i e d amount o f d i r t has been added. Except w i t h non-bypass f i l t e r s , t h e maximum p r e s s u r e drop across t h e element i s u s u a l l y determined by t h e bypass v a l v e s e t t i n g . The system d e s i g n e r must

also check t h a t t h e system performance i s m a i n t a i n e d w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e drop a t

i t s maximum value.

I f f i l t e r s a r e o v e r s i z e d , t h e bypass may pass a s u b s t a n t i a l

flow without indicating.

I t i s commonly thought t h a t t o o b t a i n l o n g e r s e r v i c e l i f e from a g i v e n f i l t e r

element w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g f i l t e r e f f i c i e n c y , media area i n t o t h e f i l t e r envelope.

i t i s o n l y necessary t o pack more

T h i s i s n o t so s i n c e an optimum area

e x i s t s f o r a g i v e n envelope and i t i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o exceed t h i s a r e a . The comparative l i f e t e s t p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d i s used t o compare t h e d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f d i f f e r e n t f i l t e r elements, and i n Fig.18 we compare t h e d i r t c a p a c i t y o f two f i l t e r s o f i d e n t i c a l envelope s i z e . The f i l t e r A has a lower However, t h e optimum

c l e a n p r e s s u r e drop than f i l t e r B because A has more area.

area has been exceeded and t h e r e f o r e f i l t e r A would have a s h o r t e r l i f e than B f o r a given pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l . How c l o s e p a c k i n g reduces t h e e f f e c t i v e area i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.19 where t h e p l e a t s c l o s e up under p r e s s u r e and t h e small angles between them c l o g rapidly. F a t i g u e f a i l u r e s can a l s o o c c u r when p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d . As d a t a on

t h e r e s u l t s o f d i r t c a p a c i t y t e s t s a r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , we must r e v e r t t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s f l o w r a t i n g a t m s p e c i f i c c l e a n p r e s s u r e drop and use t h i s a s

a basis f o r assessing d i r t capacity.

Fluid flow + Fluid flow Effective areas

t
under high flow

medium

Pleats close up under pressure and small angles between them clog rapidly, reducing the effectlve area

Wider spacing gives smaller but more effective filter area

High stress under high flow conditions

Flow fatigue failure

Fig.19A I n c r e a s i n g f i l t e r area w i t h i n a g i v e n package may a c t u a l l y reduce t h e d i r t h o l d i n g capac i t y .

Fig.198

Changes i n f l o w and p r e s s u r e drop cause t h e s i d e s o f element c o r r u g a t i o n s t o f l e x and t h e root t o stretch, giving rise t o f a t i g u e stresses.

315
Recapping, o u r o b j e c t i v e i s t o a c h i e v e a ' d i r t i n equals d i r t o u t ' c o n d i t i o n . The d e s i r e d d i r t c a p a c i t y o f t h e f i l t r a t i o n system w i l l t h e r e f o r e depend t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on o u r a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e d i r t i n p u t . The d i r t i n p u t i s a i n turn,

product o f i n b u i l t con t a mi na t i o n and i n gre ssed c o n t a m i n a t i o n which, produces system generated con t a mi na t i o n.

L e t us f i r s t examine each source i n

d e t a i l and t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g i t s i n p u t ( F i g . 2 0 ) . Contamination source Controller Good f l u s h i n g procedures, system n o t o pe rat ed on load u n t i l acceptable cont a m i n a t i o n l e v e l obtained.

Dirt i n p u t

I n b u i l t : i n components p ip es, m a n i f o l d s , e t c . plus P r e sen t i n i n i t i a l charge o f f l u i d

Integrity o f supplier. F l u i d stored under c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s ( e x c l u s i o n o f F1 u i d f i 1 t e r e d d i r t , condensation,etc.) during f i l l i n g .

plus lngressed t h rou gh a i r breather plus ln g re ssed d u r i n g f l u i d r e p l e ni sh men t S u i t a b l e f i l l i n g p o i n t s which ensure some f i l t r a t i o n o f f l u i d b e f o r e e n t e r i n g r e s e r v o i r . T h i s t a s k undertaken by r e s p o n s i b l e personnel. Design should mi ni mi se t h e e f f e c t s . An e f f e c t i v e a i r b r e a t h e r w i t h r a t i n g co mpatible w i t h degree o f f l u i d f i l t r a tion.

plus lngressed d u r i n g maintenance plus lngressed t h rou gh c y l i n d e r ro d s e a l s plus F u r t h e r generated co nt am i n a t i o n produced as a r e s u l t o f t h e above and the s e v e r i t y o f the duty cycle. C o r r e c t f l u i d s e l e c t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s ( v i s c o s i t y and a d d i t i v e s ) maintained. Good system design m i n i m i s i n g e f f e c t s o f co nt amination present on system compon en t s. E f f e c t i v e wiper seals o r , i f airborne con t a mination, rods p r o t e c t e d by s u i t a b l e gaiters

F ig . 2 0

The p r a c t i c a l st ep s wh i ch c o n t r o l C ontamination i n h y d r a u l i c systems.

Based on Fig.20 we w i l l now grade t h e c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l o f a system between

1 and 7.

An example o f a grade 1 c l e a n system would be a c l e a n workshop w i t h

A grade

e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l o v e r a l l con t a mi na t i o n i n gress.

7 d i r t y system would

be, say, a f o u n d ry w i t h l i t t l e o r no c o n t r o l over c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n g r e s s and a system o p e r a t i n g se vera l exposed c y l i n d e r s .

316
Figure 21 w i l l a s s i s t i n making a numerical assessment between these values based on t h e environment and t h e degree o f c o n t r o l over contamination.

Environmental Conditions Good Average Bad Degree of Control L i t t l e or no c o n t r o l over contamination ingression (many exposed c y l inders) Some c o n t r o l over contamination ingression (few c y l inders). Good c o n t r o l over contamination ingression ( g a i t e r e d c y l inders).

3
2 1

6
4
2

5
3

Fig.21

Assessment and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f system c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l i n t o 7 grades.

W must now r e l a t e t h i s t o t h e e f f e c t i v e element area and the maximum a l l o w e a b l e pressure drop. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between area and pressure drop i s n o t

simple, but by using very broad approximations o f these values and assuming t h a t the manufacturers f l o w r a t i n g a t a s p e c i f i c c l e a n pressure drop i s a good guide t o d i r c t capacity, the f o l l o w i n g s e l e c t i o n guides can be used:

1 0

To use this graph:

1. Decide on maximum acceptable pressure 2. Assess cleanliness grade in SyStem. from drop, this will depend on system requireFig. 22. Draw vertical line through inter. section of pressure drop and cleanliness ments or bypass pressure. Draw horizontal line through this value. grade line.

30
u 7

B t

3. Read off multiplication factor where

vertical llne crosses horizontal axis. Multiply this factor by the actual flow rate at chosen pressure line location. Now select a filter element to handle this revlsed flow rate at a pressure drop of 1 bar (According to manufacturers clean rating). Actual flow x multiplication factor = recommended filter capacity.

a i 6 a 5

!I4
2 3

2
1

2
Multipiiulion faclor.

Fig.22

Pressure l i n e f i l t e r s e l e c t i o n guide.

317

30 '

4\ \ \ \

Tousethisgraph:
1. Decide on maximumacceptable pressure 2. Assess cleanliness grade in system, from Fig. 22. Draw vertical line through interdrop, this will depend on system require ments or bypass pressure. Draw section of pressure drop and cleanliness horizontal line through this value. grade lines.

3. Read off multiplication factorwhere vertical line crosses horizontal axis. Multiply this factor by theactual flow rateat chosen return line location. Now select a filter element to handle this revised flow rate at a pressure drop of 0 3 bar(According to manufacturers . clean rating).

= recommended filter capacity.

Actual flow x multiplication factor

2
Mulliplhlion faclor.

Fig.23

Return l i n e f i l t e r s e l e c t i o n guide.

To use this graph:

1. Decideon maximumacceptable pressure 2. Assess cleanlinessgrade in system, from Fig. 22. Draw vertical line through interdrop, this will depend on system require ments or bypass pressure. Draw section of pressure drop and cleanliness horizontal line through this value. grade lines.

3. Read off multiplication lactor where vertical line crosses horizontal axis. Multiply this factor by theactual offline pump flow rate. Now select a filter element to handle this revised flow rate at a pressure drop of 0 3 bar(acc0rding to . manufacturers clean rating).
Note:Toachieve reasonable lifea minimum multiplication factor of 2 is recommended.

= recommendedfiltercapacity.

Actual flow x multiplication factor

2 -

Multlpliutionfactor.

Fig.24

O f f l i n e f i l t e r s e l e c t i o n guide.

318
13.6 LOCATING THE FILTER

13.6.1

Pump I n l e t F i l t r a t i o n

C o r r e c t f i l l i n g o f t h e pump i s v i t a l i f s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n o f t h e hydraul i c system i s t o be achieved.

A l l t o o o f t e n i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d by

t h e d e s ig n e r t o t h e t o t a l pump i n l e t c o n f i g u r a t i o n and, as a r e s u l t , c a v i t a t i o n remains a m a jo r cause o f pump f a i l u r e . For t h i s reason i t i s w o r t h l o o k i n g once more a t t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f pump f i l l i n g . By f a r t h e most common method i s t o use atmospheric pressure

a c t i n g on t h e f l u i d s u r f a c e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t o f o r c e f l u i d i n t o t h e pump i n l e t chambers. (Fig.25). From b a s i c h y d r a u l i c p r i n c i p l e s we know t h a t f o r f l o w t o t a k e p l a c e we must have a p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e . W i t h t h i s arrangement we r e l y on t h e mechanical For convenience, t h e pump i s o f t e n s i t e d above t h e f l u i d l e v e l

a c t i o n o f t h e pump t o c r e a t e a de pre ssi on a t i t s i n l e t .

I t i s usual f o r manu-

f a c t u r e r s t o q u o t e a maximum a l l o w a b l e d ep ression a t t h e pump i n l e t , w hich i s l i k e l y t o be o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.17 b a r . Thus w i t h normal p r e s s u r e drops accoun-

t e d f o r , o n l y a v e r y smal l p r e s s u r e d rop can be t o l e r a t e d across t h e f i l t e r . For t h i s reason t h e s i z e and c o s t o f i n l e t f i l t e r s i s o f t e n g r e a t e r than, say, f i l t e r s i n the return l i n e . removal v i r t u a l l y i mpo ssi bl e . F i r e - r e s i s t a n t f l u i d s a r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o s u c t i o n pressures. They have Furthermore, such low p r e s s u r e drops make s i l t

h i g h e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s t ha n m i n e r a l o i l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s y n t h e t i c types. T h i s in c r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e drop t o t h e pump and a t t h e same t i m e demands a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e f l u i d i n t o t h e pump. Water g l y c o l s and w ater-

i n - o i l emulsions have a h i g h vapour p r e s s u r e and t h e pump i n l e t depression s h o u ld be l i m i t e d wherever p o s s i b l e t o h a l f t h e v a l u e f o r m i n e r a l o i l s , even when t e m p e r a t u r e i s l i m i t e d t o 5OoC. fluids (Fig.26).
Atmospheric pressure

With o r w i t h o u t i n l e t l i n e f i l t e r s i t i s

u s u a l l y e s s e n t i a l t o p r o v i d e a p o s i t i v e head a t t h e pump i n l e t when u s i n g these

'There must beadepression here to'lift'theoil.

Atmospheric pressure

L l+
Pump is charged at positive pressure.

Fig.25

Ne g a t iv e head t a nk.

F i g.26

P o s i t i v e head tank.

319
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e t y p e o f f l u i d , a p o s i t i v e head w i l l improve i n l e t c o n d i t i o n s because i t increases t h e f o r c e a v a i l a b l e t o c r e a t e t h e r e q u i r e d f l o w . For b o t h n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e head i n l e t arrangements, when s i z i n g i n l e t f i l t e r s we must ensure t h a t any f i l t e r (housing and element) and a s s o c i a t e d pipework should:

1 ) pass t h e f u l l pump volume w i t h i n t h e p e r m i t t e d i n l e t depr-

ession f o r t h a t pump, and 2 ) p e r m i t a bypass f l o w t h a t i s s t i l l w i t h i n t h a t

l i m i t when t h e f i l t e r element i s blocked.

( T h i s requirement o f t e n n e c e s s i t a t e s

t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e bypass f e a t u r e a t pressures as low as 0.085 b a r , a l e v e l a t which o p e r a t i o n i s seldom c o n s i s t e n t . )

A l l c a l c u l a t i o n s should t a k e i n t o account t h e e f f e c t o f h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d , e.g. a t c o l d s t a r t s , o t h e r w i s e c a v i t a t i o n w i l l occur. However, u n i t s The usual micrometre r a t i n g f o r i n l e t f i l t e r s i s 75 o r 150. a r e a v a i l a b l e i n c o r p o r a t i n g elements down t o 10 micrometre. housings and p r o b a b l e o v e r s i z i n g o f t h e i n l e t c o n f i g u r a t i o n . The 75 and 150 micrometre mesh elements w i l l remove most o f t h e p a r t i c l e s above t h e i r r a t i n g b u t a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n removing a n y t h i n g s m a l l e r . The a d d i t i o n o f magnets w i l l remove some o f t h e f i n e m e t a l i i c p a r t i c l e s b u t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e magnets w i t h i n t h e f i l t e r must be such t h a t under no circumstances can accumulated contaminant break away, thereby passing a conglomerate i n t o t h e pump. An advantage o f t e n claimed f o r i n l e t f i l t e r s i s ease o f s e r v i c i n g . However, i n c o r r e c t re-assembly o f access covers can r e s u l t i n a i r i n g r e s s , which o f t e n goes undetected and can be harmful t o t h e system as d i r t .
,

T h i s means l a r g e

I n l e t f i l t e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n systems where maintenance procedures do

not prevent q u a n t i t i e s o f large p a r t i c l e s entering the reservoir, f o r instance d u r i n g topping-up. P r o v i d i n g bypassing i s n o t o c c u r r i n g , they p r o t e c t t h e pump

from t h i s t y p e o f i n g r e s s i o n .

However, good r e s e r v o i r design t h a t i n c udes a eve1 a t heir

mesh screen o r b a f f l e can p r o v i d e an e q u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e c o n t a m i n a t i o n t h e pump i n l e t . Under these circumstances, s t r a i n e r s and f i l t e r s and

a s s o c i a t e d f i t t i n g s can be o m i t t e d f r o m t h e i n l e t l i n e , thus improving pump f i l l i n g conditions.

I t i s an encouraging s i g n t h a t more d e s i g n e r s a r e p r o v i d i n g s e p a r a t e f i l l i n g

arrangements, u s u a l l y through some f o r m o f coarse f i l t e r t o reduce t h e need f o r l a s t - c h a n c e pump i n l e t p r o t e c t i o n .

I f t h e f i l l i n g requirements o f t h e pump a r e c r i t i c a l and supercharging i s

necessary, as i s t h e case q u i t e o f t e n w i t h l a r g e v a r i a b l e - d i s p l a c e m e n t p i s t o n pumps, i t i s common t o s i t e a f i l t e r between t h e supercharger and main pump. t h e same g u i d e l i n e s g i v e n f o r t h e s i z i n g o f p r e s s u r e o r However, depressions can o c c u r when a v a r i a b l e

For such a p p l i c a t i o n s ,

r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r s can be used.

pump moves f r o m z e r o t o f u l l displacement, and t h e l i k e l y e f f e c t on f i l t e r p e r formance must be c a r e f u l l y considered.

320

13.6.2

Pressure L i n e F i l t r a t i o n

L e t us s t a r t by d i s c u s s i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e l i n e f i l t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o pump and r e l i e f v a l v e . F i g u r e 27 shows t h e p r e s s u r e f i l t e r l o c a t e d downstream o f t h e r e l i e f v a l v e . For t h e non-bypass t y p e t h e arrangement shown i n Fig.28 i s mandatory. The

a c t u a l f l o w seen by t h e f i l t e r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i n g c y c l e depends on t h e system demand and d u r i n g o f f - l o a d p e r i o d s t h e r e i s leakage f l o w o n l y i f b l o c k - c e n t r e Naturally,

d i r e c t i o n a l v a l v e s a r e employed.

i f o f f - l o a d i n g i s achieved through

op e n - c e n t r e d i r e c t i o n a l v a l v e s t h e f i l t e r w i l l see f u l l pump o u t p u t f o r t h i s period.

Pressure filter

Bypass

c
Strainer Tank

Rellef

Q
Tank Pump Tank

Pressure line filler Relief

.-+--A

Tank

Y ie_l
Strainer

Fig.27

P r e s s u re l i n e f i l t r a t i o n w i t h bypass f i l t e r .

Fig.28

Pressure l i n e f i l t r a t i o n w i t h non-bypass f i l t e r .

To in c r e a s e t h e f l o w a cross t h e f i l t e r i t has become common p r a c t i c e t o

l o c a t e t h e p r e s s u r e f i 1 t e r between pump and r e 1 i e f v a l v e (Fig.29). The advo-

c a t e s o f t h i s arrangement p o i n t t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e l i e f v a l v e i s p r o t e c t e d from pump generated d i r t .

A v a l i d p o i n t , however, i s t h a t t h i s generated d i r t i n turn,

i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e contaThe pump i s o f t e n a c o s t l y

i s caused by pump wear which,

m i n a t i o n l e v e l o f t h e f l u i d e n t e r i n g t h e pump i n l e t .

component and we should t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t more a t t e n t i o n t o reducing t h e contam i n a t i o n e n t e r i n g t h e pump t o a l e v e l w h i c h w i l l m i n i m i z e wear. For t h i s

arrangement, a bypass i s mandatory and t h e r e must be an assurance from t h e f i l t e r m a n u fa c t ure r t h a t any f i l t e r m a l f u n c t i o n w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n excessive

321
pressure a t t h e pump o u t l e t .

Relief

Tank

,$!,
Strainer
Tank

Fig.29

L o c a t i n g p ressu re f i l t e r b e f o r e r e l i e f v a l v e g i v e s c o n s t a n t f l o w t hro ug h f i l t e r .

Where v a r i a b l e - d i s p l a c e m e n t pumps a r e employed, c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f t h e f l o w seen by t h e f i l t e r must be made. pump which i s compensating ( i . e . Take t h e c l a s s i c case o f a p r e s s u r e compensated low d i spl a cement a t maximum system o p e r a t i n g

pressure), where a low f l o w r a t e e x i s t s a l t h o u g h t h e pump i s s t i l l o p e r a t i n g a t pressure.

With a p r e s s u r e l i n e f i l t e r d i r t removal i s l i m i t e d .

Even when f l o w

demands a r e made t he se a r e 1 i m i t e d t o c y l i n d e r displacement.

As i l l u s t r a t e d by Fig.15,

t h e f i l t e r e f f i c i e n c y depends upon t h e t y p e o f f l o w

i t sees, a l t h o u g h c u r r e n t l y no st an da rd t e s t e x i s t s f o r e v a l u a t i n g f i l t e r s when

they a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a b r u p t f l o w and p r e s s u r e changes and mechanical v i b r a t i o n . P r a c t i c e has shown t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n i n e f f i c i e n c y b u t i t s e x t e n t depends n o t o n l y on t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e a c t u a l f i l t e r media b u t a l s o on how w e l l t h i s media i s supported. W must hope t h a t st a nd ard t e s t parameters can be agreed and a e

Beta r a t i o quoted wh i ch r e l a t e s more c l o s e l y t o c o n d i t i o n s seen by a f i l t e r i n

rea l h y d r a u l i c systems. I n t h e f u t u r e i t w i l l a l s o be e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e system designer has i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e performance o f i n t e g r a l bypass v a l v e s under system o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o mechanical v i b r a t i o n and a b r u p t f l o w and p r e s s u r e changes when valves a r e o p e r a te d, a p r e s s u r e l i n e f i l t e r i s a l s o s u b j e c t t o pump p u l s a t i o n s .

322
These e f f e c t s were demonstrated r e c e n t l y on a h y d r a u l i c component t e s t r i g where t h e s o - c a l l e d 10 micrometre nominal f i l t e r proved almost t o t a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n removing sub-5 micrometre contaminant. Because p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s have t o w i t h s t a n d t h e f u l l system p r e s s u r e w i t h adequate margin o f s a f e t y , t h e r e i s a tendency t o make these s m a l l , t h u s l i m i t i n t h e i r d i r t holding capacity.

It i s usual f o r manufacturers t o q u o t e a r a t e d

f l o w a t around 1 bar f o r bypass t y p e s and a t a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r p r e s s u r e f o r nonbypass t y p e s which i n c o r p o r a t e h i g h p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l c a p a b i l i t y elements. I n summary,

i t can b e s a i d t h a t p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o c o n d i t i o n s

f a r removed from t h a t found i n a l a b o r a t o r y f i l t e r t e s t r i g , and because o f t h i s the designer's task i n assessing t h e r e s u l t a n t contamination i s extremely d i f f i cult. The l e v e l s g i v e n i n F i g . 1 5 a r e based on f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e u s i n g good

q u a l i t y elements. Pressure f i l t e r s may w e l l be used i n c e r t a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s t o p r o t e c t t h e system should c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e s o f t h e pump occur, o r t o p r o v i d e s p e c i a l p r o t e c t i o n t o a s i n g l e u n i t o r group o f u n i t s . An example o f t h e l a t t e r would

be a s e r v o v a l v e , where f a i l u r e m i g h t be e x t r e m e l y expensive, though i t should be noted t h a t a p r e s s u r e f i l t e r does n o t p r o t e c t a s e r v o v a l v e f r o m d i r t i n gressed t h r o u g h c y l i n d e r r o d s e a l s . I n such cases a non-bypass f i l t e r should be
I f by-

considered w i t h t h e assurance t h a t t o t a l element c o l l a p s e cannot o c c u r .

pass types a r e employed, some means o f i n d i c a t i o n should be p r o v i d e d t o g i v e warning o f a p a r t i a l l y b l o c k e d element. From a maintenance p o i n t o f view, changing elements i n v o l v e s s t o p p i n g t h e system u n l e s s e x t e r n a l bypass v a l v i n g i s p r o v i d e d . This operation o f t e n allows

f r e e a i r i n t o t h e system which must be c l e a r e d b e f o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y machine p e r formance can be o b t a i n e d .

13.6.3

Return L i n e F i l t r a t i o n

The usual r e t u r n l i n e f i l t r a t i o n arrangement shown i n F i g . 3 0 has a l l r e t u r n l i n e s passing through t h e f i l t e r . D r a i n l i n e s f r o m pumps, motors, and c e r t a i n

v a l v e s should n o t be s u b j e c t e d t o p r e s s u r e surges emanating f r o m t h e system r e t u r n l i n e s and should r e t u r n s e p a r a t e l y t o tank. Where t h e r e a r e h i g h surges (e.g. due t o u n c o n t r o l l e d decompression o r t h e

r a p i d a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d column i n t h e r e l i e f v a l v e t a n k l i n e when t h i s v a l v e o p e r a t e s ) i t may be u n d e s i r a b l e t o pass t h e s e t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r .

To

p r e v e n t c o l l a p s e o f t h e element due t o h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l , e.g. a t a c o l d s t a r t , o r when t h e element i s loaded w i t h d i r t , an i n t e r n a l bypass should be provided. When bypassing occurs under m i n i m u m f l o w and s u r g e c o n d i t i o n s t h e c i r c u l a t e d f l u i d should n o t be contaminated by d i r t a l r e a d y r e t a i n e d i n t h e f i l t e r . The

t y p e o f surge experienced i n most r e t u r n l i n e s w i l l reduce t h e f i l t e r e f f i c i e n c y

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and i n th e absence o f p r e c i s e data t h e f i l t e r should be s e l e c t e d u s i n g t h e p u l s a t i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n f rom Fig.15. F u l l f l o w r e t u r n f i l t r a t i o n sho ul d be o f s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y t o handle the maximum r e t u r n f l o w ( i n c l u d i n g any i n excess o f pump f l o w where, f o r example, unbalanced c y l i n d e r s a r e used) w i t h o u t t h e bypass opening.

Linear actuator

I I

Directional valve

valve

$0
Bypass Tank

Return line filter

Strainer

LLI

Tank

Fig.30

B a s ic arrangement o f r e t u r n 1 i n e f i l t r a t i o n . The comments

Careful assessment o f t h e f l o w a cross t h e f i l t e r i s necessary.

r e l a t i n g t o t h e use o f v a r i a b l e di sp l ace men t pumps w i t h a pressure f i l t e r again ap p ly , s i n c e w i t h p r e s s u r e compensated pumps the f i l t e r sees o n l y t h e volume d i s p l a c e d by t h e c y l i n d e r . For c e r t a i n systems p a r t i a l r e t u r n l i n e f i l t r a t i o n i s acceptable w i t h t h e bypass ( i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l ) always p a s s i n g a percentage o f the flow . With

t h i s arrangement much depends on t h e con t i n uo us r a t e o f f l o w which we can g e t acr o s s t h e f i l t e r . S a t i s f a c t o r y performance can sometimes be achieved w i t h as

l i t t l e as 1 0 % p a ssi n g a cross t he a c t u a l element.

To summarize, a r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r does n o t p r o t e c t the system f r o m e n v i r o n -

mental d i r t e n t e r i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r v i a b r e a t h e r s o r d u r i n g topping-up.

However,

i f we s t a r t o f f w i t h a c l e a n r e s e r v o i r and t a k e p r e c a u t i o n s t o p r e v e n t the
i ng r e s s o f e n v ir on men t a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n , then experience has shown t h a t e f f e c t i v e f i l t r a t i o n can be a chi e ved e con omi ca l l y w i t h r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r s .

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13.6.4 Off-Line F i t r a t i o n

I t has been s t a t e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f f i l t e r s s ted i n b o t h pressure and r e t u r n l i n e s i s reduced by shocks, surges, p u l s a t i o n s vibrations, etc. t o

an e x t e n t wh ic h depends on t h e t y p e o f media and how w e l l i t i s supported. Steady f l o w r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s p r o v i d e s optimum f i l t e r performance. The s i m p l e s t way o f a c h i e v i n g t h i s i s t o r e m v e t h e f i l t e r from

t h e main system and p l a c e i t i n an i n de pe nd ently powered c i r c u l a t i n g u n i t where i t s performance i s more p r e d i c t a b l e . Though connected t o t h e system r e s e r v o i r , a t y p i c a l arrangement i s shown i n Fig.31. The l i k e l y c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l f rom o u r t h r e e f i l t e r r a t i n g s under

steady f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i s g i v e n i n F i g . 1 5 , . a n d a o u r a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e t h e c o r r e c t f l o w r a t e w i l l d et ermi n e whether o r n o t these l e v e l s can be achieved and m i n t a ined a

Fig.31

Layout o f o f f - l i n e f i l t r a t i o n system. Valves (a) and (b) can be p o s i t i o n e d so t h a t t h e u n i t w i l l p r o v i d e a f i l t e r e d f i l l o r di sch arg e.

Assuming reasonable standards o f e n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e design and b u i l d o f t h e system, t h e most r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s i n s e l e c t i n g t h e f l o w r a t e through t h e o f f l i n e f i l t r a t i o n a r e l i k e l y t o be environment and t a n k s i z e . From f i e l d exper-

i e n c e t o d a t e t h e g u i d e l i n e s g i v e n i n F i g. 32 can be a p p l i e d and t h e f l o w r a t e

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d e r i v e d can b e used t o d et ermi n e t h e s i z e o f t h e f i l t e r by t h e procedure p r e v iously outlined.

Environment

Flow r a t e ( l / m i n ) as percentage o f tank capacity ( I i t r e s )

Good Average Bad Fig.32

5%
10%
20%

Suggested f l o w r a t e s f o r o f f - 1 i n e f i l t r a t i o n .

With o f f - l i n e f i l t r a t i o n t h e d e s i g n e r ' s t a s k i s s i m p l i f i e d because he i s n o t governed by t h e f l o w and p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e main system.

It

enables h im t o s e l e c t t h e b e s t f i l t e r and t h e b e s t f l o w through i t and then s e l e c t t h e s i z e t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d f re qu ency o f maintenance. Should t h e d e s i r e d c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l n o t be achieved, then c o r r e c t i o n s a r e

e a s i l y made t o t h e f l o w r a t e o r t y p e o f f i l t e r w i t h o u t i n any way a f f e c t i n g t h e de s ig n o f t h e main system. Furthermore, t h e o f f - l i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n can be r u n

p r i o r t o s t a r t i n g t h e main system i n o r d e r t o c l e a n t h e o i l i n t h e t a n k and reduce t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l t h e pump w i l l see a t s t a r t - u p . By t h e a d d i t i o n

o f s i m p l e v a l v e gear i t can be employed t o f i l t e r t h e i n i t i a l charge o f f l u i d and any used s u b seq ue nt l y i n topping-up. I d e a l l y , i t should be l e f t running

c o n t i n u o u s l y t o p r o v i d e a complete t a n k o f c l e a n f l u i d ready f o r every s t a r t - u p . Unlike l i n e f i l t e r s , the o f f - l i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c l e a n up t h e

f l u i d when v a r i a b l e d e l i v e r y pumps a r e r u n n i n g a t minimum displacement. Being independent o f t h e main system o f f - l i n e f i l t e r s can be p l a c e d where they a r e most c o nve ni e nt f o r s e r v i c i n g . main system i s n o t a f f e c t e d ; When element changes a r e necessary t h e

t h e o p e r a t i o n can be c a r r i e d o u t a t any t i m e thus making t h e v e r y

w i t h o u t s t o p p i n g o r i n t r o d u c i n g a i r i n t o t h e main system, minimum o f s e r v i c i n g s k i l l s a ccep t a bl e .

Whether o r n o t o f f - l i n e f i l t r a t i o n can be t h e s o l e means o f f i l t r a t i o n depends on many f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o t h e c h a r a c t e r , q u a n t i t y and o r i g i n o f t h e c o n t a m in a t io n . As i t i s p a r t i a l f i l t r a t i o n we must decide i f i t i s necessary

t o p r o t e c t i n d i v i d u a l o r groups o f components from s t r a y p a r t i c l e s l i k e l y t o cause a c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e . The f o r e g o i n g has a t t emp t e d t o show t h a t t h e r e i s a p l a c e f o r i n l e t , pressure, r e t u r n and o f f - l i n e f i l t r a t i o n , wh i ch i s borne o u t by f i l t e r manufacturers who once t o l d us t h a t p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s answered a l l o u r problems and who now o f f e r

a range o f r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r s , and ma nu f a ct urers o f r e t u r n f i l t e r s who now

o f f e r ranges o f p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s . S u r e l y what i s most i m p o r t a n t i s t o r e a l i s e t h a t l i k e a l l branches o f engine e r i n g , system f i l t r a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g i n v o l v e s t a k i n g a r i s k . A s i n g l e p a r t i c l e

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Fig. 3 3 A pictorial representation01 the bask liltration W4ualiOn.

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say, i n t h e 5 t o 1 0 micrometre s i z e range, c o u l d cause system m a l f u n c t i o n i f i t The machine t o o l designer may

a r r i v e d a t t h e wrong p l a c e a t a c r i t i c a l t i m e .

w e l l have t h e b e n e f i t o f a p r o t o t y p e on which t o e v a l u a t e t h e f i l t r a t i o n system performance and make changes p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t p r o d u c t i o n b a t c h . The designer he

o f heavy equipment, say, f o r s t e e l w o r k s i s a f f o r d e d no such o p p o r t u n i t y ;

must be r i g h t f i r s t t i m e and may w e l l have t o use a l l t h e f i l t e r s e l e c t i o n p r o cedures a v a i l a b l e t o him i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e r i s k o f expensive stoppages later. That r i s k w i l l be w i t h us u n t i l (a) we have more r e a l i s t i c d a t a on f i l -

t e r performance, and (b) maintenance p r a c t i c e s a r e g r e a t l y improved. The message o f t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s can b e s t be summarised d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y (Fig.33). This high1 ights the f a c t t h a t control over the i n b u i l t contamination

by a p p l y i n g good i n s t a l l a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and u s i n g a l l means a v a i l a b l e t o l i m i t t h e amount o f ingressed c o n t a m i n a t i o n , enables us t o c o n t r o l t h e system generated c o n t a m i n a t i o n t o an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l . The l e v e l o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n e n t e r i n g t h e pump i s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r and should be so c o n t r o l l e d t h a t i t p r e v e n t s t h e s o r t o f a c t i o n d e p i c t e d by a mangle. The d i f f i c u l t y i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h i s l e v e l by i n l e t f i l t e r s has been c l e a r l y s t a t e d . I n the main, t h e y should be c o n s i d e r e d o n l y f o r p r e v e n t i n g l a r g e p a r t i c l e s e n t e r i n g t h e pump and causing c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e . Downstream o f t h e pump t h e a b i l i t y o f a p r e s s u r e f i l t e r t o t r a p p a r t i c l e s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t by any a b r u p t changes o f f l o w and p r e s s u r e , which have t h e e f f e c t o f d r i v i n g p a r t i c l e s t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r i n g media. W e

know from p r a c t i c e t h a t bypass v a l v e s can m a l f u n c t i o n under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n -

ces, and i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f t h e f i l t e r p r e v e n t s any m i g r a t i o n o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n i f t h i s should happen. Ingress through c y l i n d e r r o d s e a l s , a l t h o u g h i n t h e s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e range, can n e v e r t h e l e s s add up t o s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s . The performance o f any

r e t u r n l i n e f i l t e r w i l l , a g a i n , depend upon t h e magnitude o f changes i t sees i n terms o f f l o w and p r e s s u r e . O f f - l i n e f i l t r a t i o n enables optimum f i l t e r performance t o be accomplished, thus e n a b l i n g us t o c o n t r o l c o n t a m i n a t i o n l e v e l s more e f f e c t i v e l y . Our a b i l i t y

t o remove c o n t a m i n a t i o n depends n o t o n l y on t h e f i l t e r micrometre r a t i n g b u t a l s o on t h e f l o w r a t e across i t , and we must p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t d i r t h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y t o ensure an element l i f e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e end u s e r .

13.7
peop 1 e : (i) (ii)

SUMMARY

Any examination o f t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n v o l v e s f o u r groups o f

The f l u i d manufacturer o r s u p p l i e r . The h y d r a u l i c equipment and f i l t e r manufacturers.

( i i i ) The manufacturer o f t h e machinery which uses t h e h y d r a u l i c equipment. ( i v ) The end u s e r o f t h e machinery.

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Each o f these has a commercial r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o supply equipment which w i l l perform i t s duty s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a t a reasonable p r i c e , and each must have some knowledge o f the c l e a n l i n e s s o f the working f l u i d . The f l u i d s u p p l i e r w i l l supply f l u i d as c l e a n as r e q u i r e d and w i l l charge accordingly. The h y d r a u l i c equipment manufacturer must advise t h e user to whom he i s s e l l i n g h i s equipment on the type o f f l u i d and i t s degree o f c l e a n l i n e s s best s u i t e d t o the h y d r a u l i c equipment he i s recommending f o r a s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n . The machinery manufacturer, who i s responsible t o the end user f o r supplying equipment, must be aware o f a l l the c o n d i t i o n s t o be met, i n c l u d i n g supply of

f l u i d s , s e r v i c i n g f a c i l i t i e s , and the type o f r e l i a b i l i t y which has t o be maintained. I t i s h i s p r e r o g a t i v e t o o f f e r h i s customer the best commercial propo-

s i t i o n and t h i s could mean, f o r example, e i t h e r an inexpensive throwaway u n i t which must be replaced r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t l y , o r a more expensive item f o r which the o n l y service needed i s the occasional exchange o f a r e l a t i v e l y inexpensive component, such as a f i l t e r c a r t r i d g e . The end user has t o make the f i n a l judgement. He needs t o be a b l e t o compare each user w i l l place d i f f e r To the end user

the r e a l value o f each i n s t a l l a t i o n o f f e r e d t o him;

ent emphasis on the value o f each type o f equipment o f f e r e d .

the value o f a pump i s i t s f i t n e s s f o r the purpose, how long i t w i l l perform i t s duty s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , and what the cost o f s e r v i c i n g w i l l be. He i s n o t i n t e r -

ested i n how many 10 micrometre p a r t i c l e s a r e contained i n 100 m l o f h y d r a u l i c fluid. The u s e r ' s i n t e r e s t i s i n the l e a s t expensive f i l t e r t h a t w i l l p r o v i d e the required degree o f c l e a n l i n e s s . I n making t h i s assessment, the o r i g i n a l o r

c a p i t a l c o s t o f the equipment has t o be balanced a g a i n s t the c o s t o f service. He may have t o compare, f o r example, the advantages o f f e r e d by a very expensive pump t h a t w i l l operate on ' d i r t y ' o i l w i t h those o f a low-cost pump p l u s f i l t e r .

I f i t i s t o m a i n t a i n i t s present h i g h i n t e g r i t y , the h y d r a u l i c equipment

industry needs t o e s t a b l i s h more meaningful s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t types of f i l t e r . The s p e c i f i c a t i o n s must a l l o w the end user t o buy performance w i t h The people

out necessarily having t o know how t h i s performance i s achieved.

who need t o w r i t e these s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e those who know t h e a c t u a l r e q u i r e ments. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y must be d i v i d e d between manufacturers o f f i l t e r

elements, who should know what i s p o s s i b l e , and the manufacturers o f h y d r a u l i c equipment, who should know what i s needed. communicate i n meaningful terms. These t w o groups should be a b l e t o

A t present, there a r e no adequate techniques covering a l l aspects o f contami n a t i o n measurement i n h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s . a s t a r t i n the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n . n o t be 100% r i g h t f i r s t time; This should n o t deter us from making The c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l c h a r t , f o r example, w i l l t h e r e w i l l be a c o n t i n u a l need t o review i t i n

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the l i g h t o f new e xpe ri en ce. The e s c a l a t i n g c o s t o f equipment downtime and maintenance must encourage t h e end u s e r t o c o n s i d e r r u n n i n g c o s t s more c a v e f u l l y , f o r b o t h new and e x i s t i n g plant. To be a b l e t o do t h i s he must a p p r e c i a t e more f u l l y the p a r t t h a t

c o n t a m i n a t i o n c o n t r o l p l a y s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t hose c o s t s f o r t h e h y d r a u l i c installation.

I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s volume has g i v e n a u s e f u l i n s i g h t t o t h e

r e a l n a t u r e o f t h e problem and has p o i n t e d t h e way t o a systematic approach and more c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n s .

T h i s c h a p t e r has been e d i t e d by k i n d p ermission o f Sperry V i c k e r s from a more comprehensivb paper " E f f e c t i v e Contamination C o n t r o l i n F l u i d Power Systems", w r i t t e n by J.B. Spencer and C. Balmer, p u b l i s h e d by Sperry Vickers.

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1L1

SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT PART ONE

B.D.HALLIGAN,

C Eng,MIMechE AMPRI, T e c h n i c a l Manager ( P r o d u c t A p p l i c a t i o n s ) James Walker & Co.Ltd.

14.1

INTRODUCTION

The f a c t t h a t a s e a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y e x i s t s a t a l l o r i g i n a t e s f r o m t he commercial o r p h y s i c a l i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f a c h i e v i n g p e r f e c t and permanent m u t u a l i t y o f adjacent surfaces

be t h e y i n dynamic o r s t a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p .

S e a l i n g d e v i c e s , wh i c h a r e u s u a l l y o f an e s s e n t i a l l y d e f o r m a b l e n a t u r e , p e r m i t t h e f l u i d power d e s i g n e r t o work w i t h i n e c o n o m i c a l l y s e n s i b l e c o n d i t i o n s o f

f i t , surface f i n i s h ,

t o l e r a n c e and f l u i d c l e a n l i n e s s a c r o s s t h e range o f temper-

a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h he i s l i k e l y t o c o n te n d . The d e s i g n e r o f f l u i d power equipment has, i n fact, influenced trends i n the

s e a l i n g i n d u s t r y by g o i n g beyond t h e fundamental r e q u i r e m e n t o f i n t r o d u c i n g an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y t o l e r a n t component f o r p r e v e n t i n g le a k a g e . The q u e s t t o m i n i -

mise p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s has a c c e l e r a t e d t h e movement towards s e a l d e s i g n s embodyi n g i n t e g r a l b e a r i n g s and a n t i - e x t r u s i o n d e v i c e s c a p a b le o f s u p p o r t i n g s e a l s a g a i n s t s u b s t a n t i a l e x t r u s i o n gaps a t s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e s . Overall i n the

c o n t e x t o f t hose s e a l s s p e c i f i e d f o r l i n e a r dynamic m o t i o n , a much a x i a l l y s h o r t e r s e a l has e v o l v e d wh i c h a l l o w s h x d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r s , f o r example, t o be produced t o more compact p r o p o r t i o n s w i t h t h e consequent s a v i n g i n raw m a t e r i a l c o s t s and i n t h e b u l k o f f l u i d power s u b - a s s e m b lie s . None o f t h i s i s bad. However i t does mean t h a t a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s e a l

desi gns and m a t e r i a l s e x i s t s and t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e l e c t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d t o make t h e i r c h o i c e w i t h d i s c r e t i o n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n i s f oun d . P i c k i n g a s e a l wh i c h f a c i l i t a t e s t h e achievement o f t h e

cheapest p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s f o r t h e component i n t o w h ic h i t f i t s i s seldom t h e most r easonabl e b a s i s f o r g u a r a n t e e i n g minimum leakage and maximum s e r v i c e a b i l i t y .

331
I t i s an u n f o r t u n a t e f a c t t h a t most f l u i d leakages a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o a f a u l t y seal, whereas i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l f r e q u e n t l y show t h a t t h e number o f occasions o f m a l f u n c t i o n due t o a f a u l t y p r o d u c t a r e few. The r e a l source o f d i f f i c u l t y

u s u a l l y stems from i n c o r r e c t seal s e l e c t i o n , w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s which d i f f e r from those considered t o a p p l y , seal containments o u t s i d e s p e c i f i e d t o l e r a n c e s i n terms o f dimension o r f i n i s h , f a u l t y f i t t i n g , be sealed o r , terms.
To understand

contaminants i n t h e f l u i d t o in quantitative

importantly,

personal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 'leakage'

t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f f l u i d seal performance i t i s necessary t o

know a l i t t l e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s most t y p i c a l l y used, t h e o r i g i n s o f fundamental seal designs, how t h e y f u n c t i o n , and t h e i r r e f i n e m e n t t o t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f the a r t . Fortunately, t h e s e a l i s no l o n g e r an a f t e r - t h o u g h t b u t more o f t e n

receives t h e a t t e n t i o n i t p r o p e r l y deserves as a v i t a l i n t e r a c t i v e element i n any complete f l u i d power system.

14.2

MATERIALS

W i t h i n t h e scope o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a t t e n t i o n w i l l be c e n t r e d on s o l i d e l a s t o meric s e a l s , t y p i f i e d by t h e '0' r i n g f o r s t a t i c connections, elastomer c o n t a i n -

i n g s e a l s such as c y l i n d e r packings based on p r o o f e d t e x t i l e , and those designs which employ p l a s t i c components f o r v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s . The compounding o f e l a s t o m e r s i s regarded by many as b e i n g a b l a c k a r t and
i t i s t r u e t o say t h a t w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s can be developed by v a r y i n g

t h e q u a n t i t y and t y p e o f rubber chemicals added t o t h e s t o c k rubber i n e i t h e r i n t e r n a l m i x e r s o r on m i x i n g m i l l s . The raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d t o t h e seal man-

u f a c t u r e r must u s u a l l y be processed t o t a i l o r t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e quired f o r the sealing function. Parameters such as t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , e l o n g a t i o n

a t break, compression s e t , b r i t t l e p o i n t , and behaviour i n c o n t r o l f l u i d s a r e t y p i c a l o f t h o s e reviewed when assessing performance requirements and l a y i n g down compound s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . i n a d d i t i o n t o a p p l i c a t i o n s u i t a b i l i t y , p r o c e s s a b i l i t y i n mixing, extrusion and moulding sequences must be assured as must s a t i s f a c t o r y post-moulding operat i o n s such as d e - f l a s h i n g .
T o m a i n t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f seal elastomers r e q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e l a b o r a t o r y

s u p p o r t and c o n t i n u o u s s t a n d a r d t e s t i n g o f t h e compound i t s e l f on a b a t c h - t o batch basis. Tables 14.1

1 4 . 3 a r e taken from t h e B r i t i s h Rubber M a n u f a c t u r e r s ' Associat o g i v e broad r e f e r e n c e t o most commonly used

t i o n 'Guide t o E l a s t o m e r i c S e a l s ' elastomers,

t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s , f l u i d c o m p a t i b i l i t y and temperature r e s i s t a n c e .

332
TABLE 14.1 Polymers-types and General P r o p e r t i e s

NATURAL POLY I SOPRENE

SYNTHETIC POLYISOPRENE Very good

(Natural Rubber-NR) (Pol y isoprene- I R) General physical p r o p e r t i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t e a r resistance, r e s i s t a n c e t o g l y c o l - e t h e r brake f l u i d s and vegetable o i l s . Heat, weather, ozone and mineral o i l .

Poor r e s i s t a n c e t o

CHLOROPRENE (NEOPRENE-CR) Very good res i stance t o

STYRENE-BUTADIENE (SBR) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o Poor r e s i s t a n c e t o ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE ( N i t r i le-NBR)

Ozone, weathering and abrasion

Abrasion, g l y c o l - e t h e r brake f l u i d s and vegetable o i l s . Mineral o i l and ozone. Low, medium, and h i g h n i t r i l e s a r e a v a i l a b l e based on increasing a c r y l o n i t r i l e content which s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t s low temperature and f l u i d swell properties. Mineral o i l , compression set and abrasion.

Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o

ISOBUTYLENE-ISOPRENE ( B u t y l - l I R )

CHLORO-ISOBUTYLENE-ISOPRENE (Chloro-Butyl)
Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o Poor Tear, weather and gas permeation. T e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s and mineral o i l resistance.

POLYBUTADI ENE (Butad iene-BR) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o

Tear, abrasion, low temperature, g l y c o l - e t h e r brake f l u i d s and vegetable oils. Offers high resilience. Water, ozone and mineral o i l .

Poor resistance t o POLYSULPHIDE (Thiokol-T) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o Poor

Ozone, mineral o i l s , pet-roleum f u e l s and weather.

A l l other properties.

ETHYLENE PROPYLENE (EPR-EPM) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE TERPOLY MER (EPT-EPDM) Very good resistance t o Weather, ozone, heat, water, steam, g l y c o l - e t h e r brake f l u i d s and vegetable oils. ?oor resistance t o Mineral o i l . CHLOROSULPHONATED POLYETHYLENE (Hypa lon-CSM) Very good resistance t o

Water, ozone, abrasion, a c i d and weather.

333
TABLE 14.1 (contd.)

METHYL-VINYL SILOXANE ( S i l icone-VMQ) PHENYL-METHYL-VINYL SILOXANE ( S i 1 icone-PVMQ) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o Poor r e s i s t a n c e t o TRI FLUOROPROPYL S I LOXANE ( F l u o r o s i 1 icone-FMQ) Very good POLYURETHANE D I - I SOCYANATE (Urethane-AU) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o

H i g h and low temperature. Abrasion, tear and t e n s i o n .

M i n e r a l o i l and f u e l r e s i s t a n c e . A l l o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s as VMQ. Mineral o i l , abrasion, tear, ozone and weather. O f f e r s h i g h modulus and t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s . Moist heat resistance.

Poor FLUORINATED HYDROCARBON ( F I uorocarbon-FPM) Very good r e s i s t a n c e t o Poor POLYACRYLATE ( A c r y l ic-ACM) Very good
Po0 r

High temperature ( i n a i r and most o i l s ) , weather and p e t r o l e u m f u e l . Tear s t r e n g t h .

Heat, weather, m i n e r a l o i l and ozone r e s i s t a n c e . Water r e s i s t a n c e .

O f major i n t e r e s t t o t h e f l u i d power i n d u s t r y a r e : -

Acrylonitrile-butadiene ( N i t r i l e Probably upwards o f 80% o f based on n i t r i l e compositions. terms o f good compression s e t

NBR) ndustry are

s e a l s s u p p l i e d t o t h e f l u i d power

The balance o f p r o p e r t i e s a v a i l a b e from NBR i n q u a l i t i e s , a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e , m i era1 o i l

c o m p a t i b i l i t y , ease o f p r o c e s s i n g and low i n i t i a l c o s t favour t h i s c h o i c e . N i t r i l e compositions a r e n o t , however, c o m p a t i b l e w i t h f i r e - r e s i s t a n t o f t h e phosphate e s t e r t y p e . Isobutylene-isoprene (Butyl fluids

I IR)

S a t i s f a c t o r y i n s e r v i c e w i t h phosphate e s t e r f l u i d s b u t r a t h e r l i f e l e s s from a physical p o i n t o f view. Not s u i t a b l e f o r m i n e r a l o i l s e r v i c e , n e i t h e r should

b u t y l s e a l s be smeared w i t h m i n e r a l o i l o r grease on f i t t i n g . E t h y l e n e p r o p y l e n e (EPR

or

EPM)

E t h y l e n e p r o p y l e n e t e r p o l y m e r (EPT

EPDM)

Same s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n and l i m i t a t i o n s as b u t y l b u t g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r p h y s i c a l properties

.
FPM)

F l u o r i n a t e d Hydrocarbon (Fluorocarbon

The o n l y usual s e l e c t i o n where c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h m i n e r a l o i l and phosphate e s t e r i s required.

334
P ol yure t h an e (Urethane

Au)

Widely f a v o u r ed as a dynamic se al m a t e r i a l i n t h e US and i n Germany, p o l y ure t h a n e e x h i b i t s e x c e l l e n t a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e and i s v e r y d u r a b l e i n s i t u a t i o n s whic h m ig h t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t n i t r i l e comp osi tions o r even p r o o f e d f a b r i c s , e.g. passage o f s e a l l i p s o v e r p o r t s i n a c y l i n d e r w a l l . bility, Poor low temperature f l e x i -

h y d r o l y s i s i n h o t wa t e r and a l o we r o p e r a t i o n a l temperature c e i l i n g a r e

l i m i t i n g factors. Other s e a l component m a t e r i a l s w o r t h y o f mention are:Textiles

woven c l o t h such as c o t t o n , asbestos,

t e r y l e n e and n y l o n

a r e used as t h e su bst rat um i n elastomer p r o o f e d f a b r i c pa cki ng s f o r medium and h i g h p r e s s u r e d u t i e s . Non-woven m a t e r i a l s such as p o l y e s t e r and polyamide a r e also available. The p r o o f i n g e l ast ome r can be v a r i e d t o s u i t b u t w i l l f r e q u e n t l y be based on NBR and/or c h l o r o p r e n e (Neoprene-CR) PTFE

employed as a back-up r i n g m a t e r i a l f o r ' 0 ' r i n g s . Poor cre ep p r o p e r t i e s r e s t r i c t i t s use as a seal m a t e r i a l i n i t s own r i g h t un l ess e n e r g i s e d by an e l a s t o m e r i c component o r spring.

Nylon and acetal

main f u n c t i o n i s h ee l support f o r dynamic s e a l s o r as component b e a r i n g r i n g m a t e r i a l .

Hytrel

t h e r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e name o f a Du Pont range o f thermop l a s t i c p o l y e s t e r m a t e r i a l s w hich form a el a st o mers and t h e r m o p l a s t i c s . b r i d g e between

Has s i m i l a r p r o p e r t i e s t o

p o l y u r e t h a n e b u t e x h i b i t s much b e t t e r low temperature f l e x ibility. Used c u r r e n t l y as an a n t i - e x t r u s i o n element i n

c e r t a i n s p o o l - t y p e p i s t o n head s e a l s . When r e f e r r i n g t o rubber t e chn ol o gy as a ' b l a c k a r t ' t h e r e i s a t w o - f o l d interpretation. On t h e one hand i t i s c e r t a i n l y a m a n u f a c t u r i n g area i n f l u e n c e d O the other, n t h e end p r o d u c t used i n a s e a l i n g c o n t e x t i s

by many v a r i a b l e s .

i n v a r i a b l y b l a c k i n c o l o u r due t o t h e use o f carbon b l a c k as a f i l l e r necessary f o r toughening the f i n i s h e d a r t i c l e . Seal i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s t h e r e f o e a major

problem u n l e s s housekeeping i s o f a h i g h o r d e r w i t h s e a l s p o s i t i v e l y separated and bagged i n s ma l l numbers h a v i n g f u l l s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , s ze, and p a r t number c l e a r l y shown. Colour c o d in g i s one s o l u t i o n b u t t h e r e a l answer l i e s i n t h e use o f s e l f c o l o u r e d e la s to m e rs.
A t t h e moment a good de al o f development work

s being

335

TABLE 14.2

R-Recommended A-Acceptable

N-Not recommended

N
N

N
N

N
N

N
R

N
N

N
R

TABLE 1 4 . 3
OC

Temperature Range

OC

250

200

150

Any statement of temperature range f o r a given polymer must be qualified by consideration f o r the environment in which i t i s t o work. For example, service temperatures recommended f o r 1iquid applications are l i k e l y t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than those which would be appropriate t o dry heat s i t u a t i o n s . The values given in Table 3 r e l a t e t o typical f l u i d conditions. N.B. These a r e not continuous r a t i n g s .

W W W W Q,
Q,

TABLE T A B i E 14.4 TYPES RECIPROCATING RECIPROCATING APPLICATIONS APPLICATIONS L I P TYPE

OF SEALS FOR RECIPROCATING, ROTARY AND STATIC APPLICATIONS

APPLICATIONS APPLICATIONS AVAILABLE STANDARD AVAILABLE STANDARD MATERIALS MATERIALS

U R i n g (Also known as U P a c k i n g )

50116 e l a i t m - f o r p r e s ~ u r e up t o 10 bar--gmd i f i l m w r p i t y and l o * pressure sealing characterlst3csideal f o r a i r c y l i n d e r . Ymm t o abrasive *car. e x t r u ~ l ~and f l u i d t v t t l n g a t hlgher hydraulic n p r e s i u ~ e i . Can be f i t t e d in recerrrr r e q u i r i n g no sep*r*te dCLCII. l o l a d e l a i t m i w t h P l i i t i C heel-for OT~IIYTCI UP to 100 b a r d s 10lld rubbcr but hiqher oressure Capability due t o enhanced CItlYIlOn r e l l r t m c e . though r o h i Fabric-for pressures l up tto 350 b ai li I1I1 though rohs't t p r e i i u r e up o 350 b Fabric-for Conitructions o leis s e n s v e p r o e ? I 1 eitend Conitructions o ff leis s e n s i itti iv e D r o ffiille *w11 extend h s range. Frequently e d w h an adaptor ng tth i is range. Frequently ffi itttte d d ti th an adapt& rri in g (as shorn n the d 5 l m h sketcher) 01 an n e n a (as shorn iin the aise&lyl y sketcher) or an i in tte rrn a l l p s p ~ c a d c Spring loaded l d l p t o r arc available l li ip spvcadcr. r . Spring loaded adaptorsr arc available t o aupnent low QrCIIYlt real,ng I b 9 l l t y . Usually rcqulrr separate housing access such I S remyable cover p l a t e but I p c c i a I fabric U-nngr f o r indCcesItble 9movc1 d m available. Other materials include wlyurethdne. P l F t and leather.

None o f t W I e designs a r e n o m l l y r e c m n d c d f O T shock loading. rams subject t o l a t e r a l t h r u s t . abrasive condit30nr o r high speed recIpToCation. U n n q 1 seal ~n one d i r e c t i o n only. A double-acting a r m n g m n t M i l l *quire tw ~ e d l it o be r i g ? d l y scpamted and each f a c i n g the p r c s ~ u r c IOUTCC.

V Ring (When i n s e t form, more commonly known as Chevron

o w ll-m

eU

"T

0)

>

K
L x t r e n r l y wide range of h y d r a d i c rervices-mst types of h y d r a u l i c Dress, r e c i p r o c a t i n g steam punpr, sludge p w s . h y d r a u l i c cylinder; * Oil and water Oil expanlion glandr, h y d r a u l i c valves. N o r m l l y pmafed f a b r i c . Others i n c l u d e e i a s t M c r ,

'lFC leather Or

Heavy Duty L i p Packi ngs

(a) S i n g l e L i p
n

( b ) Two-Lips
fa1 U p - r t m k i m l IlMl omving press rams. r e c i p r o c a t i n g Dmp l a m . l i f t s , cranes. h y d r a u l i c acCuMlators.
Proofed f a b r i c
L

la)

Large diameter ram. u p - s t r o k i n g or d o n - s t r o k i n g (*ere f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e i s n o t o f paralmunt importance) Wen where subjected t o Shock loads. e.g. i n f o r g i n g p r e i i e s ' h o r i z o n t a l vams of any diameter i n c l u d i n g tho%; o f e x t r w i o h ~ P C I I C I r a m s u b j e c t to I d t e m l t h r u s t : h i g h pressure' r e c i p i o c d t i n g pulps; t b s e heavy duty a p p l i c a t i o n s where packing housing and buIneI are n o t i n F i s t c l a l 5 condition.

w w
2

337

338
c a r r i e d o u t t o a ch i eve t h i s end w i t h o u t any s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s i n p h y s i c a l properties. Coloured f l u o r o c a r b o n rubbers a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e .

14.3

SEAL DESIGNS

W i t h i n t h e boundaries s e t by f l u i d power systems t h e m a j o r i t y o f s e a l s employed can be c a t e g o r i s e d as l i p o r squeeze t y p e s . F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s i m p l e s t forms u t i l i s e d f o r s t a t i c o r dynamic r e c i procating situations

the 'U'

r i n g and t h e '0' seal

and i n d i c a t e s how b o t h

r e l y on i n t e r f e r e n c e s t r e s s f o r a t l e a s t a component o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l opera t io n .

r--.

INT

I.--'
P

Fig.1

L i p and Squeeze Seals

Both a r e r e s p onsi ve t o system p r e s s u r e and w i l l generate a r a d i a l s t r e s s g r e a t e r than t h e p r e s s u r e t o be se al e d. N e i t h e r r e l y on e x t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d This

compression t o any r e a l degree as i n t h e case o f t h e s o f t packed gland.

i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o squeeze s e a l s whi ch a r e u s u a l l y intended t o f l o a t a x i a l l y i n t h e i r housings. The q u a l i t y o f t h e s e a l i n g c o n t a c t a rea and t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e s t r e s s i n t h e same zone w i l l c o n t r o l low p r e s s u r e s e a l i n g e f f i c i e n c y . These f a c t o r s p l u s

o v e r a l l s e a l geometry and co mpo si t i o n w i l l s e t t h e p o i n t a t w hich t i m e h y d r a u l i c response t a k e s o v e r f rom t h e manufactured i n t e r f e r e n c e c o n d i t i o n . The h y d r a u l i c

component may become s i g n i f i c a n t a t p ressu res o f 40 bar f o r an e l a s t o m e r i c ' 0 ' r i n g o r a s h i g h as 200 b a r f o r a r i g i d p r o o f e d f a b r i c packing. S e a l i n g s l a c k o i l and low p ressu res i s g r i t y and i s t h e more d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i o n . ure s i s a f e a t u r e o f se al containment, i.e. g e n e r a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f seal i n t e P r e v e n t i n g leakage a t h i g h pressp r e v e n t i n g e x t r u s i o n o r r a p i d wear

i f i n a dynamic d u t y .
Tables 14.4 and 14.5 l i s t t y p i c a l l i p and squeeze types i n common and t r a d i t i o n a l usage. (Courtesy o f ERMA).

339
Some p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t s t o n o t e on each c a t e g o r y : (i) L i p seals

a r e s i n g l e - a c t i n g t o a p p l i e d pressure and must be separated

by a f i x e d component i n d o u b l e - a c t i n g d u t i e s so t h a t t h e h y d r a u l i c load f r o m t h e element under p r e s s u r e i s n o t passed on t o t h e t r a i l i n g element. For maximum s e r v i c e l i f e m u l t i - r i n g p acking s e t s a r e p r e f e r r e d where t h e s u c c e s s io n o f s e a l i n g edges ensures t h a t breakdown i s n o t sudden. The use

o f s p l i t r i n g s i s a l s o e n t i r e l y f e a s i b l e w i t h most designs o f t h i s s o r t w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g s e a l i n g performance t o any c r i t i c a l degree. downtime w i l l be o bvi o us. ( i i ) Squeeze s e a l s Savings i n

have t h e advantage o f b e i n g d o u b l e - a c t i n g and a r e u s u a l l y The l i n e -

housed more e con omi ca l l y t h an t h e i r co rresponding l i p b r e t h r e n .

age fr o m t h e humble '0' r i n g t o t h e u n i t s e a l s i n contemporary use can be seen f r o m Ta bl e 14.5. Most s e a l s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y use a s i n g l e s e a l i n g zone and damage i n s e r v i c e w i l l be f o l l o w e d by more immediate breakdown than i n t h e case o f m u l t i - l i p p a c k in g s . The squeeze s e a l s a r e r a r e l y used i n s p l i t form a l t h o u g h they can be engineered so t o do. Tables 14.6 and 14.7 d e p i c t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f l i p and squeeze s e a l s t o r o t a r y and s t a t i c f u n c t i o n s . More advanced se al de si gn s a r e d e t a i l e d i n t h e n e x t - s e c t i o n .

14.4

TR IBOLOG I CAL CONS I DERAT I ONS

I t i s h e a r t e n i n g t o f i n d t h e s t u d y o f se al behaviour an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t r i b o l o g y seminars, r e c e i v i n g as much a t t e n t i o n , indeed, as bearings, lubricants

and s u r f a c e topography.

I n r e c e n t ye ars much company research and independent

s tu d y by o r g a n i s a t i o n s such as BHRA has been expended on d e f i n i n g s e a l i n g mechanisms

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e c i p r o c a t i n g motion. F i l m Conditions

14.4.1

A l l dynamic s e a l s r e l y on a co he ren t f l u i d f i l m under t h e i r c o n t a c t area i f

t h e y a r e t o f u n c t i o n c o n s i s t e n t l y and p r e d i c t a b l y . Such f i l m s may stem from The

boundary l u b r i c a t i o n i n some modes and be t r u l y hydrodynamic i n o t h e r s .

f i l m w i l l v a r y i n t h i c k n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o se al p r o f i l e ,
pres s u r e , speed, surface f i n i s h , t y p e o f f l u i d employed

interference stress, and i t s temperature.

On r e c i p r o c a t i n g d u t i e s i t m i g h t t y p i c a l l y v a r y from 0.25 r o t a r y s h a f t s v a l u es o f 0.6

3.0 microns.

On

1.0 mi cro n would u s u a l l y a p p l y .

Leakage f r o m r o t a r y s h a f t l i p s e a l s i s seldom e v i d e n t u n l e s s seal wear down o r u n d e r - l i p c r a c k i n g has t ake n p l a c e

a l l o t h e r f e a t u r e s b e i n g equal. However,

340

TABLE

14.5 APPLICATIONS AVAILABLE STANDARD MATERIALS

RECIPROCATING APPLICATIONS SQUEEZE TYPE

0-Seal

L i g h t and medium duty, pneumatic and h y d r a u l i c r e c i p r o c a t i n g services, e.g. small c y l i n d e r s , valve spools and stems, rod f i l m wiping.

P r i n c i p a l l y elastomer b u t polyurethane and PTFE a r e a l s o manufactured.

Lobed Seal As 0-seal b u t b e t t e r resistance t o s p i r a l t w i s t . Elastomer.

Energized Sleeve Seal

Pneumatic and h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r s p a r t i c u l a r l y where s e n s i t i v i t y i s essential, e.g. weighing machines, t e s t i n g equipment, e t c . P r i m a r i l y f o r p i s t o n heads but also available f o r gland d u t i e s .

Elastomer and PTFE ( p l a i n o r r e i n f o r c e d ) o r elastomer and proofed f a b r i c .

Supported S i ngle-Acting Sea 1 B a s i c a l l y developed f o r hydraulic cylinder rod and p i s t o n head d u t y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n mobile and i n d u s t r i a l h y d r a u l i c environments. Elastomer/Plastic. Elastomer/Fabric,

Elastomer/Fabric/Plastic
can a l s o be made i n polyurethane.

m
Supported Double-Acting Seal

Developed f o r p i s t o n head duty i n h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r s associated w i t h mobile/ indus tr ia 1 hydraul i c industries.

Elastomer/Fabric,

Elastomer/Fabric/Plastic,
Elastomer/Plastic.

341

TABLE 14.6
ROTARY APPLICATIONS

APPLICATIONS

AVAILABLE STANDARD MATERIALS

LIP TYPE

Retention o f l u b r i c a n t and exclusion o f f o r e i g n matter from bearings and c r i t i c a l surfaces.

Elastomer/metal, Elastomer/fabric. Spring loading t o l i p normally provided by t o r o i d a l spring o r f i n g e r spring.

SQUEEZE TYPE

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f squeeze-type seals t o r o t a r y d u t i e s requires specialised a t t e n t i o n . Consultation w i t h the seal manufacturer i s recommended.

TABLE 14.7
STATIC SEALS GASKETS AND JOINTINGS

APPLICATIONS

AVAILABLE STANDARD MATERIALS

The most widely used form o f s t a t i c connection where external mechanical load i s available.

Elastomer, r e i n f o r c e d elastomer, proofed f a b r i c , elastomer bonded cork, compressed asbestos f i b r e and a wide v a r i e t y o f nonelastomer based compositions.

LIP TYPE
U Ring (Also known
as U-Packinal _. _. .,I .

A wide range o f s t a t i c s e a l i n g duties. Cylinder end caps, autoclave doors, pressure vessels, couplings. etc.

Elastomer. proofed f a b r i c , leather, Polyurethane and PTFE.

from comnon o r separate source SQUEEZE TYPE

A l l s t a t i c sealing duties which w i l l permit the use o f the selected 0-seal m a t e r i a l and which a r e o f a design which w i l l contain t h i s m a t e r i a l w i t h i n the confines o f the seal recess a t operating pressure.

Elastomer and PTFE.

342 i n r e c i p r o c a t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s passage o f t h e s h a f t through t h e g l a n d w i l l c a r r y t h e o i l f i l m t o t h e atmosphere s i d e o f t h e s e a l .

ROD EMERGINGthick o i l film

ROD RETRACTINGseal energised p r e v e n t i n g t o t a l f i l m iturn

Fig.2

Cond t i o n o f Maximum C o l l e c t e d 0 1 F i l m .

F i g u r e 2 i s a diagrammatic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e w o r s t f i l m t r a n s p o r t s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g an emerging c y l i n d e r r o d w i t h s l a c k p r e s s u r e t o t h e g l a n d which r e t r a c t s w i t h t h e s e a l i n g element under l o a d . I n t h i s mode t h e h e e l o f t h e s e a l

w i l l be e n e r g i s e d and can p r e v e n t t h e r e t u r n o f t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f f i l m c a r r i e d by t h e rod. tion. To combat t h e emergent f i l m , c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n i s s e a l geometry. required t o pressure side The f i t t i n g o f an e f f e c t i v e w i p e r can a g g r a v a t e t h e c o n d i -

Designs such as t h a t shown i n F i g . 3 w i t h k n i f e - c u t s e a l i n g

edges and a s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n t a c t edge and groove h e i g h t s have proved v e r y s u c c e s s f u l d e s p i t e t h e i r s h o r t a x i a l l e n g t h .

Fig.3

Minimum F i l m

Shallow Design

E q u a l l y e f f i c i e n t and h a v i n g t h e advantage o f more t h a n one s e a l i n g edge i s t h e concept shown i n F i g . 4 w h i c h i s a m a r r i a g e o f l i p and squeeze s e a l i n g principles.

343
STANDARD FABRIC CHEVRON GLAND RING F A B R I C CHEVRON I N T E W l E D I A T E RING SPECIAL SYNTHETIC RUBBER HEADER RING

Fig.4

Minimum F i l m

M u l t i - L i p Design

F i g u r e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s t y p i c a l improvement i n performance a g a i n s t standard V - r i n g packing under o f f s e t l o a d c o n d i t i o n s and shows i t s a d a p t a b i l i t y even i n s p l i t form.

LEAKAGE - cc/hr COMPARISON OF F A B R I C MULTI-LIP PACKING VERSUS S P L I T AN0 ENDLESS L O F I L M CHEVRON WHEN SUBJECTED TO EXAGGERATED ROD KNUCKLING S I Z E : 44.5mm x 60.3mm

4-

(12" x 2:")
GLAND BUSH CLEARANCE 0.5mm(.D20") TEST DURATION 500 HOURS OIAMETRAL

( 2 ) S P L I T L O F I L M CHEVRON PACKIHG
( 3 1 ENDLESS L O F I L M CHEVRON PACKING

Fig.5

Comparative Seal Performance

14.4.2

Surface F i n i s h

I t i s n o t o n l y t h e numerical v a l u e o f s u r f a c e roughness which i s r e l e v a n t t o seal performance b u t a l s o t h e manner i n which such a f i n i s h i s achieved.

I n t h e c o n t e x t o f f l u i d power equipment, honed o r r o l l e r b u r n i s h e d b a r r e l f i n i s h e s a r e recommended w i t h an average v a l u e o f between 0 . 4 t o 0.8 p m Ra. L a r g e r c y l i n d e r s should be f i n i s h e d t o 0.8

urn

Ra o r b e t t e r , i f p o s s i b l e , b u t i n

any e v e n t s h o u l d be no worse than 1.6 urn Ra. Rods should i n a l l circumstances be o f a s u r f a c e roughness 0.8 p m Ra o r better. Many o f t h e s m a l l e r s i z e s w i l l be a v a i l a b l e from p r o p r i e t a r y r o d supType o f f i n i s h w i l l depend on mater-

p l i e r s t o a s t a n d a r d f i n i s h o f 0.2 pm Ra. i a l , f u n c t i o n , and

t h e d e s i g n e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f s i m i l a r equipment.

All static

housing areas may be f i n i s h e d i n t h e range 0.8 t o 1.6 um Ra f o r

p r o o f e d f a b r i c packings.and, p r e f e r a b l y , 0.4 t o 0.8 pm Ra For s m a l l e r h o u s i n g s a p p r o p r i a t e t o '0' r i n g s , e t c .

344
Any l o n g i t u d i n a l marking on rods o r c y l i n d e r s w i l l promote leakage and manuf a c t u r i n g processes posing such r i s k s , e.g. as-drawn tube, r e t r a c t i o n marks on r o l l e r - b u r n i s h i n g heads, should be most c a r e f u l l y monitored. Equally, the achievement o f t o o f i n e a f i n i s h 0.05 I.cm Ra seal. tailed.

perhaps i n t h e area 0.01

can prevent the establishment o f a coherent f l u i d f i l m under the

An e r r a t i c performance can f r e q u e n t l y f o l l o w and packing l i f e can be curSeveral p r a c t i c a l cases have been demonstrated where the d e l i b e r a t e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a coarser f i n i s h has restored an adequate q u a l i t y o f sealing. I n any event, on most h y d r a u l i c i n s t a l l a t i o n s the advantages t o be gained by improving f i n i s h e s below 0.2/0.3 p R a r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y c o s t l y w i t h o u t m a o f f e r i n g t a n g i b l e performance improvement. 14.4.3 Seal F r i c t i o n

I n e s t i m a t i n g seal drag loads f o r c r i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , designers a r e faced w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l problem o f f i n d i n g even a general idea o f a c t u a l values from seal manufacturers. There a r e r e a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n e x t r a p o l a t i n g r e s u l t s based on l a b o r a t o r y equipment and applying values t o much l a r g e r p l a n t . Equally, type o f l u b r i c a -

t i o n , choice o f packing, and degree o f l i p i n t e r f e r e n c e , whether as-moulded o r as a r e s u l t o f compression, a r e a l l q u a n t i t i e s which w i l l i n f l u e n c e the f i n a l result. Work c a r r i e d o u t i n t h i s area w i t h a view t o g i v i n g a n o t i o n a l allowance f o r f r i c t i o n takes due account of seal l e n g t h and expresses seal drag F r i c t i o n load where

DL 25.8

load as :

x [142

(0.8

R)] k g f

R = f l u d pressure (bar)

D z sea L = sea

contact diameter contact l e n g t h

(2) (2)
As a r e s u l t , i t

I t i s o f t e n d e s i r a b l e t o add a contingency allownace o f 15%.

may be seen t h a t a m u l t i - l i p packing o f 1000 mm c o n t a c t diameter and 50 m deep would r e q u i r e 0.2% approx. o f t h e t h r u s t developed on t h i s f u l l area diameter a t a pressure o f 200 bar. Figure 6 makes the p o i n t t h a t any elastomeric and t h e r e f o r e f l e x i b l e seal c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l s u f f e r an increase i n contact band w i d t h w i t h increasing system pressure. Even i n the case o f r e l a t i v e l y tough, h i g h modulus m a t e r i a l s

such as proofed f a b r i c o r polyurethane, pressures o f 200 bar o r over may be s u f f i c i e n t t o promote t o t a l a x i a l contact o f t h e seal w i t h the dynamic wear s u r f ace.

345

LOW

PRESSURE

HIGH PRESSURE

I izsi
I
I I I

CONTACT BAND AREA

I 1

CONTACT BAND AREA

is:!

Fig.6

Seal Contact Band Width

dramatically despite substantial hydraulic pressure increases.

Interposing a loaded PTFE sleeve is an effective means o f limiting seal drag Figure 7 shows

o n e form o f the composite principle utilising a rectangular section elastomeric energiser.

LOADED PTFE SLEEVE

RUBBER ENERGISER

Fig.7

Energised PTFE Sleeve Seal

346
The o r d e r o f f r i c t i o n c o n t r o l a v a i l a b l e by comparison t o comparably t e s t e d

'0' r i n g s and ' U ' r i n g s i s g i v e n i n F i g . 8 .

500
u-

COMPARISON OF MOVING F R I C T I O N LOAD AT VARYING F L U I D PRESSURES

.? 400
v

0 < 0

0 I -

300
200 100
'C'
0

LL
I

5 VI

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

O I L PRESSURE (BAR)

Fig. 8

Comparative F r i c t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The p a te n t e d d e s i g n shown i n F i g. 9

combines f r i c t i o n c o n t r o l w i t h maximum

f l l m wiping a b i l i t y f o r the rod s i t u a t i o n .

Fig. 9 E n e r g i s e d PTFE S l e e v e Seal with P r o f i l e d F i l m Wiping Edge

14.4.4

Type o f F l u i d

As f a r as dynamic s e a l s a r e concerned, t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f mineral-based o r

phosphate e s t e r f l u i d s do n o t p r e s e n t l u b r i c i t y problems. One o f t h e most demanding t ype s o f d u t y f o r any dynamic seal i n v o l v e s p l a i n wat e r a t h i g h p r e ssure whether by d e s i g n o r by t o t a l l o s s o f s o l u b l e o i l content

341
i n a n o m i n a l l y l u b r i c a t e d system. Hi g h s p e e d s a r e particularly d i f f i c u l t to

s u s t a i n u n l e s s a minimum s o l u b l e o i l l e v e l o f 2% i s guaranteed. T e s t s conducted on t h r e e - t h r o w m i n i n g pumps o p e r a t i n g a t 250 b a r , 0 . 6 m/s, have shown t h a t f o r even a 2% s o l u b l e o i l c o n t e n t , average seal l i f e w i l l be extended by a f a c t o r o f f o u r by comparison w i t h u n t r e a t e d w ater. Equally, a

s e p a r a t e l u b r i c a n t feed w i l l produce s i m i l a r l y d r a m a t i c improvements. The t e m p e r a t u re o f h y d r a u l i c f l u i d sho ul d n o t exceed 60C

i f a t a l l possible,

as s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r s w e l l and s o f t e n i n g o f p r o o f e d f a b r i c s and s t r a i g h t polymers w i l l o c c u r above t h i s v a l u e . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t , t h e f o l l o w i n g

d a t a i s based on immersion t e s t i n g f o r seven days i n She 1 T e l l u s 27 m i n e r a l o i l . N i t r i l e proofed f a b r i c

room t e mpe rature

0 . 7 % volume i n c r e a s e 1.2% 2.6%

6OoC 9OoC
1 2O0C Hig h n i t r i l e e l ast ome r

3.3%
0.8%

- 6OoC
90C
1 2O0C

2.3%

3.8%

Softening o f

moulded f a b r i c m a t e r i a l u s u a l l y reduces i n t r i n s i c s t r e n g t h and

w i l l normally d i m i n i s h s e r v i c e l i f e .

14.4.5

Filtration

For t h e b u l k o f e l ast ome r p r o o f e d f a b r i c and s o l i d elastomer s e a l s f l u i d f i l t r a t i o n o f 25 mi cro ns sho ul d be p e r f e c t l y adequate from t h e s e a l i n g p e r f o r mance a s p e c t . S pe ci al s e a l s such as those embodying PTFE wear faces w i l l beneI n e i t h e r event, f i l t r a t i o n equipment

f i t f r o m 10 m ic r on f i l t r a t i o n or b e t t e r .

o f f e r i n g a f i n e r c u t - o f f w i l l p r o b a b l y be s p e c i f i e d t o s u i t c o n t r o l v a l v e funct i o n s on a g i v e n pre ss o r h y d r a u l i c component. The m a j o r i t y o f c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c s e a l s w hich a r e t e s t e d in-house work i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h no more t ha n a co arse w i r e s t r a i n e r i n any h y d r a u l i c system. However, modern f i l t r a t i o n a i d s must be con si dered an advantage, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p l a n t i n v o l v e s produces a g g r e s s i v e r e s i d u e s .

14.4.6

A i r E n trai n men t
due t o i n c r e a s i n g work demands, system pressI n many situations, f u l l w orking pressure

As c y c l e speeds become f a s t e r
u r e s must f l u c t u a t e more q u i c k l y .

must be exhausted i n m i l l i s e c o n d s , e.g. moulding presses, e t c .

d i e - c a s t i n g machines, p l a s t i c s i n j e c t i o n

I f a i r i s e n t r a i n e d i n t h e h y d r a u l i c f l u i d such r a p i d

decompressions can be e xcee di n gl y dangerous i f no a u t o m a t i c v e n t i n g i s a v a i l a b l e .

I f one c o n s i d e r s t h a t i n 1O;l o f h y d r a u l i c o i l a t 200 bar and 10C i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o d i s s o l v e n e a r l y 200 1 o f a i r , some i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e magnitude of

348
r i s k w i l l be apparent. The main problem r e l a t e s t o p i s t o n head s i t u a t i o n s where f l u i d c o l l e c t s between two opposed seals. L i p packings a r e l a r g e l y s e l f - v e n t i n g b u t heavy

i n t e r f e r e n c e polyurethane cup r i n g s a r e o f t e n suspect i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n as they do not r e a c t s u f f i c i e n t l y q u i c k l y . Under no circumstances should two squeeze type seals, e.g.

'0' r i n g s , be

employed on a p i s t o n head as the a i r entrainment contingency can be aggravated by a proven phenomenon known as i n t e r - s e a l pressure whereby t h r e e o r f o u r times system pressure can be b u i l t up i n t h e annular clearance between the seals. Extrusion o f such seals

into t h e
PRESSURE

a p p l i e d pressure can be noted i n t y p i c a l cases.

3 TO 4 P

F i g . 10

I n the gland s i t u a t i o n , t h e r i s k s a r e n o t o f the same degree unless t h e r e i s r e s t r i c t e d access o f working f l u i d t o the packing v i a a s i n g l e p o r t i n the neck bush o r some s i m i l a r feature. Adequate f l u i d access t o a l l seals should be

assured unless d e l i b e r a t e attempts a r e being made t o reduce t h e a c t u a l pressure a t t h i s p o i n t o r t o dampen pressure v a r i a t i o n s .

14.5

SELECTION

As so many seal designs w i l l apparently meet given c o n d i t i o n s and y e t be

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n m a t e r i a l , s i z e , and p r i c e , the f l u i d power equipment designer can be f o r g i v e n f o r being confused. Table 14.8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e v a r i a t i o n s t h a t could apply t o a given a c t u a t o r o f f i x e d rod, b a r r e l and s t r o k e dimensions and r e f l e c t s a survey made several years ago when eighteen quotations were sought f o r a

3"

dia. cylinder with

double cushioning and a s t r o k e l e n g t h o f 18". v a r i e d between 175 and 24.50,

P r i c e s received a t t h a t time

y e t a l l purported t o do the same j o b . his

Much w i l l depend on t h e u s e r ' s own experience and preference based on knowledge o f the a p p l i c a t i o n . consequence o f leakage,

Schedule maintenance periods, a c c e s s i b i l i t y ,

i n i t i a l cost and a v a i l a b i l i t y w i l l a l l p l a y t h e i r p a r t

i n s t e e r i n g t h e d e c i s i o n towards u l t i m a t e s e c u r i t y o r some o t h e r l e v e l o f costeffectiveness.

349

TABLE 14.8
UPPER

LOWER

UPPER

LOWER

UPPER

LOWER

350 I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t B r i t i s h S t e e l C o r p o r a t i o n a r e now s e t t i n g t h e i r own standards f o r c r i t i c a l c y l i n d e r d u t i e s and w i l l use m u l t i - l i p packing throughout. Such a s o l u t i o n would be e n t i r e l y u na ccep t a ble t o t h e manufacturer o f e a r t h moving v e h i c l e s who would seek a more economic s o l u t i o n i n terms o f c y l i n d e r

s i z e and s e a l c o s t . Most s e a l m a nu f a ct u rers w i l l e r r on t h e s i d e o f c a u t i o n i f t h e y a r e advised

o f in te n d e d s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s and i f i n doubt t h i s i s t h e p r e f e r r e d r o u t e t h a t t h e d e s ig n e r s h o u l d t a ke. Equally, h a v i n g made h i s c h o i c e and b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a range o f o v e r a l l

s i z e s f o r a g i v e n di a met er, t h e l a r g e s t se al s e c t i o n a v a i l a b l e should be taken n o t the smallest l i p o r squeeze

o t h e r re qu i reme nt s a l l o w i n g .

The s m a l l e r t h e seal

whether

t h e f i n e r i s t h e wo rki ng t o l e r a n c e band o f i n t e r f e r e n c e and t h e

lower i s t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r a bso rbi n g mi sal i g nment, v i b r a t i o n , adverse accumulat i v e tolerances, positions. etc. This assertion applies equally t o s t a t i c and dynamic

14.6

STORAGE
BS 3754:1963

' S t o r a g e o f Vu l can i sed Rubber' was prepared under t h e a u t h o r i t y

o f t h e Rubber I n d u s t r y Standards Committee and i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g recommend a t ions: "Most v u l c a n i s e d rub be rs change i n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s d u r i n g s t o r a g e and u l t i m a t e l y may become u n s e r v i c e a b l e , hardening, f o r example, because o f excessive

softening, cracking, c r a z i n g o r o t h e r surface degradation.

These changes may be t h e r e s u l t of one p a r t i c u l a r f a c t o r o r a combination o f f a c t o r s , namely, t h e a c t i o n o f oxygen, ozone, l i g h t , heat and humidity."

The d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s o f t he se f a c t o r s may, however, be minimised by carefu choice o f storage conditions.

14 6.1 14.6.1.1

Recommendations Temperature
At

The s t o r a g e t empe rat ure should be below 25OC and p r e f e r a b l y below 15OC.

temperatures exceeding 25OC c e r t a i n forms o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n may be a c c e l e r a t e d s u f f i c i e n t l y t o a f f e c t the u l t i m a t e service l i f e . Sources o f heat i n s t o r a g e

rooms should be so a rran ge d t h a t t h e t emp era ture o f no s t o r e d a r t i c l e exceeds 25OC. The e f f e c t s o f low t emp era t u re a r e n o t permanently deleterious t o vul-

c a n is e d rubber a r t i c l e s b u t t h ey may become s t i f f e r i f s t o r e d a t low temperat u r e s and c a r e should be t a ken t o a v o i d d i s t o r t i n g them d u r i n g h a n d l i n g a t t h a t temperature. When a r t i c l e s a r e t ake n f rom low temperature s t o r a g e f o r immediate

use t h e i r t e m p e r a t u re sh ou l d be r a i s e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3OoC throughout b e f o r e they a r e p u t i n t o s e r v i c e .

351

14.6.1.2

Hu m idi t y s t o r a g e c o n d i t i o n s should be such t h a t

M o i s t c o n d i t i o n s should be avo i de d; condensation does n o t o ccur.

14.6.1.3

Light i n p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t sunUnless the

V u lc a n is e d r u b be r sh ou l d be p r o t e c t e d from l i g h t ,

l i g h t and s t r o n g a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t w i t h a h i g h u l t r a - v i o l e t c o n t e n t . a r t i c l e s a r e packed i n opaque c o n t a i n e r s , o f storage

i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o cover any windows

rooms w i t h a r e d o r orange c o a t i n g o r screen. Oxygen and Ozone

14.6.1.4

Where p o s s i b l e , v u l c a n i s e d rubber sh ou l d be p r o t e c t e d from c i r c u l a t i n g a i r by wrapping, s t o r a g e i n a i r - t i g h t c o n t a i n e r s , o r o t h e r s u i t a b l e means; this

p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e s t o a r t i c l e s w i t h l a r g e s u r f a c e area t o volume r a t i o s , e.g. pro o fe d f a b r i c , c e l l u l a r ru bb er. As ozone i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d e l e t e r i o u s , s t o r a g e rooms should n o t c o n t a i n any equipment t h a t i s capable o f g e n e r a t i n g ozone, such as mercury vapour lamps,

h i g h v o l t a g e e l e c t r i c a l equipment, e l e c t r i c motors, o r o t h e r equipment w hich may g i v e r i s e t o e l e c t r i c sparks o r s i l e n t e l e c t r i c a l discharges.

14.6.1.5

De f o r ma t i o n

V u lc a n is e d rubber should, wherever p o s s i b l e , be s t o r e d i n a r e l a x e d c o n d i t i o n f r e e from t e n s i o n , compression o r o t h e r d e f o r m a t i o n . Hig h q u a l i t y re qu i reme nt s f o r s t o r a g e and p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n such as those s p e c i f i e d by th e Aero-Space I n d u s t r y a r e o b t a i n a b l e from BS

2F.68:1963

"Recom-

mendations f o r t h e s t o r a g e and i n s p e c t i o n i n s t o r e o f v u l c a n i s e d rubber items".

14.7

ASSEMBLY

A lt h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l i n v o l v e p a r t i c u l a r f i t t i n g problems t h e r e a r e a number o f b a s i c p o i n t s o f good p r a c t i c e which, c o n t r i b u t e t o optimum sea l performance: (i) (ii) Check t h a t sea l i s o f c o r r e c t t yp e, p a r t number or s i z e and m a t e r i a l . Ensure t h a t se al i s i n undamaged c o n d i t i o n and clean.

i f observed, w i l l

( i i i ) Where p e r m i s s i b l e , smear t h e s e a l i n g edge o f dynamic s e a l s w i t h clean grease. Con sul t any f i t t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n l a b e l p r o v i d e d by t h e manufac-

t u r e r t o a s c e r t a i n whether f u r t h e r grease a p p l i c a t i o n t o i n t e r - s e a l c a v i t i e s e t c . i s recommended. (iv)

Do n o t t r e a t f l a t g aske t su rf a ces w i t h any form o f j o i n t i n g p a s t e o r lubr i c a n t u n less i n s t r u c t e d so t o do, o t h e r w i s e t h e a b i l i t y o f the gasket t o g r i p t h e a d j a c e n t s e a l i n g faces may be impaired.

352
(v) Clean a1 se al ho usi n g o r gasket s e a t i n g areas. Check t h a t o t h e r s u r f a c e s

a d j a c e n t t o t h e passage o f t h e sea l on f i t t i n g a r e a l s o f r e e o f d i r t , s wa r f or o t h e r contaminants. (vi) Check s e a l h ou si ng dimensions and s u r f a c e f i n i s h t o design recommendations. corners, p o r t s , c i r c l i p s o r

( v i i ) I f a s e a l i s l i k e l y t o c o n t a c t t hre ad s, sharp

s i m i l a r c o n t i n g e n c i e s d u r i n g t h e assembly o p e r a t i o n then s u i t a b l e f i t t i n g a i d s must be pro vi de d. The s l i g h t e s t n i c k o r t e a r on a c r i t i c a l edge o f

an e l a s t o m e r i c component w i l l reduce s e a l i n g i n t e g r i t y .

I f f r e q u e n t use

i s envisaged, n o n - m e t a l l i c f i t t i n g sl e eves can be o f advantage s i n c e damage t o a s i m i l a r m e t a l l i c d e v i c e can d u p l i c a t e t h e hazard t o t h e s e a l . ( v i i i ) D o n o t le a ve se al i n p a r t ' a s s e m b l y f o r any l e n g t h o f time i f s e a l i n g edges a r e s u b j e c t t o m i s a l i g n e d loads; f o r example rod seal f i t t e d t o c y l i n d e r w i t h r o d i n p o s i t i o n b u t no g l a n d bush f i t t e d . (ix)

I f a p p r o p r i a t e , a p p l y any post-assembly o p e r a t i o n recommended by s e a l manu f a c t u r e r , f o r example compression o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d amount i n an a d j u s t a b l e g la n d housing; r o t a r y d u t y; and so on. run ni n g a t h a l f - s p e e d t o a s s i s t seal b e d d i n g - i n on a

f o l l o w i n g up f l a n g e b o l t s a f t e r a p e r i o d a t temperature,.

.. .

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15

SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT PART TWO ROTARY SHAFT LIP SEALS

E.D.HALLIGAN,

CEng, MIMechE, A M P R I . , T e c h n i c a l Manager (Product A p p l i c a t i o n s ) James Walker G Co.Ltd.

15.1

INTRODUCTION

For t h e purpose o f s e a l i n g l u b r i c a n t w i t h i n a b e a r i n g o r e x c l u d i n g f o r e i g n m a t t e r from b e a r i n g surfaces, t y p i c a l l y i n Fig.1, t h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d r o t a r y s h a f t l i p s e a l , as shown The n a t u r e o f most designs p r e c l u d e s

i s w i d e l y accepted.

t h e use o f t h i s t y p e o f seal f r o m o p e r a t i n g a t s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e s u n l e s s t h e s e a l i n g l i p i s adequately supported by a shaped p l a t e . much i n excess o f 2'.0 For p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s

3.0 b a r , combined w i t h r o t a r y movement i t would be p r e -

f e r a b l e t o c o n s i d e r e i t h e r a compression p a c k i n g o r a r a d i a l f a c e mechanical s e a l as f i r s t c h o i c e .

Fig.1

Standard f a b r i c back s e a l w i t h r e t a i n i n g p l a t e .

3 54
15.2 DESIGN

A wide v a r i e t y o f l i p s e a l designs i s a v a i l a b l e i n terms o f o v e r a l l c o n s t r u c -

t i o n , m a t e r i a l , and l i p p r o f i l e .

Some a r e i n t e n d e d f o r f i t t i n g i n housings

which have no s e p a r a t e c o v e r - p l a t e and may be s u p p l i e d w i t h a r i g i d metal case t o which the s e a l i s bonded, t h e u n i t b e i n g a f o r c e - f i t i n t h e housing, (Fig.2).

Fig.2

T y p i c a l metal-encased s e a l .

Others have t h e advantage o f f l e x i b i l i t y by v i r t u e o f h a v i n g a p r o o f e d f a b r i c back ( F i g . 3 a ) w h i l s t r e q u i r i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a r e t a i n i n g p l a ' t e t o n i p a x i a l l y the back o f t h e seal t o p r e v e n t leakage and o b v i a t e r o t a t i o n . elopments combine t h e m e r i t s o f f l e x i b i l i t y and s e l f - r e t e n t i o n supported a l l - r u b b e r configuration (Fig.3b). More recent devi n a metal-

Fig.3a.

Standard f a b r i c back s e a l .

Fig.3b.

Moulded-in f l e x i b l e s t e e l band s e l f - r e t a i n i n g s e a l .

One o f the s e v e r a l advantages o f t h e f a b r i c back seal i s t h e f a c i l i t y w i t h which s p l i t s e a l s can be f i t t e d w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g performance which, cases, i s o f t h e same o r d e r o f e f f i c i e n c y as an endless r i n g . i n many

A rubber i n l a y

i s f r e q u e n t l y moulded i n t o t h e back o f such a seal t h r o u g h which the s p l i t i s effected. The rubber abutment which r e s u l t s ensures good s e a l i n g across t h e

s p l i t portion. The p r o f i l e o f t h e l i p c o n t a c t area i s s u b j e c t e d t o each m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s design p h i l o s o p h y . Some h a v e a knife-edge c o n t a c t band and r e l y on heavy as-

355
moulded l i p i n t e r f e r e n c e . i n t o intimate shaft contact. Others depend on t h e s p r i n g t e n s i o n t o u r g e t h e l i p I n p r a c t i c e , a c a r e f u l balance o f i n t e r f e r e n c e ,

s p r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c o n t a c t band w i d t h must be a l l i e d t o knowledge o f the t y p e o f m a t e r i a l b e i n g used, b e a r i n g t ype, and c o n d i t i o n and o t h e r e n v i r o n mental c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as t emp era t u re, f l u i d and, i f any, pressure.

A t y p i c a l range o f se al p r o f i l e s i s shown i n F i g . 4 w hich a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s

exp e d ie n t used when i n s u f f i c i e n t space i s a v a i l a b l e t o accommodate a p a i r o f seals, i.e. t h e s o - c a l l e d d u s t l i p de si gn .

Fig.4

T y p i c a l se al p r o f i l e s .

15.3

MATERIAL

N i t r i l e - b a s e s y n t h e t i c rubber compounds a r e w i d e l y employed as standard mate r i a l s by reason o f t h e i r c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h most l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s and greases and t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o wear. There a r e , however, c e r t a i n r o l l i n g o i l s and

c o o l a n t s wh ic h may cause e x c e s s i v e s w e l l o r s h r i n k a g e o f such polymers and a f l u o r o c a r b o n r u b be r, e.g. V i t o n , may be a necessary s e l e c t i o n . This i s p a r t i -

c u l a r l y t r u e o f some palm o i l s o l u t i o n s and o t h e r s o l u b l e types o f o i l . C o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t emp era t u re i s important and,

i t i s t h e c o n d i t i o n a t t h e l i p o f t h e s e a l which i s paramount

i n t h i s respect, not necessarily

t h e e n v ir o n m e n t a l t e mpe rat ure .

However,

i t may be s a i d t h a t n i t r i l e s a r e f r e -

q u e n t l y used w i t h success f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t s e r v i c e temperatures o f 15OoC and a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y r a t e d f o r 120C i n lubricated conditions. Above these values

e i t h e r a c r y l i c r ubb ers, f l u o r o c a r b o n o r s i l i c o n compounds would r e q u i r e i n v e s t i gation. Many s i l i c o n e and n i t r i l e rubber s h a f t s e a l s a r e f i t t e d i n automotive a p p l i i n which areas much use i s b e i n g

c a t i o n s f o r c r a n k s h a f t and gearbox s e a l i n g ,

made o f grooved s e a l i n g s u r f a c e s which a r e designed t o produce a hydrodynamic

356
e f f e c t i n the oil film b e i n g sealed, e f f e c t i v e l y causing t h e o i l t o be pumped

away from t h e s eal l i p (see F i g . 5 ) .

F ig . 5

Metal i n s e r t se al w i t h hydrodynamic a i d .

D e t a i l e d m a t e r i a l recommendations a r e g i v e n i n Appendix 1 .

15.4

SEAL LUBRICATION r o t a r y s h a f t l i p seals

I n common w i t h most o t h e r forms o f dynamic s e a l , depend f o r t h e i r e f f i c i e n t and c o n s i s t e n t stable f l u i d f i l m .

performance upon t h e presence o f a

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h i s f i l m , w hich w i l l t y p i c a l l y be i n

t h e o r d e r o f a few mi cro ns t hi ckn ess, may n o t o c c u r immediately, and i t i s n o t uncommon f o r a h i g h pe rcen t a ge o f wear t o occur on r o t a r y s h a f t seal l i p s during t h i s p e r i o d b e f o r e s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e achieved. For t h i s reason, i t

i s always good p r a c t i c e t o a p p l y a l u b r i c a n t t o t h e seal l i p and i n t h e seal c a v i t y before f i t t i n g . Where s i n g l e s e a l s a r e housed a t each end o f t h e housing, t h e r e i s n o r m a l l y s u f f i c i e n t b e a r i n g l u b r i c a n t i n c o n t a c t t o p r o v i d e adequate l u b r i c a t i o n . Again, where two s e a l s a r e housed t o g e t h e r ,
i t i s o f t e n found t h a t w i t h b e a r i n g l u b r i -

c a n t on one s e a l and e i t h e r r o l l i n g f l u i d o r r o l l c o o l a n t on t h e o t h e r , f u r t h e r l u b r i c a t i o n i s unnecessary.

I n a l l cases t h e l i b e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f grease t o

t h e s e a l s on assembly w i l l ensure l u b r i c a t i o n from t h e b e g i n n i n g and,

i n some

i ns t a n c e s , t h i s w i l l be found s u f f i c i e n t t o l a s t from one f i t t i n g t o t h e n e x t . However, t h e r e a r e many s e a l i n g arrangements, e s p e c i a l l y on r o l l i n g m i l l be a r in g s , and i n which two o r more s e a l s a r e f i t t e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e same housing

t h e r e i s th e danger t h a t a t l e a s t one w i l l r u n d r y u n l e s s l u b r i c a n t i s T h i s can b e s t be accomplished by d r i l l i n g a

s u p p l i e d from an e x t e r n a l source.

h o l e t h r o u g h t h e chock c o n n e c t i n g w i t h an a n n u l a r groove i n t h e back o f t h e s e a l housing, as shown i n F i g. 6, and u s i n g a s p e c i a l t y p e o f seal which has a

s e r i e s o f r a d i a l p o r t s i n t h e base f o r passage o f l u b r i c a n t t o t h e seal l i p . When i t i s d i f f i c u l t o r i m p o s s i b l e t o machine an annular groove i n t h e back o f t h e s e a l housing, shown i n F i g . 7 . t h i s groove may be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e s e a l s themselves, as

357

Fig.6

Seal l u b r i c a t i o n v i a i n s e a l base.

ports

Fig.7

Seal l u b r i c a t i o n v i a p o r t s and a n n u l a r groove i n seal base.

I n g e n e r a l , a good q u a l i t y m i n e r a l o i l o r grease i s s u i t a b l e f o r seal l u b r i c a t i o n , b u t molybdenised l u b r i c a n t s may be used t o advantage where a p p l i c a t i o n i s infrequent. which t h e s e a l are being Care sh ou l d be taken t o ensure t h a t t h e grease o r l u b r i c a n t w i t h i s t o come i n t o c o n t a c t i s co mpatible. For example, where s e a l s

used w i t h d i u t e m i n e r a l a c i d s , b u t y l

compositions may w e l l be used.

T h i s m a t e r i a l i s l i k e l y t o s w e l l i n c o n t a c t w i t h m i n e r a l o i l o r grease and an a l t e r n a t i v e l u b r i c a n t w 1 1 be e s s e n t i a l .

15.5
(16

SHAFT SURFACES

The s e a l i n g a re a o f t h e s h a f t sh ou l d be a f i n e ground f i n i s h o f 0.4 t o 0.8 pm

32 p i n . ) CLA or Ra f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s , b u t f o r t h e h i g h e r speed range

t o 0 . h pm ( 8 - 1 6 p I n ) I n a l l cases i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s h a f t s e a l i n g area be f r e e

i t i s recommended t h a t t h e s u r f a c e f i n i s h be improved t o 0.2

CLA o r Ra.

from machining marks, de nt s, b u r r s and scra t ches. Where f l u o r o c a r b o n o r a c r y l i c rubber s e a l s a r e b e i n g employed,

i t i s also

a d v i s a b l e t o use t h e f i n e r l e v e l o f f i n i s h i n d i c a t e d above i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e p i c k - u p o f t h e s ea l m a t e r i a l .

I f l u b r i c a t i o n i s adequate and f r e e f rom a b r a s i v e c o n t a c t , unhardened m i l d

s t e e l s h a f t s w i l l g e n e r a l l y g i v e s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s under normal o p e r a t i n g conditions. However, a h a r d e r s h a f t m a t e r i a l i s t o be p r e f e r r e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s

where l u b r i c a t i o n i s poor, a b r a s i v e s a r e pre sent, o r speed and p r e s s u r e condit i o n s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y arduous.

A f i n e machined f i n i s h i s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e housing bore.

358

15.6

FRICTION

The r u b b i n g f r i c t i o n o f t h e seal l i p on t h e s h a f t m a t e r i a l i n e v i t a b l y causes a h i g h e r l o c a l temperature than i s p r e s e n t i n t h e f l u i d b e i n g s e a l e d . e f f e c t w i l l be This

due t o t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e seal l i p on t h e s h a f t m a t e r i a l

and may be aggravated by inadequate l u b r i c a t i o n o r speeds i n excess o f t h a t f o r which a p a r t i c u l a r seal was designed. Assuming t h e system temperature t o be

w e l l w i t h i n t h e bounds o f t h e m a t e r i a l c a p a b i l i t y , a h i g h d i f f e r e n t i a l between l i p t i p temperature and f l u i d temperature w i l l be m a n i f e s t e d i n many cases by h a i r - l i n e scores i n t h e seal l i p c o - a x i a l w i t h t h e s h a f t . o f t h e rubber compound w i l l a l s o be e v i d e n t . F i g u r e 8 i n d i c a t e s a s e t o f curves d e r i v e d by experiment, p r o j e c t i n g f r i c t i o n a l h o r s e power a g a i n s t s e a l d i a m e t e r f o r a c o n v e n t i o n a l r o t a r y l i p seal design o p e r a t i n g a t 500 r.p.m. pressures. i n m i n e r a l l u b r i c a t i n g o i l a t d i f f e r e n t system Local c a r b o n i s a t i o n

300

LOO

500

600

700

800

900

Shaft diameter [ m m l
Fig.8 F r i c t i o n a l horse power absorbed by r o t a r y s h a f t l i p s s e a l s , having c o n v e n t i o n a l l i p i n t e r f e r e n c e o p e r a t i n g a t 500 r e v h i n

359

15.7

SPEEDS

Many o f t h e f a b r i c - b a c k e d t y p e o f s e a l s t o g e t h e r w i t h those o f t h e m e t a l supported t y p e a r e w o r k i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y on 400 mm r o l l - n e c k d i a m e t e r s a t speeds o f up t o 25 m/s (5000 f t / m i n ) o v e r s u s t a i n e d w o r k i n g p e r i o d s . however, many f a c t o r s such as s u r f a c e f i n i s h , There are,

e c c e n t r i c i t y , and l u b r i c a t i o n

which can l i m i t t h e maximum speed f o r which any seal i s s u i t a b l e , and manufact u r e r s should be c o n s u l t e d i n cases o f doubt.

15.8

ECCENTRICITY
it

Where p l a i n metal o r s y n t h e t i c c o m p o s i t i o n b e a r i n g s a r e b e i n g employed,

i s n o t uncommon t o f i n d t h a t t h e s h a f t i s n o t t r u l y c o n c e n t r i c w i t h t h e seal housing, owing t o b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e and subsequent wear. I n t h i s event,

it is

e s s e n t i a l f o r e f f i c i e n t s e a l i n g t h a t t h e seal l i p be capable o f f o l l o w i n g a l l s h a f t movement and, indeed, on many l a r g e c o m p a r a t i v e l y slow-moving s h a f t s Naturally,

e c c e n t r i c i t y values o f 2 . 5 mm have been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y accommodated.

t h e s e a l performance i n terms o f e c c e n t r i c i t y c a p a b i l i t y w i l l be speed and s h a f t diameter dependent. Where s p l i t s e a l s a r e f i t t e d , then p a r t i c u l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s necessary t o t h e problem o f s h a f t e c c e n t r i c i t y , s i n c e t h e r e may be a tendency f o r a s p l i t seal t o open a t t h e j o i n .

15.9

PRESSURE

A l t h o u g h few r o t a r y s h a f t l i p s e a l s a r e spec f i c a l l y designed as s t a n d a r d compqnents t o accept s i g n i f i c a n t pressures, t h e use o f m e t a l - s u p p o r t i n g p l a t e s

w i l l extend t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h i s t y p e o f s e a l

A t y p i c a l p r o f i l e i s shown ' i n

Fig.9.

Fig.9

Seal w i t h shaped s u p p o r t p l a t e f o r p r e s s u r e s up t o 3.0 b a r .

As a r e s u l t o f e x p e r i m e n t a l work on t h e s e a l i n g o f o i l - f i l l e d marine s t e r n glands and manoeuvring t h r u s t e r s , a seal l i p p r o f i l e has been developed which

s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s u s t a i n s pressures up t o 4 . 0 b a r w i t h o u t t h e use o f a shaped support p l a t e . The base must be f u l l y supported as i n d i c a t e d i n Fig.10.

360

Q
Fig.10 New se al development f o r p ressures up t o 4.0 b a r w i t h o u t shaped sup po rt p l a t e . Where c o n s t a n t a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e i s n o t a n t i c i p a t e d , ted t h a t g r e a s e - l u b r i c a t e d
i t i s f r e q u e n t l y sugges-

b e a r i n g s a r e equipped w i t h r e l i e f h o l e s and t h a t o i l D rains taken f r o m t h e ends

l u b r i c a t e d b e a r i n g s have d r a i n s o f adequate s i z e .

o f t h e b e a r i n g near t h e s e a l s w i l l h e l p t o d i s s i p a t e any l o c a l i s e d p r e s s u r e build - u p . Where p o s s i b l e , st e ps sho ul d be t aken i n b e a r i n g d e s i g n t o p r e v e n t

escaping h i g h p r e s s u r e o i l i mp i ng i ng d i r e c t l y upon t h e s e a l s . I n some cases where t h e loss o f a sma l l amount o f grease i s unimportant, simple r e l i e f system may be formed by f a c i n g s e a l s away f r o m t h e b e a r i n g and a l l o w i n g t h e s e a l l i p t o be l i f t e d under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t pressure. a

15.10

CARE AND HANDLING

F l u i d s e a l s s ho ul d be handled a t a l l t i me s w i t h extreme c a r e s i n c e t h e l i f e o f b e a r in g s o r o t h e r c o s t l y machine p a r t s may depend upon t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y . A t t e n t i o n t o the f o l l o w i n g v i t a l p o i n t s w i l l a s s i s t i n ensuring t r o u b l e - f r e e operation during service.

15.10.1 (i)

Storage The s t o r e sh ou l d have a c o o l , c l e a n and d r y atmosphere, f r e e from

d u s t and g r i t . (ii) Whenever p o s s i b l e , s e a l s should n o t be removed from t h e wrapping i n which they were s u p p l i e d , as t h i s p r o v i d e s p r o t e c t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( i i i ) Avoid u n t i d y s t a c k i n g as t h e w e i g h t may d i s t o r t t h e s e a l s a t t h e bottom o f the stack. (iv) Seals should never be t h rea de d on w i r e o r s t r i n g as t h i s w i l l damage the l i p s .

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15.10.2

H a n d lin g
I t must be remembered t h a t seal l i p s a r e extremely v u l n e r a b l e t o damage

(i)

and t h e s m a l l e s t n i c k p r o v i d e s a p o t e n t i a l l e a k p a t h . (ii) Seal r e i n f o r c i n g i n s e r t s , a l t h o u g h adequate f o r t h e i r d u t y , may deform under adverse h a n d l i n g o r s t a c k i n g . ( i i i ) Seals h avi n g met al o u t s i d e su rf a ces may damage o t h e r s e a l s , e s p e c i a l l y

i f the me t a l edges c o n t a c t t he ru bb er p a r t s o f n e i g h b o u r i n g seals.

15.10.3
Fitting

A h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f f a i l u r e s and leakage o f o i l s e a l s i s due t o i n c o r r e c t

f i t t i n g r e s u l t i n g i n damage t o b o t h se al and s e a l i n g s u r f a c e . S t r i c t attention

t o th e f o l l o w i n g m a t t e r s i s e s s e n t i a l i f b e s t performance i s t o be obtained. (i) Before f i t t i n g , and undamaged. (ii) The s e a l i n g l i p sho ul d be smeared w i t h s u i t a b l e c l e a n l u b r i c a n t . Seals used as d u s t e x c l u d e r s should be packed w i t h a compatible grease. ( i i i ) The s e a l i n g l i p , n o r m a l l y , sho ul d f a c e t h e f l u i d t o be sealed. When f i t t i n g ,
i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o ensure t h a t t h e s e a l i n g l i p i s n o t

t h e se al should be examined t o ensure t h a t i t i s clean

damaged even by

the s l i g h t e s t n i c k , t h a t the s p r i n g i s c o r r e c t l y

l o c a t e d when i n p o s i t i o n , and t h a t t h e seal i s p r o p e r l y pressed home i n t o t h e ho usi n g rece ss. Examine t h e s h a f t which should be f r e e from a l l roughness and sharp edges and a v o i d pa ssi ng t h e s e a l i n g l i p over keyways, screw threads, o r shoulders. S h a f t edges o r sho ul d ers should be w e l l rounded o r

chamfered, and where t h i s i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e a f i t t i n g sleeve s l i g h t l y l a r g e r t h an t h e s h a f t w i t h a l e a d - i n t a p e r should be used.

i t may be necessary e i t h e r t o f i r s t

A c c o r d ing t o t h e t yp e o f assembly,

p r e s s t h e se al i n t o t h e ho usi n g and subsequently o n t o t h e s h a f t o r , alternatively, t o pass t he se al ove r t h e s h a f t and then press i t i n t o

t h e h o u si ng . I t i s p r e f e r a b l e f i r s t t o mount t h e seal on t h e s h a f t where circumstances p e r m i t , s i n c e t h i s a l l o w s o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e l i p d u r i n g assembly. ( v i i ) The assembly sh ou l d n o t be al l o we d t o r e s t f o r any l e n g t h o f t i m e a t an in c o mpl e t e s t a t e o f f i t t i n g , where the w eight o f t h e s h a f t o r housing may be borne by t h e s e a l , latter. ( v i i i ) W h e n p r e s s i n g t h e sea l i n t o t h e housing, a u n i f o r m p r e s s u r e should be e x e r t e d , p r e f e r a b l y by suitable tool. means o f an a r b o r press i n combination w i t h a r e s u l t i n g i n damage o r d i s t o r t i o n t o the

The di a met er o f t h e t o o l should be s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r t o 0.4 mm. The o u t s i d e surface

than the diameter o f t h e h ou si ng by 0.1

362

of the seal can be smeared with a suitable lubricant in order to facilitate fitting. Care must be taken to ensure that the seal does not enter the housing recess in a tilted position, since this will cause damage to the outer surface.
15.11

SERVICE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

A number of fault-finding procedures follow which, if taken in sequence, should analyse the reason for a given difficulty with rotary shaft lip seals.

15.11.1
is not
a

Unacceptable Leakage difficult lubricant to seal. The term "unacceptable" can have wide

This is almost always associated with oil lubricated bearings, since grease interpretation since an occasional drop of oil might be disastrous if it resulted in contamination of the product being handled by the machine concerned in such spheres as the textile, paper, or food industries, whereas it would probably remain unnoticed in a heavy industrial environment. Since the vast increase in oil prices there is, however, a greater sensitivity to oil losses in any form and leakage rates that hitherto have been ignored are now becoming regarded as unacceptable. When dealing with such complaints it is essential to discover the history of equipment concerned, and this broadly falls into three categories:

(I)
(11)

New equipment recently commissioned, where sealing has been regarded as unsatisfactory from the start. Equipment that has been in operation for a period of time and only recently has developed leakage problems.

( I l l ) Equipment that was satisfactory

during its first term of operation but

leakage has occurred after fitting replacement seals during routine maintenance or overhaul. Since trouble tracing is basically a process of eliminating of substantiating faults, the sequence of checks required would vary with each of the above

categories. In order to simp1 ify the procedures and'avoid

irrelevant investigations, the

recommended sequences for each of the above categories is defined by letter symbols to be used in conjunction with the attached fault-finding chart. Category ( ) Full checks in order as A, B, C , Category ( I 1
A, B, C ( 1 ) , D ( 2 ) , and D ( 3 ) .

D and

E until fault is discovered.

If faults as C ( 1 ) o r D(2) are exhibited, ascer-

tain Deriod o f service with seals. This should be calculated in terms of hours

363
o f r u n n i n g and r e l a t e d t o speed, t e m p e r a t u r e , and o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s

A moderate speed w i t h good c l e a n l u b r i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and ambient temperat u r e s would n o r m a l l y a n t i c i p a t e a seal l i f e o f around 10,000 h o u r s . o r p a r t i a l l y abrasive H i g h speeds, p o o r l u b r i c a t i o n , e l e v a t e d temperatures, media c o u l d reduce t h i s t o as l i t t l e as 2,000 h o u r s . The p r o b l e m may t h e r e f o r e be s i m p l y t h a t o f b e i n g due f o r s e a l replacement.

I f f a u l t s as i n (D3) a r e i n e v i d e n c e , o b t a i n d e t a i l s o f a l l media i n c o n t a c t
w i t h seal ( i n c l u d i n g any c l e a n i n g f l u i d s ) as a change o f l i p m a t e r i a l may be

necessary t o o b t a i n c o m p a t a b i l i t y . I f s e a l s d i s p l a y no f a u l t s , check f o r mechanical d e f e c t s as E ( 1 ) and E ( 2 ) . Category A, B, C(

F a u l t - f i n d i n g Chart

(A)

I s leakage a c t u a l l y o c c u r r i n g f r o m t h e s e a l o r does i t stem f r o m such

sources as b e a r i n g c o v e r f l a n g e s and i s m e r e l y " c o l l e c t e d " housing, g i v i n g a f a l s e impression?

by t h e s e a l

Check by w i p i n g c l e a n a l l a p p r o p r i a t e

a r e a s and r u n machine t o a s c e r t a i n leakage s o u r c e . (B)

I s l e a k a g e f r o m around s e a l back o r f r o m t h e l i p a l o n g t h e s h a f t ?

Check by

wiping (C) I f O / D (1)

b o t h c l e a n and o b s e r v i n g w h i l e machine i s leakage

running.

check t h e f o l l o w i n g :

Is s e a l a good f i t i n h o u s i n g o r i s i t s l a c k ? (On s p l i t s e a l s a s l a c k
s e a l w i l 1 d i s p l a y a gap between s e a l e n d s ) .

( 2 ) I f h o u s i n g b o r e i s c o r r e c t s i z e t h e n s e a l O / D dimension i s suspect i f
s l a c k i n housing. ( 3 ) I f s e a l i s good f i t i n h o u s i n g , check f o r damage on h o u s i n g b o r e .

(4) Check
(0 )

h o u s i n g d e p t h t o e n s u r e s e a l i s b e i n g a x i a l l y compressed - i f

applicable.

If

leakage a l o n g s h a f t , check t h e f o l l o w i n g :

( 1 ) S h a f t s i z e , s u r f a c e f i n i s h , s h a f t damage a t c o n t a c t a r e a .
( 2 ) If ( 1 ) O . K . , ing. check c o n d i t i o n o f s e a l i n g l i p f o r h a r d e n i n g and/or c r a c k -

I f e i t h e r i n e v i d e n c e , t h e n speed o r t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e

probably incompatible w i t h seal m a t e r i a l .

( 3 ) I f l i p i s s o f t o r s w o l l e n t h i s i s u s u a l l y an i n d i c a t i o n o f chemical
i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h t h e media i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s e a l .

(4) I f

( 2 ) and ( 3 ) O.K.,

check s e c t i o n w i d t h o f s e a l w i t h s p r i n g f i t t e d .

364
T h i s s h o ul d be a t l e a s t nominal s e c t i o n +1% immediately on removal and i n c r e a s i n g t o nominal

+3% a f t e r

one hour i n f r e e s t a t e .

S p r i n g may be

shortened by up t o 5% o f i t s o r i g i n a l l e n g t h i f s e c t i o n appears inadequate.

(E)

S e c t i o n measurement sho ul d be average o f

e q u i - d i s t a n t readings.

I f checks

(C) and (D) do n o t r e v e a l any f a u l t s t h e problem may be due t o

mechanical c o n d i t i o n s and t h e f o l l o w i n g should be checked:

( 1 ) S h a f t t o ho usi n g co nce nt r c i t y
s h a f t and h ou si ng b o r e a t

check by means o f c a l i p e r s between V a r i a t i o n s o f more

p o i n t s around p e r i p h e r y .

t h a n 0.3 mm r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . (2) I f s m a l l e s t c a l i p e r measurement o c c u r s between bottom o f s h a f t and housing, t h i s may i n d i c a t e b e a r i n g wear w i t h r e s u l t a n t dynamic e c c e n t r i city. (Applicable t o horizontal shafts only). Seal housings

( 3 ) I f b e a r i n g i s O.K. t he n ho usi n g o f f s e t may be r e s p o n s i b l e .

w i t h th e b e a r i n g h ou si ng . Where t h i s f e a t u r e

a r e n o r m a l l y c e n t r a l i s e d w i t h t h e s h a f t by means o f a machined r e g i s t e r i s n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d then

i t may-be p o s s i b l e t o c e n t r a l i s e t h e housing by s l a c k e n i n g t h e b o l t s and

repos i t on i ng .

(4)

I f (11,
gation:

( 2 ) and (3) a r e blameless t he n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e s i n v e s t i -

I f bear ngs a r e o i l p r e s s u r e l u b r i c a t e d i s t h e r e adequate drainage t o

prevent pressure build-up against the seal?

I f equipment op era t e s on a c o n s t a n t o i l l e v e l p r i n c i p l e ,
wheels o r b a l l - j o u r n a l

a r e t h e r e gear-

b e a r i n g s i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e seal causing

o i l turbulence or flooding? Where the l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n exists, t h e housing lands should be o n l y

m a r g i n a l l y l a r g e r t ha n s h a f t d i ame t e r i n o r d e r t o form a b a f f l e o r , alternatively, a b a f f l e p l a t e f i t t e d between b e a r i n g and seal housing.

A temporary remedy can be made by u s i n g a 2.5 mm CAF gasket a t t h e bottom o f

the housing, t h e I / D o f which sh ou l d be s h a f t diameter p l u s 0.5 nnn maximum. f u r t h e r gasket o f equal t h i c k n e s s sh ou l d be f i t t e d underneath the r e t a i n i n g p l a t e t o restore the correct s e a l s (see Fig .1 1 and F i g . 1 2 ) .

amount o f a x i a l compression i n t h e case o f r e t a i n e d

365

Fig.11

Showing how t o o l a r g e b o r e d i a m e t e r o f s e a l h o u s i n g l a n d p e r m i t s h i g h v e l o c i t y o i l impingement on s e a l . and s e a l o r c l o s e - f i t t i n g s e a l would

B a f f l e p l a t e between b e a r i n g reduce r i s k o f o i l leakage.

.A.F gasket .5mm thick

Fig.12

Showing how f i t t i n g o f C.A.F. g a s k e t s can p r o v i d e a temporary remedy f o r s i t u a t i o n i n F i g . 1 1 .

( W i t h acknowledgement t o t h e l a t e Mr.Ray B l a d w i n - S e n i o r A d v i s o r y E n g i n e e r , rotary shaft l i p seals

who c o m p i l e d much o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e ) .

366
APPENDIX 1

ROTARY SHAFT L I P SEAL F(ATERIAL RECOMMENDATION CHARTS

The accompanying c h a r t s show v a r i o u s l u b r i c a n t s and r o l l i n g f l u i d s t h a t a r e commonly used i n t h e metal r o l l i n g i n d u s t r y . Some o f these a r e n o t c h e m i c a l l y

c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e standard n i t r i l e rubbers used i n r o t a r y s h a f t l i p seal p r o d u c t i o n , and i t i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o employ an a l t e r n a t i v e rubber compound

t o achieve s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s i n terms o f s e a l e f f i c i e n c y and l i f e .

Seal L i p s The rubber compound i n t h e column headed " 1 s t choice"

i s t h e grade l e a s t

a f f e c t e d by t h e media concerned and should be s e l e c t e d wherever p o s s i b l e . most i n s t a n c e s a second c h o i c e i s g i v e n and t h i s rubber can be used w i t h o u t serious detriment t o the seal.

In

Where f l u o r o c a r b o n rubber (denoted by t h e l e t t e r 'A') appears as t h e o n l y c h o i c e , please n o t e t h a t none o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l commercial grade rubbers can be used as an a l t e r n a t i v e . I n i n s t a n c e s where f l u o r o c a r b o n rubber appears as i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t i s only

t h e second c h o i c e i t i s u s u a l l y f o r economic reasons,

m a r g i n a l l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e commercial grade compound g i v e n as f i r s t c h o i c e , and t h e small advantage would o f t e n n o t j u s t i f y t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t . Seal Backs Although w i t h some media t h e seal back restrained. Selection o f Materials In r o l l i n g - m i l l applications, r o t a r y s h a f t l i p seals a r e normally required t o and c a r e should f a b r i c m a t e r i a l s used f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e the effects are not detrimental t o

s u f f e r l i m i t e d v o l u m e t r i c change,

s e a l i n g e f f i c i e n c y as t h i s p a r t o f t h e s e a l i s f u l l y housed and n o r m a l l y a x i a l l y

seal n o t o n l y a g a i n s t b e a r i n g l u b r i c a n t s b u t a l s o r o l l i n g f l u i d s ,

be taken t o s e l e c t a m a t e r i a l which i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h both.

o r the r o l l i n g f l u i d , w i t h both. I n d u a l s e a l i n g arrangements employing back-to-back

T h i s may i n v o l v e

some compromise by s e l e c t i n g a second c h o i c e m a t e r i a l f o r e i t h e r t h e l u b r i c a n t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a reasonable degree o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y

s e a l s , should o n l y one o f

t h e media n e c e s s i t a t e f l u o r o c a r b o n r u b b e r , t h e opposing s e a l c o u l d be made w i t h a l e s s c o s t l y c o m p a t i b l e grade o f rubber p r o v i d i n g t h a t c a r e i s taken i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and f i t t i n g . For convenience, rubbers, and l e t t e r symbols a r e used i n t h e c h a r t s t o i n d i c a t e v a r i o u s

t h e key t o these i s g i v e n :

367
KEY TO MATERIAL CODES
Code Base r u b b e r compound

F I uorocarbon High n i t r i l e Medium h i g h n i t r i l e N i t r i le N i t r i l e with graphite N i t r i l e w i t h p a r a f f i n wax

RECOMMENDED SEAL LIP MATERIALS FOR USE WITH BEARING OILS AND GREASES
Seal l i p m a t e r i a l s Brand Name o r Number 1 s t Choice B.P. B.P. B.P. HCT 80 Sperno 350 HB 'I 450 HB Energol GR 125-XP 2nd Choice E D
0

C C
C

C a s t r o l 98 CLP 1 1 4 C a l y s o l Grease Duckhams Zero O i l EP 69 O i l EP 80 Gear L u b r i c a n t

C C C
D

E
A

C
D

C
D

C
A A

Esso E s t i c 65
Esso Nuray 146
Esso Pen-0-Led Fuchs MR 40 Mobi 1 Exu 66/25
"
II
I,

C C EP3
D

C
F

C C C
C C

D
F E E E

Vacuol i n e ' A A ' 'I 25 x 25R

I' ,I

Heavy
I

II

EE"

C
C C

I'

Mobi l u b e H.D.90 Mobi l e x EP2 Grease

E
F A B

"

OM 100 O i l Regal Gear O i l S h e l l O i l 1624 and 1611

" "
I'

C C
B

C
B A
C

Carnea Faunus ' B ' Macoma Nassa 78

C
B D
C

"

Seal l i p m a t e r i a l s f o r b e a r i n g o i l s and greases (contd.) Seal l i p m a t e r i a Brand Name o r Number 1 s t Choice 2nd C Dice
S

She1 1 Telona 945

'I

C C C C

A A D
B

Teressa T i v e l a 75 V i t r e a 75 R e t i n o x Grease Donax 17 Aeroshel 1 Grease No.7 Oil

" " "

'I I'

A
C C C
A A

C
B A D

Ucon

A l o - J idac

Caster O i l ( w i t h w a t e r ) I, I' ( w i t h methyl a t e d spirit)

C imcoo 1

E
A
C

E
B
A

Cirncool E 5 Castrol Coolage SL

Croda D4 A
'I

Lubrotex

1 ;

B
7804

A
B

Dasco 900 Esso Somentor N35

I,

A A
6

C
A

'I
I'

w20

,I

33 and N60

A
C
A

C B

I'

Univis ~ 5 8

Emulsion KF 81 Germ K i n e t r o l FR3A G u l f Mineral Seal

I'

A C C
C
B

D D
D A

Cut O i l

"

93
"

Houghton Permasol S u l f o n a ED

k
B B

B
C

H u i l e de Laminage 102 P & 982 R Hydr i t

KF 61 R o l l i n g Oil

D
D E

A
B

Lubricor ' T I

369
Seal l i p m a t e r i a l s f o r r o l l c o o l a n t s and r o l l i n g o i l s ( c o n t d . )

Seal l i p m a t e r i a l s Brand Name o r Number

~~~ ~

1 s t Choice

2nd Choice

Mobil Generex 56, 57 and 404D

11 11

A
C C

B
B D B

"
11

22 and 24 322

P r o s o l 66
11

A
B A

44
33 Solvac 11
11

II

'I 11

A B
and "BB"
C
B

A B A A

a00

I'

V a c t r a "HH"

M i r o b o 415A Ocut G Palm O i l Quaker T i n n o l 12

11 I1

B
E
B

D
D
A

109

'I

I,

Quakerol 41 ( w i t h S h e l l Carnea 31) 43, 82, a7 M and

88-182 M
I'

B B B

A D

Qwerl 506

Rol l u p 200 S h e l l Dromus

A
A

S t e r n o l PL106 and PL107

'I I'

B
A
C
A

1270/1307 1076

B
D
B A B
C

Tayol 316 Emulsion Texaco Texatherm 320 T r e l l u b 12 A Wyrol H40

C
A

370

I(;

SEALS FOR FLUID POWER EQUIPMENT PART THREE COMPRESSION PACKINGS

B.D. HALLIGAN, C.Eng, MIMechE, AMPRI Technical Manager (Product Appl i c a t i o n s ) James Walker and Co. L t d .

16.1

THE PACKED GLAND

Compared t o t h e f i n i t e q u a l i t i e s o f f e r r o u s m e t a l s f o r example, t h e essenti a l l y deformable n a t u r e o f s e a l i n g m a t e r i a l s has i n t r o d u c e d a measure o f v a r i a b i l i t y t h a t causes many commentators t o l o o k on f l u i d s e a l i n g technology
as an a r t r a t h e r than a science.

I f t h i s i s t r u e , and manufacturers o f mechan

i c a l f a c e s e a l s would be b u t one area o f v a l i d o b j e c t i o n , then t h e f i e l d o f compression packings i s , a r g u a b l y , t h e b l a c k e s t area o f t h a t a r t . Regarded as an anachronism i n a p e r i o d o f h i g h t e c h n o l o g i c a l achievement, compression packings show no s i g n s o f l o s i n g s i g n i f i c a n t ground i n terms o f p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t i e s as new and improved t y p e s p r o l i f e r a t e b o t h i n Europe and elsewhere. To understand t h i s s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s some a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e

fundamental mode o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e a d j u s t a b l e g l a n d o r s t u f f i n g box shown i n Fig. 1.

SYSTEM __c PRESSURE

COMPRESSIVE FORCE &THROUGH GLAND SPIGOT

t

Fig.1

Compression Packing

371
T h is may be f i l l e d w i t h s p l i t pa cki ng r i n g s chosen from a v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s , de scri be d elsewhere, which a r e persuaded to r e a c t a g a i n s t a s h a f t , whether r o t a r y o r r e c i p r o c a t i n g , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e r a d i a l f o r c e developed exceeds t h e p r e s s u r e t o be sealed. Such a p r i n c i p l e c o u l d n o t be m r e elementary and i t s i n t r i n s i c value c o u l d be f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n e d as pa cki ng s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y used f o r r o t a t i n g o r r e c i p r o c a t i n g equipment r e l y on a c o n t r o l l e d leakage f o r l o n g - t e r m l u b r i c a t i o n purposes, i f t h e y a r e t o s u r v i v e f o r an adequate p e r i o d .

The c o n t i n u e d j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e compression packing might appear obscure a g a i n s t such a background b u t t h e r e can be no doubt t h a t c e r t a i n areas o f appl i c a t i o n e x i s t where no reasonable s u b s t i t u t e i s a v a i l a b l e .

16.1.1

Pumps

Many reasoned and w e l l - r e s e a r c h e d papers have been p u b l i s h e d t o support mechanical s e a l s a g a i n s t s o f t p acki n g and v i c e versa. There i s no doubt t h a t

th e former have sup pl a nt ed packed g l an ds as o r i g i n a l equipment on the m a j o r i t y o f rotodynamic pumps f o r a v a r i e t y o f process and s e r v i c e f l u i d s b u t they a r e o p e r a t i n g parameters and c o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w hich w i l l f r e q u e n t l y d i c t a t e t h e choice o f s o f t p a cki ng . Table 16.1 compares t h e r e l a t i v e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e two contenders i n b a s i c terms. I n g e n e r a l i t may be s a i d t h a t , u n l e s s ze ro leakage i s an a b s o l u t e p r i o r i t y , compression p a c k i n gs w i l l r e t a i n an i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n wherever r e g u l a r maintenance i s a v a i l a b l e and t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y :

s i m p l i c i t y i n g l a n d d esi g n and a n c i l l a r y equipment ease o f f i t t i n g f l e x i b i l i t y o f su pp l y and spares f o r p l a n t u t i l i z i n g many d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and s i z e s o f pump h a n d l i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f f l u i d s f r e q u e n t a b i l i t y t o c a t e r f o r adverse c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t e precautions

16.1.2

Valves

I f any doubt e x i s t s r e g a r d i n g s e l e c t i o n on pumps then a much more obvious

c h o i c e o f s o f t p a cki ng a p p l i e s t o t h e v a l v e scene. ment, ease o f f i t t i n g and,

The r e l a t i v e l a c k o f move-

i n t h i s case, l a c k o f leakage requirement f o r l u b -

r i c a t i o n purposes p l u s t h e most d e c i s i v e advantage o f low c o s t , a r e f a c t o r s whic h i d e a l l y r e l a t e t o compression packings. There a r e a r e as where moulded e l a s t o m e r i c s e a l s p r e s e n t a reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e b u t even t h e most e x o t i c compounds would seldom be used above 250C u n l e s s r e i n f o r c e d by asbestos f a b r i c .

4
N

TABLE 16.1

Compa r i son I n i t i a l Cost

S o f t Packing

Mechan ica 1 Sea 1

o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 O : l i n f a v o u r o f s o f t packing depending on s i z e and a p p l i c a t i o n APPROXIMATELY EQUAL ample warning o f impending f a i l u r e l i t t l e or no warning o f with p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r correction end o f u s e f u l l i f e w i t h p o s s i b i l i t y o f sudden complete f a i l u r e e s s e n t i a l l y simple - r e q u i r i n g no s p e c i a l s k i l l s i f c o r r e c t procedure adopted r e g u l a r and r e q u i r i n g experience f a c i l i t y f o r s t o c k i n g l e n g t h form m a t e r i a l o r complete pre-formed s e t s a t r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t can be c o n s i d e r a b l e ; s h a f t sleeves reduce replacement c o s t s s k i l l e d f i t t i n g required p r e c i s e l y defined environment and assembly zero spare seal components must c o s t can be be a v a i l a b l e substantial

Re1 i a b i 1 i t y

Installation

Maintenance Spares

S h af t Wear

nil

f r i c t i o n losses s l i g h t l y h i g h e r w i t h s o f t packing Op era t i n g Costs leakage losses zero w i t h mechanical s e a l s b u t p o s i t i v e w i t h s o f t packing as l u b r i c a t i o n o f s e a l i n g r i n g s i s e s s e n t i a l

373
16.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLES

By comparison t o t h e se al t yp es d escri b ed i n t h e o t h e r papers e l a s t o m e r i c l i p and squeeze s e a l s

particularly

compression packings respond t o a p p l i e d

pre s s u r e i n i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n to t h e hardness o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e l y on an e x t e r n a l f o r c e t o produce t h e r a d i a l p ressure r e q u i r e d f o r e f f e c t i v e sealing. The method o f g e n e r a t i n g t h a t f o r c e can v a r y b u t u s u a l l y (and p r e f e r -

a b l y ) i n v o l v e s a b o l t e d q l a n d s p i g o t as shown i n Fig.1 where c o n t r o l l e d a x i a l movement i s e a s i l y ach i eve d by a dj u st me nt o f t h e r e t a i n i n g n u t s o r studs. Spring l o a d i n g i s sometimes used i n i n a c c e s s i b l e s i t u a t i o n s b u t such a p r o v i s i o n l a c k s t h e f i n e c o n t r o l demanded by some packing types and has a l i m i t e d range o f l o a d c a p a b i l i t y . W h i l s t t h e s e a l i n g f o r c e can be a d j u s t e d t o c a t e r f o r s e r v i c e wear, care must be t a k e n t o a v o i d o v e r compression which w i l l lead t o excessive f r i c t i o n , s h a f t wear and premature p acki n g f a i l u r e . To in c r e a s e d e n s i t y and d i s s i p a t e he at , s o f t packings i n v a r i a b l y contain. l u b r i c a n t s , l o s s o f which, t hro ug h e xcessi ve compression o r o v e r - h e a t i n g i n s e r v i c e , w i l l r e s u l t i n pa cki ng volume l o s s w i t h subsequent r e d u c t i o n i n t h e e f f e c t i v e s e a l i n q r e a c t i o n and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y i n c r e a s i n g leakage r a t e s . By

l i m i t i n g compression t o a p o i n t where s l i g h t c o n t r o l l e d leakage i s obtained, adequate l u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e dynamic s u r f a c e s i s ensured and over-compression o f th e p a c k in g avoided. However, where l u b r i c a t i o n i s a problem

gl a n d c o o l i n g i s r e q u i r e d

o r a degree o f

a l a n t e r n r i n g can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e gland The p o s i t i o n

area f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l l u b r i c a n t / c o o l a n t (Fig.2a).

o f a l a n t e r n r i n g w i l l depend on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n b u t , s i n c e t h e pa c k in g r i n g s n e a r e s t t h e g l a n d s p i g o t do most o f t h e work, t h e a d d i t i o n a l f l u i d should u s u a l l y be i n t r o d u c e d near t o t h a t area.

ADDITIONAL LUBRICANT/COOLANT

BARRIER FLUID

RING

DISTRIBUTION PORTS

374
I f i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e f l u i d b e i n g pumped does n o t escape t o atmosphere

(e.g.

a t o x i c medium) t h e l a n t e r n r i n g may serve t o i n t r o d u c e a b a r r i e r f l u i d Similarly, fluid

a t a p r e s s u r e o f 0.5 t o 1 b a r above t h a t t o be sealed ( F i g . 2 b ) .

where t h e r e i s a r i s k o f severe a b r a s i v e wear t o t h e packing, a f l u s h i n ! may be i n t r o d u c e d throuoh t h e l a n t e r n r i n g ( F i g . 2 c ) . For a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h n e c a t i v e pump p r e s s u r e s ( i . e .

s u c t i o n ) a supply o f t h e

medium b e i n g sealed can be made through t h e l a n t e r n r i n g t o p r e v e n t a i r - d r a w i n g (Fig.2d).

FLUSHING FLU I D
I

SUPPLY OF SEALED MEDIUM TO PREVENT AIR-DRAWING

I f extreme temperatures a r e t o be encountered,

i t i s unlikely that cooling

through t h e l a n t e r n r i n g w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t and recourse must be made t o i n t e r n a l c o o l i n g o f t h e g l a n d housing and s h a f t t o reduce t h e temperature a t t h e gland t o a v a l u e w i t h i n t h e p a c k i n g ' s c a p a b i l i t i e s . Conversely, when d e a l i n g sugars, t a r s , e t c . ) ,

w i t h media which c r y s t a l l i z e o r congeal when c o o l (e.g.

t h e p a c k i n g w i l l f a c e r a p i d d e s t r u c t i o n u n l e s s g l a n d h e a t e r s o r a steam j a c k e t e d arrangement a r e employed t o r e s t o r e t h e f l u i d s t a t e b e f o r e s t a r t i n g up. I t should always be remembered t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a l a n t e r n r i n g i n t o t h e gland area i n v a r i a b l y c o m p l i c a t e s assembly and can p r o v i d e a p o s s i b l e source o f shaft scoring; t h e y should, t h e r e f o r e , o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d when t h e n a t u r e o f

the a p p l i c a t i o n a b s o l u t e l y demands t h e i r presence.

16.3

GLAND DESIGN few i n t e r n a t i o n a l standards e x i s t t o d e f i n e housing design

A t t h i s juncture,

f o r s o f t packings b u t t h e dimensions shown i n Table 16.2 should be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s . Housing depths w i l l v a r y w i t h i n d i v i d u a l circumstances,

such as t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a l a n t e r n r i n g , b u t f i v e r i n g s o f square s e c t i o n packings a r e u s u a l l y recommended f o r t h e average, uncomplicated d u t y .

375
TABLE 16.2 Suggested h ou si ng w i d t h s i n r e l a t i o n t o s h a f t diameters. A l l dimenZions i n mm. Expanded g r a p h i t e Sh aft Diameter up t o 18 above 18 t o 75 Housing Width

A l l p a c k in g s e xce pt expanded g r a p h i t e
Shaft Diameter up t o 12 above 12 t o 18 Housing Width

5
6.5

18 t o 25
25 t o 50

8
10 12.5 15

75 t o 150 150 and above

5 7.5
10

50 t o 90
90 t o 150
150

Other d e s ig n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s wort hy o f n o t e , b u t o f t e n overlooked, can be summarized a s :(i) The p r o v i s i o n o f an adequate t a pe red ' l e a d i n ' a t t h e mouth o f t h e g l a n d t o f a c i l i t a t e e n t r y o f t h e pa ckina and t o o b v i a t e t h e r i s k o f damage i n t h e assembly o p e r a t i o n . r e p r e s e nt s good p r a c t i c e . (ii) The p r o v i s i o n o f a reasonable s u r f a c e f i n i s h on adjacent metal p a r t s p a r t i c u l a r l y t he dynamic su rf a ce. w i l l o c cu r;

A minimum o f 15" x 6.5mm u s u a l l y

The b e t t e r the f i n i s h t h e l e s s wear

0.4um (16 p i n ) CLA o r Ra on the s h a f t and 1.6 pm

(54 u i n ) CLA o r Ra on t h e s t u f f i n g box bore should be i d e a l f o r most applications. The use o f s h a f t sleeves can g i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e main-

tenance advantage when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f s u r f a c e f i n i s h . (iii) The danger o f extreme r u n n i n g cl e ara nces a t t h e g l a n d on t h e s p i g o t si d e.

particularly

I n those e x c e p t i o n a l cases where excessive

c le a r a n c e i s u na voi d ab l e, t h e p acki n g should be p r o t e c t e d by an independent r i n g o f s u i t a b l y r o b u s t m a t e r i a l o r c o n s t r u c t i o n which reduces t h e c l e a r a n c e t o a minimum. (iv) An a llo wa nce for e n t r y o f t h e g l a n d s p i g o t w e l l i n t o the gland area; c e r t a i n l y t o an e x t e n t t h a t exceeds s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e depth o f the ta p e r e d l e a d i n . The l e n g t h o f s p i g o t s e l e c t e d must a l s o c a t e r f o r Typical e n t r y For packings With

p a c k in g compression, r e s u l t i n g f rom gland adjustment. l e n g t h s sho ul d be a t l e a s t two t i mes packing s e c t i o n .

o f s o f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , maximum l e n g t h should be provided.

modern p acki n g m a t e r i a l s , b e v e l l e d glands a r e seldom an advantage and can a c t u a l l y promote movement o f t h e s e a l i n g r i n g on t h e s p i g o t s i d e i n t o t h e l i v e cl ea ran ce.

376
(v) (vi) The need t o a v o i d e x c e s s i v e s h a f t misalignment o r whip. The p r o v i s i o n o f adequate s h a f t support. n o t be used a s a b e a r i n g . The p a c k i n g must

16.4 16.4.1 Mineral

PACKING CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

Fibre Material asbestos cotton flax jute ramic sisal Synthetic aramid glass graphite filament graphite f o i l nylon polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) rayon

Vegetable

16.4.2 Dry

Lubricants graphite mica talc molybdenum d i s u l p h i t e Metals l e a d f o i l and w i r e aluminium f o i l copper f o i l and w i r e brass w i r e monel w i r e inconel w i r e stainless steel wire Elastomers n a t u r a l and s y n t h e t i c

Wet

tallow castor o i l s t r a i g h t mineral lubricating o i l petrolatum

sol i d f r a c t i o n s
p a r a f f i n wax soaps s i l i c o n e grease PTFE d i s p e r s i o n s 16.4.3 Construction

The p r i n c i p a l forms o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r f i b r o u s compression packings a r e : (i) Braided I n d i v i d u a l yarns a r e b r a i d e d tube o v e r tube and squared o f f .

The d e n s i t y o f t h i s t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n i s h i g h and i d e a l f o r many valve applications. (ii) Plaited M u l t i p l e y a r n s a r e interwoven i n p l a i t e d bundles i n such a

fashion that the d i r e c t i o n o f f i b r e f o l l o w s the periphery o f the packing r i n g . The n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s more

s u i t e d t o c e n t r i f u g a l pump a p p l i c a t i o n s than v a l v e s e r v i c e a l t h o u g h t h e i n h e r e n t f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e f o r m i s p o p u l a r w i t h some users.

Fig.3 (iii)

Basic p a c k i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n s Cross P l a i t

A l l t h e y a r n s a r e i n t e r l o c k i n g and pass d i a g o n a l l y through

t h e p a c k i n g t o p r o v i d e a f i r m c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c o n s i s t e n t d e n s i t y and shape. pumps. (iv) Composite asbestos p l a s t i c This packing category i s o f f a i r l y recent Used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r s y n t h e t i c y a r n packings f o r v a l v e s and

o r i g i n and i n c l u d e s those t y p e s based upon a b r a i d e d and r e i n f o r c e d asbestos j a c k e t e n c l o s i n g a ' p l a s t i c ' c o r e . t h e s c i e n t i f i c sense, Although i n a c c u r a t e i n

t h e t e r m ' p l a s t i c ' c o n v e n i e n t l y d e s c r i b e s those

many m i x t u r e s o f asbestos f i b r e and l u b r i c a n t , b o t h m i n e r a l and s o l i d , from which r e a d i l y deformable p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l may be made. This

p a c k i n g i s w i d e l y accepted f o r d i f f i c u l t v a l v e s e a l i n g d u t i e s .

A l 1 t h e f i b r e - b a s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d here a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e i n f o r c e d
w i t h metal. T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o asbestos'based p r o d u c t s where t h e use

o f metal w i r e i n t h e y a r n can e x t e n d t h e s e r v i c e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e packing t o

800C and beyond.

maximum.

But f o r t h i s f e a t u r e , even t h e b e s t q u a l i t y n o n - m e t a l l i c

asbestos y a r n p a c k i n g would be r e s t r i c t e d t o temperatures o f about 315C

A l l o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s shown a r e used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h f i b r e packings o f

d i f f e r e n t s o r t s and a r e a p p l i e d by d i p p i n g , c o a t i n g , soaking, nation, dusting, etc. vacuum impregFre-

The prime o b j e c t i s maximum l u b r i c a n t r e t e n t i o n .

q u e n t l y , s e v e r a l t r e a t m e n t s and r e p e a t processes a r e employed t o achieve t h i s end.

318

F o i l wrapped deformable asbestos core.

F o i l c r i n k l e d , t w i s t e d and folded upon i t s e l f .

Corrugated f o i l , concertina wound.

Fig.4

T y p i c a l metal f o i l based packing c o n s t r u c t i o n

Fig.5

D o u b l e - b e v e l l e d , e l a s t o m e r p r o o f e d f a b r i c packing f o r a b r a s i v e d u t i e s

379
I n t h e f i e l d o f compression packings, e l a s t o m e r s a r e n o t w i d e l y used a l t h o u g h some b r a i d e d packings do employ y a r n s t h a t a r e t r e a t e d w i t h a rubber p r o o f i n g t o render them more s u i t e d t o d i f f i c u l t wet a p p l i c a t i o n s such as condensate d u t y . Rings o f square o r r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n compression packing, manufactured from folded, r o l l e d o r l a m i n a t e d e l a s t o m e r p r o o f e d c l o t h , a r e s t i l l p o p u l a r f o r r e l a t i v e l y slow moving, lower p r e s s u r e r e c i p r o c a t i n g pumps h a n d l i n g water o f LP steam. One p a r t i c u l a r design, w i t h a moulded, d o u b l e - b e v e l l e d s e c t i o n , made f r o m semi-metallic rubberised yarn, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e on r o t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s

dealing w i t h v i s c o u s media which s o l i d i f y when t h e pump i s i d l e and cause damage t o conventional p l a i t e d packings on r e s t a r t i n ? f r o m c o l d . T h i s moulded p a c k i n g

i s a l s o s u i t a b l e f o r d u t i e s i n v o l v i n g s o l i d s and a b r a s i v e s (See F i 0 . 5 ) .

16.4.4

Additional Materials

In h i g h performance r o t a r y and r e c i p r o c a t i n g packings, t h r e e m a t e r i a l s which may be regarded as i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n s t o t h e seal m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' armoury have become a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l a s t two decades and p l a y a h i q h l y s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n extending t h e f r o n t i e r s o f performance o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o f t p a c k i n g : ( i ) PTFE P o l y t e t r a f l u o r o e t h y l e n e y a r n s p r o v i d e s o f t packings f o r s e r v i c e s

where c o r r o s i v e media a r e b e i n g handled o r freedom f r o m c o n t a m i n a t i o n i s an e s s e n t i a l requirement.

A s e m i - r i g i d f l u o r o c a r b o n p l a s t i c , PTFE i s unique i n possessing almost

complete chemical r e s i s t a n c e w i t h i n i t s temperature range which, f i e l d o f a p p l i c a t i o n , spans t h e c r y o g e n i c area t o 250C. advantage r e f e r s t o i t s v e r y low c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n . L u b r i c a t e d p l a i t e d PTFE y a r n packings a r e s u i t a b l e f o r r o t a r y s u r f a c e speeds up t o 8 m/s and a r e a l s o f i n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g acceptance on h i g h speed, h i g h pressure, m u l t i - r a m r e c i p r o c a t i n g pumps. I n s o l i d f o r m t h i s m a t e r i a l i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e as a compression p a c k i n g due t o poor creep p r o p e r t i e s and l a c k o f r e s i l i e n c e . However, s o l i d in this

Another major

j u n k r i n g s o r spacers i n PTFE a r e o f t e n used t o enhance p a c k i n g p e r formance on arduous pump d u t i e s . ( i i ) Aramid f i b r e C r o s s p l a i t y a r n packings made f r o m aramid f i b r e , u s u a l l y

o f a d i s t i n c t i v e y e l l o w c o l o u r , a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r f o r
a v a r i e t y o f pump and v a l v e s e r v i c e s h i t h e r t o s a t i s f i e d by PTFE

l u b r i c a t e d asbestos packings.

380
The y a r n has h i g h t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , e x c e l l e n t r e s i l i e n c e , thermal

s t a b i l i t y up t o 250C and i s r e s l s t a n t t o a wide range o f chemicals. Aramid f i b r e p acki n gs a r e s u i t a b l e f o r speeds up t o 15 m/s and g i v e im p r e s s iv e r e s u l t s w i t h a b r a s i v e media. ( i i i) G r a p h i t e ( a ) Yarn p a cki ng s i n t h i s m a t e r i a l a r e a development f o r r o t a r y pump a p p l i c a t i o n s and p r o v i d e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r e x t e n d i n g t h e range o f t h e packed g l a n d beyond bo un da ri es h i t h e r t o e s t a b l i s h e d .

A h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h erma l c o n d u c t i v i t y ,

low f r i c t i o n and r e s i s t a n c e

t o chemical a t t a c k a r e t h e u s e f u l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s m a t e r i a l . Temperatures up t o 400C may be co nsi d ered. I f a good performance i s t o be o b t a i n e d , then c l o s e a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o mechanical c o n d i t i o n s such as s h a f t run o u t and f i n i s h . i n f i t t i n g and r u n n i n g - i n i s a l s o mandatory. ( b ) Expanded g r a p h i t e f o i l i s t h e r e c e n t and dramatic a p p l i c a t i o n o f graphite, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the context o f valve applications. g r a p h i t e m a t e r i a l s combine t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d characteristics, Expanded Care

thermal and f r i c t i o n

l o n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o r r e c t l y developed use o f The

carbon based p r o d u c t s , w i t h a unique f l e x i b i l i t y and r e s i l i e n c e . a t t r i b u t e s o f t h i s e x f o l i a t e d f o rm o f g r a p h i t e bear r e c o r d i n g .

e x c e l l e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o compression s e t r e s u l t i n g i n l i t t l e l o s s o f r a d i a l gland f o r c e o r flange seating s t r e s s over long periods (see Table 16.3)

no l o s s o f v o l a t i l e s even a t h i g h t emperature thus m i n i m i s i n g frequency o f g l an d ad j ust men t h i g h t e mpe rat ure c a p a b i l i t y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n n o n - o x i d i s i n g environments h i g h thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y low f r i c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s

self lubricating

e x c e p t i o n a l l y low c h l o r i d e c o n t e n t no adhesion o r c o r r o s i o n problems fire-safe

381
TABLE 16.3 Compress i b i 1 it y / r e c o v e r y ASTM F36-66 Procedure H (Major lo a d 7/mm2) compressibility recovery Stress r e l a x a t i o n BS 1832:1972 Temperature 300C f o r 16 h r s I n i t i a l s t r e s s o f 40 N/mm2 Residual s t r e s s (1000 l b f / i n Z ) Expanded graphite lmm t h i c k 1 .o g/cc 39% 20% Expanded graphite 2 m thick m 1.0 g/cc 33% 25%

40 N/mm2

40 N/mm2

N.B.

10 N=l k g f 1 N/mmz=lO kgf/cm2 approx.

Fig.6 shows an i n t e r e s t i n g comparison o f performance on a t e s t g l a n d between h a l f r i n g s o f expanded g r a p h i t e and a l u b r i c a t e d asbestos y a r n packing. Not

only d i d t h e fo r me r r e q u i r e fewer g l a n d ad j ustments d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t e s t i n g but t h e average leakage r a t e was much l e s s dry f o r p r o t r a c t e d p e r i o d s . Rather t h a n use t h e t a pe f o r m o f expanded g r a p h i t e which i s p r i m a r i l y a usef u l maintenance e x p e d i e n t , moulded r i n g s t o a s e l e c t e d and c o n t r o l l e d d e n s i t y should be t h e f i r s t c h o i c e f o r pump and v a l v e glands. A lt h o u g h more c o s t l y t ha n c o n v e n t i o n a l pa cking m a t e r i a l s , economies o f r a d i a l w i d t h and number o f r i n g s used a r e f e a s i b l e q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e performance advantage l i k e l y t o be d e r i v e d f rom t h e use o f expanded g r a p h i t e . One cannot le ave m a t e r i a l s w i t h o u t s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e v i t a l r o l e played by asbestos

t o the p o i n t o f r u n n i n g v i r t u a l l y

a much d e n i g r a t e d m i n e r a l f i b r e w i t h o u t w hich economic and pracAlthough under-

t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o many s e a l i n g problems would n o t be f e a s i b l e .

s ta n d a b le , i n an age o f c o r r e c t awareness o f h e a l t h and s a f e t y m a t t e r s , t h e o v e r - r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t asb est os has r e v e a l e d many i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s . Motor manuf-

a c t u r e r s may p r o h i b i t i t s use as a p l a n t maintenance m a t e r i a l b u t c o n t i n u e t o use asbestos i n a b r a k e - l i n i n g and c l u t c h - f a c i n g r o l e where r e s i d u a l dust i s evident. Some u sers may seek t o l i m i t i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i n a safe form as a v a l v e

packing o r gasket b u t p e r p e t u a t e i t s s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r f i r e - p r o o f p o s i t i o n s and r o o f i n g where t h e m i n e r a l i s c u t i n a d r y form. Hazards e x i s t b u t adherence t o b a s i c a d v i c e on h a n d l i n g asbestos w i l l r e s u l t i n a s e n s i b l e balance between p r o h i b i t i o n and p r a c t i c a l i t y . In t h i s context,

users o f asbestos based pump and v a l v e pa cki ngs, gaskets o r a l l i e d components might heed, t o advantage, t h e statement i ssu ed by t h e Asbestos I n f o r m a t i o n Committee t o t h e B r i t i s h Valve M a n u f a c t u r e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , appended t o these no t e s. a copy o f which i s

TEST CONDITIONS:

D I S T I L L E D WATER TEMPERATURE OF MEDIUM PRESSURE OF MEDIUM

- 9OoC - 3.45

bar

U x p a n d e d graphite rings ( i n halves)

I000
900
800

Lubricated asbestos yarn rings ( s p l i t )

700
600

500
400 300

200
100

9 L
2.5 m/s 5 m/s 7 . 5 m/s
SHAFT SURFACE SPEED
10 m/s
P

12.5 m/s

2.5
2.0

I .5
1 .o

0.5

&
7.5 m/s
SHAFT SURFACE SPEED
10 m/s

I--

---

I - - - -

.J

12.5 m/s

10

15
TOTAL TEST TIME-HOURS

20

25

30

383

16.4.5
exist.

Selection
so many reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e s

The most v e x i n g q u e s t i o n as, f o r many d u t i e s ,

Much w i l l depend on p erso na l e xpe ri en ce, frequency o f maintenance,

o r i g i n a l cost l e v e l , contamination considerations, size, e t c . I n t h e case o f a man uf act ure r pro du ci ng l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f v a l v e s o r pumps t o standard dimensions, t h e r e i s much t o be s a i d f o r purchasing sets o r r i n g s r a t h e r t h a n l e n g t h form packing. W i t h t h e t echniques a v a i l a b l e , packing can be

s u p p lie d ready f o r immediate f i t t i n g w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n t h a t o v e r a l l c o s t r e p r e s e n te d by r e c e i v i n g l e n g t h f orm t h a t must be c u t t o s i z e by s k i l l e d personnel. T h i s economy i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e l a r g e manufacturers b u t i t i s

they who w i l l e n j o y t h e g r e a t e r advantage. O t h e o t h e r hand, n i n many i n st a nce s, t h e problem o f s t o c k i n g r i n g s o r s e t s type and dimensions

ta ilo r - m a d e f o r an assortment o f v a l v e s v a r y i n g i n o r i g i n , can prove i n t o l e r a b l e .

For t he se cases, t h e r e i s a c l e a r need f o r t h e v e r s a t Comparable w i t h t h i s s o l u t i o n i s t h e expedient

i l i t y o f p a c k in g i n l e n g t h form.

provided by those pa cki ng s o f p l a s t i c n a t u r e t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e i n loose form but t h i s advantage must be weighed a g a i n s t t h e l a b o u r c o s t i n t h e c a r e f u l f i t t i n g r e q u i red. The q u a n t i t y o f p acki n g t o use.and i t s s i z e f o r a g i v e n a p p l i c a t i o n r e l i e s l a r g e l y on t h e e xp eri e nce o f t h e u ser/ man uf acturer i n t h e type o f d u t y being performed, o r on l i a i s o n w i t h a p acki n g s u p p l i e r a t t h e design stage. l a t t e r c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i s always f avo ure d i f any doubt e x i s t s , The

s i n c e an exact

knowledge o f t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m a t e r i a l employed can be found o n l y w i t h those s p e c i a l i s t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r compounding and p r o d u c t i o n . F iv e r i n g s o f square s e c t i o n p acki n g a r e o f t e n accepted as a s u f f i c i e n t number f o r t h e average u nco mpl i ca t e d d u t y b u t t h e r e a r e many pump a p p l i c a t i o n s where t h e presence o f a l a n t e r n r i n g o r s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n may d i c t a t e a greater q u a n t i t y . The a p p r o p r i a t e pa cki ng s e c t i o n t o use i n r e l a t i o n t o diameter i s open t o a degree o f i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e b u t broad recommendations a r e shown i n Table 1 6 . 2 . To g i v e an idea o f t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t he v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f s o f t p a cki ng s which a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , r e f e r e n c e may be made t o : Table 16.4 Table 16.5 Table 16.6 Table 1 6 . 7

s u i t a b i l i t y i n d i f f e r e n t media/speed and temperature l i m i t s co mpa rat i ve speed performance co mpa rat i ve temperature performance co mpa rat i ve c o s t i n d i c a t i o n .

N . B . The statement o f speed and t emp era t u re l i m i t s f o r a g i v e n m a t e r i a l should

n o t be c o n s t r u e d as meaning t h a t a pa cki ng w i l l be s u i t a b l e f o r d u t i e s where such maxima a r e j o i n t l y encountered.

384
TABLE 16.4

SYMBOLS

-*

Recommended Consult Corrosion inhibitor included

solvents

RECIPROCATING, ROTARY PUMPS & VALVES

Lubricated aluminium foil. Lubricated braided asbestos Lubricated plaited asbestos. Plaited, lubricated asbestos impregnated with PTFE dispersion. Plaited. lubricated asbestos impregnated with PTFE disoersion but with no additional lubricant. PTFE impregnated asbestos and glass fibre yarns with suitable lubricant. PTFE yarn impregnated with PTFE dispersion and inen lubricant. Soft lead based foil wrapped round lubricated asbestos COW. Hydrocarbon resistant lubricated plaited asbestos. Lubricated plaited cotton.

540
350 315

I I 1

7.5

I
lo
1 0

CI
20

290 290
I 2 9 0

1 7 5
8
12

;t I
8
7
7

250
260

200

I I

( 9 0 1

I
1 0

Cross plan aramd hbre yams

~

250

15

Puregraphite foil with no volatile additives

n
I
480
310 90

O
1 0

RECIPROCATING PUMPS & VALVES

Monel wire reinforced asbestoscoverwith plastic core.* Synthetic rubber bonded braided asbestos with brass wire reinforcement. Lubricated plaited flax.

VALVES ONLY
Constructed from a jacket of asbestos reinforced with inconel wire braided ouer a resilient asbestos core. Lubricated braided asbestos with monel Self-lubricating fibrous asbestos with flake Qraphiteor mica. Lubricated braided asbestosand brasswirereinforced. PTFE yarn impregnated with PTFE dispersion and inen lubricant but with no additional lubricant. Unsintered PTFE cord gland seal for rapid valve packing.

I I T
540

510

1 0

2 50
250

T A B L E 16.5 MAXIMUM ROTARY SPEEDS FOR PUMP PACKINGS

MATERIAL

ROTARY SPEED I d s )

10

15
m/s

20

25

30

T A B L E 16.6 MAXIYUM SERVICE TEMPERATURES O PUMP PACKINGS F MATERIAL

TABLE 16.7 TYPICAL RELATIVE COSTS OF PUMP PACKINGS

MATERIAL

RELATIVE COST

388 16.4.6
Fitting

I t i s o f t e n assumed t h a t u n s k i l l e d l a b o u r can be used t o repack pump glands b u t t h i s i s t r u e o n l y so l o n g as u n s k i l l e d i s n o t equated w i t h unaware. Fam-

i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e a l procedure w i l l be more t h a n r e p a i d i n terms o f t r o u b l e f r e e p a c k i n g performance. Where l e n g t h f o r m i s used: ( i ) S p i r a l l y wrap t h e m a t e r i a l around a r o d o f diameter e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e pump s h a f t . ( i i ) Cut t h e r e q u i r e d number o f r i n g s c l e a n l y t o o b t a i n good b u t t - j o i n s . See Fig.7. ( i i i ) Proceed as f o r pre-formed s p l i t p a c k i n g r i n g s .

Fig.7 Where pre-formed s p l i t p a c k i n g r i n g s a r e used: ( i ) C a r e f u l l y remove o l d p a c k i n g ( i n c l u d i n g where a p p r o p r i a t e t h e p a c k i n g on t h e f a r s i d e o f a l a n t e r n r i n g ) . ( i i ) Thoroughly c l e a n a l l s u r f a c e s t h a t w i l l c o n t a c t t h e p a c k i n g and, where p e r m i t t e d , smear w i t h o i l . Gland and neck bushes, s h a f t s u r f a c e and

b e a r i n g s s h o u l d a l s o be checked f o r s i g n s o f wear and r e c t i f i e d as necessary. ( i i i ) Place f i r s t r i n g o v e r t h e s h a f t by opening t o an ' S ' c o n f i g u r a t i o n t o ensure t h a t bending e f f e c t s a r e spread o v e r t h e whole r i n g . See Fig.8.

Fig.8

389
( i v ) I n s e r t f i r s t r i n g i n t o s t u f f i n g box and l i g h t l y bed i n w i t h a s p l i t (wooden) d i s t a n c e p i e c e and g l a n d s p i g o t . With p l a i t e d packing t h e ' V '

f o r m a t i o n on t h e o u t s i d e di a met er o f t h e r i n g should be p o i n t i n g i n the d i r e c t i o n o f s h a f t r o t a t i o n . See Fig.9.

F ig .9 (a)

P l a i t e d p acki n g

Eig.g(b)

F o i l wrapped packing

(v) Repeat ( i i ) and ( i v ) w i t h remainder o f r i n g s e n s u r i n g t h a t each r i n g

i s f i r m l y s ea t e d and t h a t t h e b u t t j o i n s a r e staggered by a t l e a s t 90".

N.B.

The

ing s must be f i t t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y and under no circumstances

s h o u ld complete s e t s be f i t t e d as a u n i t . ( v i ) When t h e r e q u i s i t e number o f r i n g s have been f i t t e d , u n t i l t h e s h a f t o r s p i n d l e t o r q u e i n creases. p u l l up t o f i n g e r t i g h t n e s s o n l y . t i g h t e n gland nuts

Then s l a c k o f f g l a n d and

( I f pump i s t o be s t o r e d b e f o r e use

leave g l a n d s l a c k so t h a t pa cki ng r e s i l i e n c e i s n o t impaired). ( v i i ) Running i n pumps Prime c a s t i n g and r u n pump up t o o p e r a t i n g speed f o r

10 t o 15 minutes.
d u r i n g t h i s stage.

I f pump i s n o t f i t t e d w i t h g l a n d c o o l i n g , a c o l d
I f n o leakage occurs,

water spray o v e r t h e g l a n d ho usi n g w i l l a v o i d e x c e s s i v e heat b u i l d - u p s t o p pump, v e n t c a s i n g

pressure and s l a c k e n g l a n d f u r t h e r .

Repeat u n t i l leakage s t a r t s .

The c o n t r o l l e d leakage, e s s e n t i a l f o r l u b r i c a t i o n purposes, can then be o b t a i n e d by r u n n i n g t h e pump and e v e n l y t i g h t e n i n g the g l a n d n u t s i n increments o f 2 f l a t s u n t i l ap pro xi mately one drop e v e r y few seconds i s o b ta in e d . adjustments. Ap pro xi mat el y 15 mi n ut es should be l e f t between successive

DO NOT OVERTIGHTEN.

( v i i i ) Where lo o s e f o r m m a t e r i a l i s used f o r v a l v e s proceed as ( i ) and ( i i ) and tamp p a c k in g i n t o a dense homogeneous mass p r o g r e s s i v e l y f i l l i n g the housing t o t h e r e q u i r e d degree.

390
( i x ) Because o f t h e danger o f c o r r o s i o n t h r o u g h e l e c t r o l y t i c a c t i o n , packings c o n t a i n i n g g r a p h i t e should be avoided on v a l v e s o r pumps w i t h s t a i n l e s s o r chrome s t e e l stems. T h i s r i s k i s most a c u t e when t h e p a c k i n g remains

i n t h e g l a n d d u r i n g s t o r a g e and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y aggravated by t h e presence o f m o i s t u r e .

16.4.7

F a u l t Finding

A m a j o r advantage o f compression packings i s t h a t breakdown i s r a r e l y sudden

o r c a t a s t r o p h i c b u t r a t h e r a m a t t e r o f a g r a d u a l b u i l d up o f leakage u n t i l an unacceptable l e v e l i s reached. Normally, c o n s i d e r a b l e l i f e can be achieved by t h e seepage

c o n t r o l l i n g leakage w i t h f u r t h e r t i g h t e n i n g o f t h e g l a n d n u t s (N.B.

o f f l u i d which a c t s as a l u b r i c a n t f o r t h e p a c k i n g on r o t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s should n o t be confused w i t h leakage and t h e r a t e o f one drop e v e r y few seconds should be m a i n t a i n e d ) . However, i f o t h e r than r o u t i n e maintenance o r j u s t p l a i n

' f a i r wear and t e a r ' a r e suspected as t h e cause o f leakage and t h e need f o r re-packing, then t h e f o l l o w i n g h i n t s c o u l d w e l l prove u s e f u l .

( i ) Confirm t h a t t h e p a c k i n g i s r a t e d as s u i t a b l e f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n . ( i i ) I f one o r more r i n g s a r e m i s s i n g f r o m t h e s e t , check f o r e x c e s s i v e neck bush c l e a r a n c e a l l o w i n g e x t r u s i o n o f r i n g s i n t o t h e system.

I f t h e t o p r i n g has e x t r u d e d between t h e g l a n d f o l l o w e r , a n t i - e x t r u s i o n

r i n g s c o u l d a v o i d replacement o f metal p a r t s . (iii)

I f t h e p a c k i n g ' s r a d i a l t h i c k n e s s appears d i m i n i s h e d i n one o r more

p l a c e s , check f o r an u n d e r s i z e s h a f t o r b a d l y worn b e a r i n g s which c o u l d cause s h a f t whip o r s p i n d l e wobble. ( i v ) I f r a d i a l s e c t i o n o f p a c k i n g d i r e c t l y beneath t h e s h a f t i s reduced or

premature leakage o c c u r s a l o n g t h e t o p o f t h e s h a f t , check f o r m i s a l i g n m e n t o f s h a f t c e n t r e t o s t u f f i n g box bore. ( v ) I f p a c k i n g i s worn on t h e o u t e r diameter, check f o r loose r i n g s or r i n g s r o t a t i n g w i t h t h e s h a f t due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t g l a n d load. ( v i ) I f p a c k i n g r i n g s have b u l g e s on t h e i r r a d i a l faces, the adjacent r i n g

was p r o b a b l y c u t t o o s h o r t , c a u s i n g p a c k i n g under p r e s s u r e t o be f o r c e d i n t o t h e gap a t t h e j o i n t . ( v i i ) I f p a c k i n g n e a r e s t g l a n d s p i g o t shows e x c e s s i v e d e f o r m a t i o n w h i l s t o t h e r r i n g s a r e i n f a i r c o n d i t i o n , t h e s e t was p r o b a b l y i n c o r r e c t l y i n s t a l l e d and s u b j e c t e d t o e x c e s s i v e g l a n d tightening..

N.B.

O v e r - t i g h t e n i n g i s u s u a l l y t h e g r e a t e s t s i n g l e cause o f premature p a c k i n g f a i l u r e .

391
( v i i i ) I f t h e cause o f your p a r t i c u l a r problem i s s t i l l n o t apparent, g i v e equal a t t e n t i o n t o I.D. and O.D. leakage and check f o r a rough s t u f f i n g

box bore b e f o r e seeking s p e c i a l i s t a d v i c e .

16.4.8

Standardization

In t h e i n t e r e s t s o f s t o c k c o n t r o l i t i s c l e a r l y an advantage t o r a t i o n a l i s e the v a r i e t y o f packings used i n any p l a n t t o t h a t minimum number which w i l l e f f e c t i v e l y c a t e r f o r a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s l i k e l y t o be encountered.

no o b j e c t ,

If cost i s

then t h e r e a r e s i n g l e , s o p h i s t i c a t e d m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n s

t h a t w i l l go some way towards s a t i s f y i n g most demands, b u t i t i s d o u b t f u l i f cost e f f e c t i v e n e s s c o u l d be j u s t i f i e d . Far b e t t e r t o compromise on a small pumps,

number o f r e p u t a b l e p r o d u c t s developed f o r t h e areas i n q u e s t i o n , e.g. valves, e t c .

There a r e few standards a p p l y i n g t o compression packings on a n a t i o n a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a s i s , a l t h o u g h many i n d i v i d u a l companies and o r g a n i z a t i o n s have domestic standards which have, i n many cases, been t h e s u b j e c t o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n

between user and packing manufacturer. BS 4371 : 1968 s p e c i f i e s minimum standards f o r l u b r i c a t e d p l a i t e d c o t t o n , lubricated p l a i t e d f l a x , l u b r i c a t e d p l a i t e d o r b r a i d e d asbestos, d r y w h i t e non-

m e t a l l i c p l a i t e d o r b r a i d e d asbestos, p l a i t e d o r b r a i d e d asbestos, m e t a l l i c wire r e i n f o r c e d , i n d u r a t e d asbestos, and l u b r i c a t e d f i b r o u s asbestos and g i v e s

guidance on l i m i t i n g o p e r a t i n g parameters f o r these c o n s t r u c t i o n s . Where packings a r e r e q u i r e d f o r s e r v i c e w i t h p o t a b l e water i n t h e Water A u t h o r i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n system (which covers r e s e r v o i r t o t a p ) , o n l y those mate r i a l s which have gained a N a t i o n a l Water Council Approval may be used. Such

products have been t e s t e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e y produce no c o l o u r , t a s t e o r t u r b i d i t y , a r e n o n - t o x i c and w i l l n o t support m i c r o b i a l growth. S t a t u t o r y Instruments 1978 No. 1927 "The M a t e r i a l s and A r t i c l e s i n Contact w i t h Food R e g u l a t i o n s 1978" r e q u i r e d t h a t compression p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l s , f o r example,
I'

... do

n o t t r a n s f e r t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s t o foods w i t h which they a r e , i n contact, i n q u a n t i t i e s which c o u l d -

o r l i k e l y t o be,

( i ) endanger human h e a l t h o r
( i i ) b r i n g about a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e o r g a n o l e p t i c (sensory q u a l i t y ) o f such food o r an unacceptable change i n i t s n a t u r e , substance, o r qua1 i t y . " Such r e g u l a t i o n s i n e v i t a b l y r e s t r i c t t h e range o f a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s and lubricants. C o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p l i e r i s recommended t o e s t a b l i s h p r e -

f e r r e d grades.

392

16.4.9

The F u t u r e

The research c u r r e n t l y b e i n g undertaken as a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e a n t i asbestos lobby may produce glass/PTFE/graphite match e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l s . o r ceramic c o n s t r u c t i o n s which

However, many problems remain t o be s o l v e d i n p r o -

ducing a general purpose p r o d u c t t h a t can compete w i t h asbestos i n terms o f l u b r i c a n t r e t e n t i o n , absorbency o r d u r a b i l i t y a t comparable c o s t . There can be no doubt t h a t g r a p h i t e f o i l p r o d u c t s w i l l , because o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , see g r e a t e r acceptance d e s p i t e h i g h i n i t i a l c o s t . r e p o r t s a r e e x t r e m e l y encouraging and, Performance

i r r e s p e c t i v e o f c u r r e n t market con-

s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e m a t e r i a l deserves t o succeed on i t s own m e r i t s .

393
APPENDIX 1
COPY OF STATEMENT ISSUED BY THE ASBESTOS INFORMATION CENTRE,

40 PICCADILLY, LONDON W1V 9PA, T THE BRITISH VALVE MANUFACTURERS O

ASSOCIATION, 3 PANNEL COURT, CHERTSEY STREET, GUILDFORD, SURREY,
GU1 4EU

ON 3 0 t h APRIL 1980.
SAFETY OF ASBESTOS GLAND PACKINGS AND GASKETS C r y s o t i l e ( w h i t e ) asbestos f i b r e i s a b a s i c c o n s t i t u e n t o f v a l v e packings and gaskets because i t combines i n one m a t e r i a l s o f t n e s s , r e s i l i e n c e , absorption

p r o p e r t i e s , s t r e n g t h as a r e i n f o r c e m e n t and, where r e q u i r e d , h e a t r e s i s t a n c e . Asbestos i s o n l y a r i s k t o h e a l t h i f i t s d u s t i s i n h a l e d . Valve packings and

gaskets based on c h r y s o t i l e ( w h i t e ) asbestos a r e s a f e t o handle by v a l v e users and by maintenance e n g i n e e r s .

A good s t a n d a r d o f i n d u s t r i a l hygiene should be

observed when h a n d l i n g o r u s i n g p r o d u c t s which c o n t a i n asbestos. The A d v i s o r y Committee on Asbestos i n t h e i r i n t e r i m statement and f i n a l r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d i n October 1979 recommend t h a t asbestos d u s t should be k e p t t o t h e lowest p r a c t i c a b l e l e v e l and c a l l f o r a 1 f i b r e / m l c o n t r o l l i m i t . The r e p o r t

f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e presence o f c h r y s o t i l e i s u n l i k e l y t o have produced any m a t e r i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e r i s k o f l u n g cancer i n t h e general p o p u l a t i o n o r any a p p r e c i a b l e number o f cases o f mesothelioma, and t h e same i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e o f asbestosis. Gland packings and gaskets w i l l n o t c r e a t e d u s t l e v e l s i n

excess o f t h e c o n t r o l l i m i t , g i v e n normal usage and maintenance. ' L u b r i c a t e d ' packings a r e vacuum impregnated w i t h m i n e r a l o i l s and greases, g r a p h i t e and o t h e r l u b r i c a n t s , and do n o t e m i t d u s t . ' D r y ' p a c k i n g s a r e n o r m a l l y t r e a t e d w i t h a dust-suppressant which s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces d u s t e m i s s i o n so t h a t i n normal use, n o t be expected t o p r e s e n t a hazard. i n c l u d i n g maintenance, they would

They a r e n o t commonly used i n v a l v e glands.

'Hard' packings and gaskets (compressed asbestos f i b r e ) a r e made f r o m a comb i n a t i o n o f asbestos, rubber and o t h e r f i l l e r s . The asbestos f i b r e i s locked

i n t o t h e rubber m a t r i x and w i l l n o t n o r m a l l y c r e a t e d u s t i n use o r maintenance.

I f however, these m a t e r i a l s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o g r i n d i n g r o r o t h e r a b r a s i v e p r o cesses, p r e c a u t i o n s should be taken t o a v o i d i n h a l i n g any dust which may be emitted. ' S o f t ' o r moulded packings a r e n o r m a l l y made f r o m r u b b e r i s e d asbestos c l o t h , and t h e asbestos i s sealed w i t h i n t h e rubber c o a t i n g , so t h a t they a l s o a r e s a f e i n use and maintenance.

394
C r o c i d o l i t e ( b l u e ) asbestos
No c r o c i d o l i t e

( b l u e ) a s b e s t o s has been used i n p a c k i n g s and g a s k e t s manufSome i m p o r t e d p a c k i n g s and g a s k e t s may When l u b r i c a t e d t h e s e p a c k i n g s a r e s a f e be needed when t h e y a r e i n a d r y

a c t u r e d i n t h e UK f o r s e v e r a l years. however, incorpo ra te b l u e asbestos.

t o handle but r e s p i r a t o r y p r o t e c t i o n w i l l

state. Remova 1 Care s h o u l d be taken when removing o l d p a c k i n g s w h i c h may have l o s t t h e i r lubricants. i.e. They s h o u l d be damped and t h e n removed w i t h t h e c o r r e c t t o o l s ,

packing e x t r a c t o r s .

Label 1 i n g Any p a c k i n g s o r g a s k e t s w h i c h r e q u i r e s p e c i a l h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s c a r r y a warning l a b e l .

395

17

CENTRALISED LUBRICATION SYSTEMS DESIGN

J.G.MERRETT,

Managing D i r e c t o r , E n g i n e e r i n g and General Equipment L t d .

17.1

INTRODUCTION

W h i l s t we a r e k e p t c o m p a r a t i v e l y w e l l informed o f t h e l a t e s t developments i n o i l and grease technology and t h e v i t a l r o l e i t p l a y s i n i n d u s t r i a l and commerc i a l applications, v e r y l i t t l e has been w r i t t e n about t h e e q u a l l y v i t a l "Centra-

I i s e d L u b r i c a t i o n Systems" and some o f t h e methods a v a i l a b l e t o Engineers by which grease and o i l may be t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e p o i n t o f l u b r i c a t i o n . I n our s o c i e t y where energy, machinery and l a b o u r a r e now (1981) expensive commodities,
i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h e p a s t i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d

t o the d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t losses o f energy, occasioned by wear and f r i c t i o n and t o t h e savings o f m a t e r i a l s . However, i n 1977 a government f i n a n c e d Ameri( a t 1976 v a l u e s ) c o u l d be saved

can Report suggested t h a t $16.25 b i l l i o n p.a.

by a "Strategy f o r Energy Conservation through T r i b o l o g y "

[l].

Converted i n t o

U.K.

(1980) v a l u e s , t h i s i n d i c a t e s an e q u i v a l e n t s a v i n g o f energy through t r i b i l l i o n p.a. I n s h o r t , c o r r e c t l y s e l e c t e d l u b r i c a n t s and t h e i r methods o f a p p l i c a t i o n by

bology i n excess o f 1;

C e n t r a l i s e d Systems can e f f e c t s i g n i f i c a n t savings, e.g. machine t o o l s , conveyors, cranes, r o l l i n g m i l l s , b l a s t furnaces, b a l l m i l l s , sugar machinery, paper
m i l l s , heavy m o b i l e p l a n t , e t c . t o v a r y i n g degrees, a l l r e q u i r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f lubricants. A c o r r e c t l y designed and i n s t a l l e d C e n t r a l i s e d L u b r i c a t i o n

System i s t h e e n g i n e e r ' s insurance a g a i n s t some o f t h e severe t r i b o l o g i c a l problems, i . e . f r i c t i o n and wear, which would o t h e r w i s e occur i f t h e p l a n t and

machinery were i n a d e q u a t e l y l u b r i c a t e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a l l t o o o f t e n i n t h e supply of p l a n t and machinery t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t and C e n t r a l i s e d L u b r i c a t i o n equipment a r e considered a t a l a t e stage i n t h e manufacture o f t h e p l a n t which, coupled w i t h t h e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f machinery b u i l d e r s , can r e s u l t i n u n s u i t a b l e l u b r i c a t i o n equipment being s e l e c t e d . L i k e w i s e , t h e l u b r i c a t i o n equipment supply companies have a

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , n o t o n l y t o know t h e i r own p r o d u c t , b u t a l s o t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l requirements o f t h e p l a n t and machinery which r e q u i r e s t o be

396
lubricated. F a i l u r e i n t h i s area i n v a r i a b l y r e s u l t s i n the p l a n t user being

p l a c e d i n t h e u n e n v i a b l e p o s i t i o n o f h a v i n g t o a p p l y , a t an e a r l y stage, f o r a d d i t i o n a l c a p i t a l t o r e c t i f y new p l a n t o r , more o f t e n t h a n n o t , t o l i v e w i t h t h e problems and r e c t i f y as and when t h r o u g h a maintenance budget

both o f

which the p l a n t u s e r would be t h e f i r s t t o agree i s e n t i r e l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h i s paper endeavours t o deal w i t h some o f these f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e c h o i c e o f l u b r i c a n t and l u b r i c a t i n g equipment, t h e b a s i c elements o f t h e machinery t o be l u b r i c a t e d , and t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which i t o p e r a t e s .

17.2

POINTS O LUBRICATION F

Bearings, t h e e s s e n t i a l components o f p l a n t and machinery, may be g e n e r a l l y grouped i n t o j o u r n a l , t h r u s t , conveyor c h a i n p i n and l i n k , a n t i - f r i c t i o n , ways and crane r a i l s . slide-

Each wear s u r f a c e must be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y w i t h r e g a r d

t o l u b r i c a n t and l u b r i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e . The l u b r i c a t i o n requirement o f a p l a i n j o u r n a l b e a r i n g i s t h e p r o v i s i o n o f an adequate and c o n s t a n t f l o w o f l u b r i c a n t o f s p e c i f i e d v i s c o s i t y t o g i v e a f l u i d f i l m o f high-load bearing capacity. The j o u r n a l b e a r i n g has i n h e r e n t l y a When r e l a t i v e m o t i o n takes p l a c e

convergence between t h e s h a f t and t h e b e a r i n g .

a f i l m o f l u b r i c a n t i s induced between t h e s u r f a c e s , e f f e c t i v e l y s e p a r a t i n g them. Bearings employed t o absorb t h r u s t and p r e v e n t misalignment of s h a f t s v a r y g r e a t l y i n t y p e and l u b r i c a t i o n requirement, w h i l s t a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s r e q u i r e l e s s l u b r i c a n t than p l a i n b e a r i n g s . Most a v a i l a b l e formulae d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f grease t o these b e a r i n g s t r e a t speed as an i m p o r t a n t factor. For small a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s such as those employed i n l i g h t l y

loaded f r a c t i o n a l horse-power motors, t o o much grease can be damaging. I n such cases, recommended l u b r i c a t i o n i n t e r v a l s o f up t o s e v e r a l years have been e s t a blished. Chain p i n s and l i n k s p r e s e n t m a j o r c r i t i c a l wear p o i n s on f l o o r and I n t h e automobi e i n d u s t r y ,
PO

overhead ( i n c l u d i n g Power and Free) conveyors.

c h a i n l e n g t h s o f s e v e r a l hundred metres, h a v i n g thousands o f l u b r i c a t i o n , a r e commonplace ( F i g . 1 ) .

nts requiring

Slideway and crane r a i l l u b r i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e r i g h t l u b r i c a n t and t h e r i g h t a p p l i c a t o r (see Fig.10, S e c t i o n 17.6.1). Too l i t t l e l u b r i c a n t r e s u l t s i n

r a p i d wear; e x c e s s i v e l u b r i c a n t can be a hazard t o l i f e o r l i m b . Every case i s d i f f e r e n t , y e t i n e v e r y case i t i s c r i t i c a l t h a t t h e l u b r i c a n t i s a p p l i e d i n l i n e w i t h the requirements o f t h a t component, wear and t o energy conservancy. b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o mechanical

17.3

SELECTING THE LUBRICANT

O I L OR GREASE?

I n modern machinery l u b r i c a t i o n , must be considered t o g e t h e r .

l u b r i c a n t s and t h e means o f t h e app i c a t i o n

The b e s t l u b r i c a n t w i l l s e r v e no u s e f u l purpose i f i t i s n o t a p p l i e d a t t h e

397

Fig.1

Excessive p i n and l i n k wear i n a conveyor c h a i n .

A 3mm p i n wear p e r p i n on a 732111 conveyor increases t h e c h a i n l e n g t h by 23 metres.

r i g h t t i m e , a t t h e r i g h t p l a c e , and i n t h e c o r r e c t q u a n t i t y .

Conversely, t h e

best l u b r i c a t i o n equipment, a p p l y i n g l u b r i c a n t q u i t e c o r r e c t l y , w i l l be o f l i t t l e use i f t h e l u b r i c a n t i t feeds i s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e d u t y i t has t o perform. L u b r i c a n t s g e n e r a l l y , e i t h e r o i l s o r greases, a r e s u p p l i e d by o i l companies supported by s p e c i a l i s t o i l and grease m a n u f a c t u r i n g companies, who w i l l p r o v i d e advice on any p a r t i c u l a r l u b r i c a n t and a p p l i c a t i o n as w e l l as on t h e c h o i c e o f lubricants i n general. The s u p p l i e r o f t h e l u b r i c a t i o n equipment w i l l a l s o

o f t e n be a b l e t o a d v i s e , e s p e c i a l l y on l u b r i c a t i o n d e s i g n problems, o r a c t as an intermediary

.
o r GREASE"; when t o use one and when t h e o t h e r . t h e types and how t o s e l e c t them.

The s u b j e c t o f l u b r i c a n t s i s t r e a t e d h e r e o n l y i n i t s v e r y broadest terms under t h r e e headings:"OIL"

LUBRICATING GREASE;

LUBRICATING OILS; types and how t o s e l e c t them.

17.3.1

O i l o r Grease? When t o Use One and When t h e Other

The purpose o f

Movement between two d r y s u r f a c e s causes heat and wear.

i n t r o d u c i n g a l u b r i c a n t between t h e two s u r f a c e s i s t o reduce f r i c t i o n , heat, and wear.

O i l has t h e f o l l o w i n g advantages:
and i t scavenges.
A t t h e same t i m e ,

i t flows,

i t penetrates,

i t removes heat,

i t has l i m i t e d s e a l i n g q u a l i t i e s and poor

' s t a y i n g ' power, t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s more f r e q u e n t r e p l e n i s h i n g than grease.

398
L u b r i c a t i n g grease, a s e m i - s o l i d p l a s t i c - l i k e m a t e r i a l , has e x c e l l e n t s e a l ing characteristics, possesses good ' s t a y i n g ' power, i.e.
i t adheres t o surfaces

more r e a d i l y and l o n g e r t h a n o i l and i t can be an e x c e l l e n t c o r r o s i o n p r e v e n t a tive. Unlike o i l ,

i t i s a poor conductor o f heat and a poor scavenger;

i t does

n o t f l o w o r spread e a s i y where c o n t a m i n a t i o n by

t h e l a t t e r p r o p e r t y can, however, be an advantage

u b r i c a n t s must be avoided such as i n f o o d and b o t t l i n g

and t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r es and where t h e l u b r i c a n t i s used as a s e a l i n g medium. Where an a p p l i c a t i o n e n t a i l s HEAT REMOVAL, o i l i s t h e r e f o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e choice.

I t can be appl ed i n t h e f o r m o f a l i q u i d o r as an o i l m i s t ,

i.e.

m i c r o - f o g comprising an o i l - a i r m i x t u r e .

I n severe cases o f h e a t removal, o i l i t can be c o o l e d and cleaned.

can be r e c i r c u l a t e d and, d u r i n g t h e c i r c u l a t i o n ,

Large t u r b i n e b e a r i n g s and f a s t gear t r a i n s a r e t y p i c a l examples where o i l c i r c u l a t i n g systems a r e used and l a r g e amounts o f o i l a r e c i r c u l a t e d . For a p p l i c a t i o n s where heat removal i s n o t a p r o b l e m , b u t LUBRICATION o r t h e PREVENTION OF INGRESS OF DIRT, WATER, DUST and OTHER EXTRANEOUS MATTER i s l u b r i c a t i n g grease can be used.

I t s a p p l i c a t i o n ranges from heavy m i l l b e a r i n g s I t i s a l s o t h e most s u i t a b l e where a p p l i -

and s l i d e s t o t e x t i l e machinery, e t c .

c a t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s r e q u i r e d a t LONG INTERVALS. N e a r l y a l l B a l l and R o l l e r Bearings, except those i n r e s p e c t o f which heat removal i s e s s e n t i a l , a r e g e n e r a l l y grease l u b r i c a t e d . W T CONDITIONS e x i s t , grease E l u b r i c a t i o n makes grease t h e r o l l i n g bearings. G e n e r a l l y , o i l l u b r i c a t i o n i s employed i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y few cases where i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o t a k e advan age o f t h e m e r i t s o f grease as a r o l l i n g b e a r i n g
s generally preferable.

Where DIRTY/DUSTY and The convenience o f grease

p r e f e r r e d ' l u b r i c a n t f o r the vast m a j o r i t y o f

1u b r i c a n t .
Where motion i s INTERMITTENT o r OSCILLATING, grease i s o f t e n t h e more s u i t able lubricant. Summarising, where heat conveyance away f r o m r u b b i n g s u r f a c e s o r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s o f importance, o r t h e scavenging f u n c t i o n i s necessary, o i l i s p r e f e r a b l e , w h i l s t l u b r i c a t i n g grease can and, i n most cases, should be long l i f e

considered as t h e p r e f e r r e d l u b r i c a n t f o r slow moving machinery,

l u b r i c a t i o n , and where d i r t and d u s t has t o he kept o u t o f t h e b e a r i n g s , s l i d i n g surfaces, etc.

17.3.2

L u b r i c a t i n g Grease

The Types and How t o S e l e c t Them

Greases designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a m i x t u r e o f m i n e r a l o i l and t h i c k e n e r , a c c o r d i n g to t h e a p p l i c a t i o n requirement. I n t h e most w i d e l y

used modern grease t h e t h i c k e n e r i s a m e t a l l i c soap, u s u a l l y o f l i t h i u m o r calcium, w i t h t h e q u a n t i t y o f o i l a d j u s t e d t o g i v e a s o l i d , s e m i - s o l i d o r semi f 1u i d consistency.

399
The soap f i b r e s form a s t r u c t u r e t h a t r e t a i n s t h e o i l , t h e dimensions and arrangement o f t h e f i b r e s v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e metal and t h e f a t t y a c i d from which t h e soap was made. The q u a n t i t y , dimensions and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e

f i b r e s a r e t h e main parameters c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y and f l o w p r o p e r t i e s o f this lubricating material. One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s o f grease i s s t i f f n e s s ( f o r s i s t e n c y ) which i s i n d i c a t e d by a t e s t t h a t measures t h e d e p t h t h a t t h e cone s i n k s i n t o a sample o f grease. The d e p t h measured i s a t e n t h o f a m i l l i m e t r e , F i g u r e 2 shows one c l a s s i f i c a -

and r e f e r r e d t o as t h e degree o f p e n e t r a t i o n . t i o n system f o r greases. Grade Number. 000 OD 0 1 2 3 Worked p e n e t r a t i o n a t 25'C

Description Very f l u i d Fluid Semi - f 1 u i d Very s o f t Soft Semi-firm Firm Very f i r m Hard

445
400

475
430 385 340 295 250 205 160 115

355
310 265 220

4 5 6
Fig.2

175
130

85

NLGl c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f greases.

Although lithium-based greases today s a t i s f y a v a s t number o f l u b r i c a t i o n requirements f o r cranes, conveyors, f o r g i n g presses, continuous c a s t i n g p l a n t s , r o l l i n g mills, etc., t h e r e a r e a number o f s i t u a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g l u b r i c a n t s w i t h

s p e c i a l p r o p e r t i e s , f o r example, t h e a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d h i g h temperatures such as those encountered i n power s t a t i o n t u r b i n e s , bakery oven conveyors, e t c . These l a t t e r greases i n c l u d e t h e c l a y - t h i c k e n e d and o t h e r s o l i d - t h i c k e n e d compounds which w i t h s t a n d c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r temperatures, e s p e c i a l l y when employed w i t h h i g h temperature s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s , e.g. and s i l i c o n e s . The upper temperature l i m i t a t which any grease may be used i s dependent p a r t l y on t h e t y p e o f t h i c k e n e r , p a r t l y on t h e f l u i d and i t s r e q u i r e d s e r v i c e life. Higher o p e r a t i n g temperatures have t h e e f f e c t o f s h o r t e n i n g t h e l u b r i I t i s therefore

polyglycol, s y n t h e t i c esters,

c a n t ' s s e r v i c e l i f e and r e d u c i n g p e r m i s s i b l e o p e r a t i n g speeds.

convenient t o express t h e working l i m i t s o f a grease i n terms o f b e a r i n g speeds and temperatures, as shown i n Fig.3. T h i s diagram shows t h a t l i t h i u m , sodium

and calcium-based greases have upper temperature l i m i t s o f 130, 110 and 7OoC r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h a t clay-based and calcium-complex greases can be used a t
up t o 150C.

400

Fig.3

Working l i m i t s o f m i n e r a l o i l greases

17.3.3

Lubricating 011s

Types and How t o S e l e c t Them

Vegetable and animal o i l s a r e e x c e l l e n t l u b r i c a n t s , b u t have s h o r t l i f e as they o x i d i s e and tend t o go r a n c i d ; as a r e s u l t , t h e i r main use i s f o r 'one s h o t ' a p p l i c a t i o n s such as f o r f o r g i n g o r as a d d i t i v e s f o r m i n e r a l o i l s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e o r i g i n o f t h e o i l determines i t s use ( F i g . 4 )

O i l Origin

ADD1

ication

Mineral O i l Vegetable O i l

e.g. p e t r o l e u m base f o r general l u b r i c a t i o n o f mechanical p a r t s such as engines, gears and g e n e r a l e n g i n e e r i n g p l a n t . e.g. c a s t o r , palm, and rape seed o i l s f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s where h i g h l u b r i c i t y i s d e s i r a b l e such as k i l n s , bakery ovens. e.g. sperm o r o t h e r f i s h o i l s from sheep wool f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s such as k i l n s , bakery ovens. e.g. glycol d e r i v a t i v e s and d i e s t e r f o r extreme h i g h temperature. Fig.4 Origin of Oils

Animal O i l Synthetic O i l

401
F i g u r e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s how v i s c o s i t y o f o i l s change w i t h temperature, becoming t h i n n e r when they a r e heated, b u t they do n o t change v i s c o s i t y a t t h e same r a t e . The r a t e o f v i s c o s i t y change w i t h temperature i s r e f e r r e d t o as the ' v i s c o s i t y index'.

-40-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 $0 50 60 70 80 90XX)11O1201X)14015MM)710

degrees fahrenheit

Fig.5

V i s c o s i t y vs Temperature f o r two o i l s h a v i n g v i s c o s i t y indexes o f 0 and 100 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

17.3.3.1

The p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e o i l must be c a r e f u l l y considered when d e s i g n i n g conveyor chains passing through a p r e - t r e a t m e n t oven O i l s w i t h s p e c i a l i n c l u s i o n s such as

a l u b r i c a t i o n system, e.g.

may reach a temperature o f 180/200C.

g r a p h i t e o r molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e i n g l y c o l as used i n bakery ovens must have p r o v i s i o n f o r a g i t a t i o n o r r e c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e l u b r i c a t o r s t o r a g e tank t o prevent s e t t l i n g o u t o f t h e g r a p h i t e o r molybdenum. Bakery ovens g e n e r a l l y use molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e i n g l y c o l w h i l s t f o r extreme p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s on Power and Free t r o l l e y s , as i n the c a r i n d u s t r y , chains and t r o l l e y wheels r e q u i r e s p e c i a l l u b r i c a n t s , h a v i n g a h i g h adhesion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - a s w e l l as i m p a r t i n g r u s t - p r o o f i n g and w a t e r - p r o o f i n g .

402

17.3.3.2

A f u r t h e r s p e c i a l i s t l u b r i c a n t i s rape seed o i l ;

t h i s i s a low a c i d
i t i s suitable

f a t t y vegetable o i l .

Because o f i t s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h f l a s h - p o i n t

f o r h i g h temperature work when r e f i n e d and g i v e n a g r a p h i t e i n c l u s i o n . uses a r e f o r continuous c a s t i n g moulds, f o r g i n g , metals.

Typical

and as a c u t t i n g o i l f o r harder

Here a g a i n , i t s s p e c i a l p r o p e r t i e s must be considered when p r o v i d i n g

t h e l u b r i c a t i n g means.

17.3.4

Summarising L u b r i c a n t S e l e c t i o n

For t h e f i n a l s a t i s f a c t o r y s e l e c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s must t h e r e f o r e be determined. The c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a t e r i a l s employed i n t h e compon-

e n t s t o be l u b r i c a t e d , o p e r a t i n g speeds and l o a d i n g , l i f e requirement o f l u b r i c a n t and machine, o p e r a t i n g environment, e.g. t h e presence o f w a t e r , steam,

chemicals o r a b r a s i v e m a t e r i a l s i n t h e atmosphere; and l a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , t h e method o f a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e t y p e o f system t o be employed, t h e diameter of p i p e runs, e t c .

17.4

PIPE DIAMETER vs

FLOW CHARACTERISTICS t h e l e n g t h and diameter o f

To determine t h e l u b r i c a n t f l o w r a t e and volume,

t h e p i p e l i n e s should be c a r e f u l l y c a l c u l a t e d t o ensure t h a t t h e l u b r i c a n t can s a t i s f a c t o r i l y reach t h e wear p o i n t s a t t h e extreme ends o f t h e p i p e l i n e s . The

f o l l o w i n g t a b l e summarises some p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s f r o m t e s t s t o prove optimum measurements and e n d - o f - l i n e p r e s s u r e , u s i n g a l i t h i u m - b a s e d grease o f No.2 consistency a t

15OoC.
Nominal bore (mm) Applied pressure (kPa) P r e s s u r e drop (kPa/m)

50 38 25 19 17.5

1100

1 a75

4410 6410

36.1 61.5 144.7 210.3

LUBRICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR PLAIN BEARINGS

For normal w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s i t has been found t h a t t h e amount o f grease required f o r p l a i n bearings i s equivalent t o a layer o f O . l m m b e a r i n g area (0.1 x d x L) p e r hour o f b e a r i n g o p e r a t i o n . on t h e developed

Figure

6 illustrates
As an exam-

a c h a r t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e grease requirements f o r p l a i n b e a r i n g s . p l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e grease r e q u i r e d f o r a b e a r i n g o f long, i n t e r s e c t diameter and l e n g t h a s a t

75mm diameter by 250mm

f o l l o w l i n e o f a r r o w and where i t

i n t e r s e c t s t h e t o p s c a l e , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e amount o f grease r e q u i r e d , b e i n g i n t h i s example 6 g m o r 0.21 oz p e r hour.

403

LENGTH OF BEARING L

Fig.6

Grease requirements f o r a p l a i n b e a r i n g .

17.6

SELECTING THE RIGHT TYPE OF LUBRICATION SYSTEM require

L u b r i c a t i o n systems f o r p l a n t and equipment, whatever t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l design.

They must be f u n c t i o n a l and c o r r e c t l y engineered t o s a t i s f y With

t h e b e a r i n g requirements and t h e d e s i g n e r s ' a p p l i c a t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n . regard t o t h e human element, chapter deal w i t h : they must be f o o l - p r o o f .

Systems i n c l u d e d i n t h i s

Grease, O i l and Micro-Fog.

17.6.1

Grease L u b r i c a t i o n Systems

A l l C e n t r a l i s e d Grease L u b r i c a t i o n Systems a r e o f t h e n o n - r e c i r c u l a t i n g t y p e
and o p e r a t e on t h e t o t a l loss p r i n c i p l e . They a r e b a s i c a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o D i r e c t

Feeding systems and I n d i r e c t Feeding systems, o t h e r w i s e r e f e r r e d t o as L i n e systems, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 7 .

17.6.1.1

D i r e c t Feeding Systems a r e those where t h e volume o u t p u t o f t h e D i r t h e pumping p l u n g e r s and means o f

e c t Feeding l u b r i c a t i n g pump i s p o s i t i v e ;

m e t e r i n g t h e o u t p u t t o i n d i v i d u a l wear p o i n t s b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g pump. ciple, i.e. T h e r e f o r e D i r e c t Feeding systems o p e r a t e on a P o s i t i v e Volume P r i n t h e y i n t r o d u c e a metered volume o f l u b r i c a n t i n t o t h e pipes, and

s i n c e t h i s volume i s n o t a f f e c t e d by p r e s s u r e i n t h e p i p e s , t h e pumps can work c o n t i n u o u s l y a g a i n s t h i g h back pressures.

- -I
GREASE SYSTEMS
TOTAL LOSS SYSTEMS

DIRECT FEEDSYSTEMS

INDIRECT FEED M T E M S

PR0GRESSI:E MSTEMS

PARALLEL SVSTEMS

Y
DUAL L I N E

FIG.7

FUNDAMENTAL LUBRICATION

DIVISION OF C E N T R A L I S E D GREASE SYSTEMS.

405
D i r e c t Feeding systems can be d i v i d e d i n t o those where each o u t l e t has i t s own m e t e r i n g p l u n g e r (F i g. 8) and t ho se where a s i n g l e moving plunger d i s t r i b u t e s

p r o g r e s s i v e l y t h e metered amounts o f grease i n t o t h e v a r i o u s o u t l e t s ( F i g . 9 ) . N o r m a lly , d i r e c t f e e d i n g l u b r i c a t o r s o b t a i n t h e i r pumping a c t i o n e i t h e r by means o f moving p l u n g e r s , combined w i t h a system o f p o r t i n g , o r by the use o f p l u n g e r s i n c o n n ect i on w i t h s p r i n g - l o a d e d b a l l v a l v e s . The l a t t e r type should

be a v o id e d i n t h e case o f d i r t y o r d u s t y c o n d i t i o n s as any i n g r e s s o f e x t r a n eous m a t t e r may l od ge i n t h e s e a t i n g o f t h e b a l l v a l v e and render t h e l u b r i c a t o r inoperative. I t f o l l o w t h a t where a l u b r i c a t o r i s d r i v e n by a moving p a r t o f a machine, an amount o f l u b r i c a n t r e q u i r e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e movement o f t h e s h a f t i n t h e bearing bein g l u b r i c a t e d , a d i r e c t f e e d i n g l u b r i c a t o r should be used (Fig.10) l u b r i c a t o r d r i v e n v i a t h e d i r e c t d r i v i n g elements, e.g. Plates, o r O f f s e t P i n Drives. w i t h the

E c c e n t r i c D r i v e s , Throw

17.6.1.2

I n d i r e c t o r L i n e Systems have t h e pumping and m e t e r i n g elements geot he y a r e connected by means o f one o r s e v e r a l p i p e l i n e s . t h e pump s e r v i n g as a p r e s s u r e c r e a t i n g u n i t f o r pumping
As t h e pressure

g r a p h i c a l l y separated; The a c t i o n i s h y d r a u l i c ,

grease i n t o a p i p e l i n e whi ch i s t h e r e b y s e t under pressure.

i nc r e a s e s , so t h e v a r i o u s m e t e r i n g elements e j e c t t h e i r charges e i t h e r progressi v e l y , o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e back pre ssure s a g a i n s t which t h e y operate. D u r in g normal o p e r a t i o n s each element, h aving g i v e n up i t s metered amount,

blocks i t s e l f and w i l l n o t pass any f u r t h e r l u b r i c a n t t o t h e p o i n t s o f a p p l i c a tion. When a l l elements have g i v e n up t h e i r metered charge, a r a p i d r i s e i n U t i l i z i n g e i t h e r t h i s i n c r e a s e i n pressure a t pre s s u r e o c c u r s i n t h e main l i n e .

t h e pump o r a t t h e end o f t h e l i n e , a s i g n a l i s g i v e n i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e l u b r i c a t i n g phase i s completed. Thereupon t h e main l i n e has t o be d ep ressurized, w hich i s u s u a l l y e f f e c t e d by opening i t t o t h e grease sup pl y u n i t , e.g. the reservoir. Depending on the

t y p e o r make o f system, t h e p l u n g e r s o f t h e m e t e r i n g v a l v e s a r e then r e s e t t o p e r m i t t h e i r f u r t h e r o p e r a t i o n , o r t h e y a r e a l r e a d y s e t f o r another a p p l i c a t i o n phase wh ic h moves them back i n t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n , thereby completing a system c y c l e . The method and mechanics o f r e s e t t i n g depend on t h e p a r t i c u l a r

ty p e o f system; a l s o whether one complete c y c l e o f t h e system i n v o l v e s one o r two a p p l i c a t i o n ( l u b r i c a t i o n ) phases. The fundamental d i v i s i o n o f ' l i n e systems' p a r a l l e l t y p e s o f systems. i s t h a t between p r o g r e s s i v e and

I n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e system t h e l u b r i c a n t must pass i.e. o n l y a f t e r having

thro u g h t h e m e t e r i n g elements o r v a l v e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y ,

a c t u a t e d t h e f i r s t element t o f e ed l u b r i c a n t t o t h e p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l t h e l u b r i c a n t be passed t o t h e second element, and so f o r t h . T h i s i s i n con-

t r a s t t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p a r a l l e l system, on w hich t h e m e t e r i n g u n i t s a r e

YOl>INNO> OlNW

YOU3NN03 a3a~3 1 1 ~ 1 s 3

SNOIWINNOJ L l l A n O

YJMOllOJON 3AVH Sl3aOW (110) l V

*I

:S)ltlOM 1 M O H 1

NOllV3l11!fll 01Slll11lN33 311VWOlflV 1O 1102V3111!111 0334 1331110 1j

90P

407

408

Application:
Lubiicat/onoluplo I W p ~ ) i n l ~ . ~ l l h g ~ e a l e o r o s . pafl(IcUlar1yon presses. machine lools, packagmg machinery

Introducingcentral lubrication in stages:

Design:
A m a n pipe l m m a simple fillinp 01 lubricalion pump loads lo the dislrtbulor; the quantities of lubricant delivered are diitiibuled by the. d w i b u l o r 10the outlels in a parlicular pie. arranged sequence If required. the Iubricanl lrom the distributor can be led lo other distrtbulors lor lurlhet redislribulion

1 .g 1 t. . : L u b r m i c o n not more lhan 20 points by means of 01 a grease nipple screwed into the dislributor andsgreasegun whichisoperaled untiltheflow indjcatoc shows tihat the lubr#calionoperation has been compleletl.

2nd .lago: A hand pump and dlslrlbUIorSin Series. WhlCh lo distribute the lubr~csnl the lubrication point6 in a specified manner.

Fig. 11.

Examples o f Progressive Systems.

Fig. 12.

Progressive Lubrication on a plate shear.

409
a c t u a t e d as p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e main l i n e . Each group i s f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o systems u t i l i z i n g one l i n e o n l y and systems u t i l i z i n g two l i n e s , t h e f o r m e r b e i n g c a l l e d s i n g l e - l i n e systems, t h e l a t t e r d u a l - l i n e systems. The most p o p u l a r t y p e s o f systems used a r e : i n t h e i r case t h e

P r o g r e s s i v e Systems, o p e r a t e o n p r e s s u r e / v o lu m e c y c l e s ;

i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e c r e a t e d by t h e pump a c t u a t e s a m e t e r i n g v a l v e w h ic h , h a v i n g g i v e n up i t s s e t amount o f l u b r i c a n t . a l l o w s t h e g r e a s e t o pass i n t o t h e main l i n e leading t o the next metering valve. When s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e has been

b u i l t up, t h e v a l v e i s a c t u a t e d and l u b r i c a n t a l l o w e d t o f l o w t o t h e n e x t m e te r i n g v a l v e , and so o n p r o g r e s s i v e l y , u n t i l i t r e t u r n s t o t h e l u b r i c a t o r o r where, when s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e has been b u i l t up, a r e v e r s i n g v a l v e i s a c t u a t e d w h ic h reverses t h e f l o w o f t h e grease. The s e l e c t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e systems i s depenF i g u r e 1 1 i l l u s t r a t e s some

dent upon t h e number o f p o i n t s t o be l u b r i c a t e d .

o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e , and F i g . 1 2 shows a t y p i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a p r o g r e s s i v e l u b r i c a t i o n system on a P l a t e Shear. Dual L i n e Systems ( P a r a l l e l ) , o p e r a t e o n t h e same b a s i c p r i n c i p l e , v i z : t h e m o t o r i z e d l u b r i c a t i n g pump ( F i g . 1 3 ) f o r c e s g r e a s e i n t o one o f two main f e e d

l i n e s i n w hi ch a r e p l a c e d a number o f d u a l - l i n e m e t e r i n g e le m e n ts , each o u t l e t

M U orised BS-A h

SC-A Diffaeraial R c Un

MODE L BSA

Fig.13

Dual l i n e system.

410

I_
Line 1 weuurising Line 2 pressurising

I_

2oo

Interval

end of line 1 b 2

Fig.14

Dual l i n e system p r e s s u r e .

66

Main Line 2

Fig.15

Dual l i n e m e t e r i n g element.

D u a l - l i n e m e t e r i n g elements o p e r a t e h y d r a u l i c a l l y w i t h o u t t h e use o f b a l l s and s p r i n g s o r check v a l v e s .

A c o n t r o l p i s t o n d i r e c t s t h e supply o f grease t o
R e g u l a t i n g screws

e i t h e r s i d e of a m e t e r i n g p i s t o n which i s f i t t e d w i t h an i n d i c a t o r p i n , e n a b l i n g easy i n s p e c t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a t each p o i n t on t h e system.

f i t t e d t o each i n d i c a t o r housing p e r m i t adjustment down t o 20% o f maximum o u t p u t . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l p i s t o n ( 2 ) and t h e feed p i s t o n (6) a r e shown i n ' A ' a f t e r the f i r s t p a r t o f the d u a l - l i n e cycle. P r e s s u r i s e d l u b r i c a n t f r o m main

411
l i n e 1 has moved o v e r c o n t r o l p i s t o n ( 2 ) and then a t t h e upper s i d e o f t h e feed piston

( 6 ) , d i s p l a c i n g i t and d i s c h a r g i n g a measured q u a n t i t y o f l u b r i c a n t v i a c ro s s p o r t i n g (7) and a cross spool (1) t o o u t l e t ( 8 ) . P o s i t i o n ' B ' i s t h e second
p a r t o f t h e d u a l - l i n e c y c l e and p r e s s u r i s e d l u b r i c a n t from main l i n e 2 has moved c o n t r o l p i s t o n ( 2 ) and d i s p l a c e d t h e m e t e r i n g p i s t o n (6) thus d i s c h a r g i n g a

measured s h o t o f l u b r i c a n t v i a cross p o r t (5) and across spool ( 3 ) t o o u t l e t ( 4 ) . For e x tr e m e ly d i r t y and a b r a s i v e environments such as those found i n a B l a s t Furnace, P i g Caster o r Coal P r e p a r a t i o n and Washery P l a n t , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o have t h e d u a l l i n e m e t e r i n g elements housed i n toughened g l a s s - f r o n t e d p r o t e c t i o n
boxes, s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown i n F i g. 16 .

F i g. 16

P r o t e c t i o n box.

412
17.6.1.3
Comparison o f P a r a l l e l Systems - S i n g l e l i n e and D u a l - l i n e .

B o th systems d e p r e s s u r i z e t h e l i n e , b u t i n t h e case o f t h e S i n g l e L i n e System th e r e s e t t i n g o f t h e p l u n g e r s i n t h e m e t e r i n g elements i s u s u a l l y e f f e c t e d by s p r i n g p r e s s u r e , whereas i n t h e Dual L i n e system. when main feed l i n e No.2 i s p r e s s u r i s e d , a second s e r i e s o f dual l i n e m e t e r i n g elements d i s c h a r g e l u b r i c a n t t o the points o f application. I n d o i n g s o , t hey r e s e t t h e dual l i n e m e t e r i n g

elements i n main l i n e No.1, w i t h which t he y f orm an i n t e g r a l u n i t .

17.6.1.4

S e l e c t i n g Grease L u b r i c a t i o n Systems.

Wherever p o s s i b l e , l u b r i c a t i o n systems sh ould be avoided w hich use equipment i n c o r p o r a t i n g s p r i n g s and v a l v e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e l u b r i c a t i o n systems a r e r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e i n arduous and a b r a s i v e environments. I n g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f C e n t r a l i s e d L u b r i c a t i o n Systems used a r e e i t h e r o f t h e ' D i r e c t Feed' o r ' P a r a l l e l - D u a l be in g o p e r a t e d ' m a n u a l l y ' o r ' a u t o m a t i c a l l y ' . L i n e ' type; b o t h a r e capable o f

The c h o i c e o f Grease L u b r i c a t i o n

Systems i s u s u a l l y d i c t a t e d by t h e number o f p o i n t s o f a p p l i c a t i o n and t h e i r l o c a t i o n , always b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t f o r utmost r e l i a b i l i t y and minimal maintenance D i r e c t Feed Systems sho ul d be s e l e c t e d wherever i t i s p r a c t i c a l . o f explanation, By way

a P a r a l l e l - D u a l L i n e system can c y c l e and y e t f a i l t o d e l i v e r

l u b r i c a n t t o some of t h e p o i n t s o f a p p l i c a t i o n w hich i s o n l y e v i d e n t i f t h e o p e r a t o r v i s u a l l y examines t h e p o s i t i o n o f every dual l i n e element i n d i c a t o r pin. Q u i t e o f t e n t h i s i s i m p r a c t i c a l because o f elements b e i n g l o c a t e d i n hazardous areas o n l y b e in g a c c e s s i b l e when t h e p l a n t and machinery a r e shut down.

T h i s cannot o c c ur w i t h D i r e c t Feed pumps, f o r t h e y w i l l o n l y o p e r a t e e f f e c t i v e l y providing the points o f application are receiving lubricant; barring, o f I n prac-

course, broken f ee d-p i pe s

(which can a p p l y t o b o t h types o f system).

t i c e , a D i r e c t Feed pump can u s u a l l y c a t e r f o r up t o 40 p o i n t s o f a p p l i c a t i o n .

17.6.1.5

L u b r i c a t i o n o f P l a i n o r Sleeve Bearings.

These b e a r i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h ose o v e r 4" diameter, r e q u i r e as near c o n t i n uous l u b r i c a t i o n as i s p o s s i b l e .

I t i s n o r m a l l y recommended t h a t b e a r i n g s of

t h i s t y p e be f e d by D i r e c t Feeding l u b r i c a t o r s d r i v e n from t h e moving s h a f t . T h i s ensures l u b r i c a n t i s f e d t o t h e b e a r i n g s when t h e s h a f t i s i n o p e r a t i o n and no l u b r i c a n t i s f e d t o t h e b e a r i n g when t h e s h a f t i s i n o p e r a t i v e .

17.6.1.6

Lubrication o f Anti-Friction

( B a l l and R o l l e r ) Bearings.

A n t i - f r i c t i o n b ea ri ng s r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f l u b r i c a n t tha n p l a i n b e a r in gs. Except i n t h e case o f l a r g e a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s , they

w i l l n o t n o r m a l l y be l u b r i c a t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y . Where a n t i - f r i c t i o n be ari n gs a r e c l o s e t o g e t h e r , a hand-operated o r t i m e c l o c k c o n t r o l l e d d i r e c t f e e d i n g pump may be used. Where they a r e spaced over

413
some d i s t a n c e , preferred. For l a r g e a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s and t h ose i n s t a l l a t i o n s where t h e g r e a t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y o f D i r e c t Feeding systems i s d e s i r a b l e b u t t h e number o f p i p e s a l i n e system, e i t h e r hand-operated o r t i m e c l o c k c o n t r o l l e d , is

should be k e p t low, d i r e c t f e e d i n g pumps w i t h P o s i t i v e D i v i d e r s may be used, s p l i t t i n g v o l u m e t r i c a l l y metered amounts o f l u b r i c a n t independent o f v a r y i n g back p r e s s u r e s . Very f a s t o p e r a t i n g a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s such as those running a t 1400 rpm should n o t be f e d c o n t i n u o u s l y . However, o v e r - g r e a s i n g w i l l do no harm t o l a r g e

s l o w - r u n n in g a n t i - f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s where q u i t e o f t e n t h e grease i s used as a s e a l a n t , p r e v e n t i n g d i r t and o t h e r f o r e i g n m a t t e r a n t i - f r i c t i o n bearings

the greatest destroyer o f

t o e n t e r t h e b ea ri ng .

Therefore i t i s essential t h a t

t h e grease i s k e p t c l e a n a t a l l t i mes, w i t h t h e l u b r i c a t i n g pump c o n t a i n e r o r r e s e r v o i r b o t to m f i l l e d v i a a grease keg o r b u l k grease s t o r a g e system.

17.6.2

O i l L u b r i c a t i o n Systems
t o l u b r i c a t e and/or c o o l .

O i l L u b r i c a t i o n Systems s e r v e two purposes:

On

many a p p l i c a t i o n s . p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e absence o f h i g h ambient temperature o r where t h e h e a t g en era t e d i n t h e b e a r i n g s o r t h e gears i s n o t g r e a t . t h e removal o f h e a t by t h e o i l need n o t f e a t u r e as a sep arate c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e o i l c i r c u l a t i o n system. c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a l on e. However, T h i s can be arranged on t h e b a s i s o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n t h e case o f many o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s , the

c o o l i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e o i l a r e o f g r e a t importance. O i l systems may t h e r e f o r e be grouped under t h r e e main headings:Group 1 Group 2 Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n on a t o t a l loss basis. Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n and w i t h a small amount o f heat removal. Group

Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n where an a p p r e c i a b l e degree o f c o o l i n g i s a l s o r e q u i r e d because o f operating conditions.

Group 1 and 2 systems v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f machine and i t s l u b r i c a t i o n requirements. Systems o f t h e t o t a l l o s s t y p e may be operated e i t h e r manually,

m e c h a n ic a lly , o r mo t o ri sed , whereas systems o f t h e t y p e which c o l l e c t t h e used o i l and r e c i r c u l a t e i t must be a u t o m a t i c . V arious combinations o f these systems

can be employed, and t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e some t y p i c a l examples: 17.6.2.1 Group 1

- Total

loss systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n purposes o n l y .

I n t h i s t y p e o f system t h e l u b r i c a n t , a f t e r l u b r i c a t i n g t h e b e a r i n g s o r gears, i s n o t used a g a in. pumps. The group c o n s i s t s o f manual, mechanical o r motor operated machine t o o l s ,

The f o r m e r g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e s on sma l l items o f p l a n t , e.g.

414
mechanical h a n d l i n g equipment, j i g s and f i x t u r e s , presses, e t c . These systems

may be f u r t h e r s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o D i r e c t P o s i t i v e Systems or P o s i t i v e S p l i t Systems. D i r e c t P o s i t i v e Systems u s u a l l y comprise one o r more d i f f e r e n t i a l p l u n g e r ty p e o i l l u b r i c a t o r s , e.g. Se ct i o ns 6.1.1 (F ig.9) shows t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a man-

u a l l y o p e r a te d 8 - o u t l e t gre ase pump whi ch i s a l s o a d a p t a b l e f o r o i l , w i t h Fig.17 i l l u s t r a t i n g a t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n on a pre ss l u b r i c a t i n g t h e slidew ays and crosshead. For a p p l i c a t i o n s where a ut oma t i c l u b r i c a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , mechanical These

l u b r i c a t o r s h a v ing u s u a l l y 28 t o 32 pumping u n i t s may be f i t t e d ( F i g . 1 8 ) .

l u b r i c a t o r s may be d r i v e n e i t h e r m e c h a n i c a l l y t h r o u g h a r a t c h e t from t h e machine be in g l u b r i c a t e d o r by geared e l e c t r i c motor. Each pump u n i t can be r e g u l a t e d

fro m z e r o t o maximum, t o f e e d m i n u t e p r e c i s e q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l t o t h e p o i n t s o f lubrication application.

Fig.17

D i r e c t p o s i t i v e system.

415

Fig.18

D i r e c t p o s i t i v e system.

P o s i t i v e S p l i t System.

T h i s t y p e o f system i s used where q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l

per a p p l i c a t i o n p o i n t a r e g r e a t e r t h a n can be s u p p l i e d by t h e p r e v i o u s l y described d i r e c t f e e d i n g p l u n g e r system. I t comprises o f one o r more small h i g h

p r e s s u r e pumps f i t t e d w i t h i n t e g r a l r e l i e f v a l v e s , and s u p p l i e s l u b r i c a n t t o t h e b e a r i n g s through volume d i v i d e r s . The d i v i d e r s may be used e i t h e r t o i n -

crease t h e number o f p o i n t s o r t o m o d i f y t h e q u a n t i t i e s f e d t o t h e l u b r i c a t i o n points.

416

Fig.19

P o s i t i v e s p l i t system.

17.6.2.2

Group 2 - Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n w i t h s m a l l amount o f T h i s t y p e o f system s u p p l i e s t h e l u b r i c a n t t o t h e b e a r i n g s and

heat removal.

r e t u r n s i t under g r a v i t y through t h e r e t u r n p i p e s and/or drainways t o t h e s u p p l y tank f o r r e c i r c u l a t i o n . T h i s group can a l s o be s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o D i r e c t P o s i t i v e The former c o n s i s t s o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l l y

Systems o r P o s i t i v e S p l i t Systems.

operated d i f f e r e n t i a l p l u n g e r t y p e o i l l u b r i c a t o r as d e s c r i b e d i n Group 1.

417
T y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e paper machines, l a r g e k i l n s , o r g e n e r a l l y where a l a r g e number o f b ea ri ng s a r e t o be f e d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h an a d j u s t a b l e feed. Systems o f t h i s t y p e r e q u i r e a minimum amount o f maintenance and a t t e n t i o n . The

l u b r i c a t i o n r e s e r v o i r s o f c o n t a i n e r s can be kept f i l l e d e i t h e r by a header t a n k s u p p l y i n g s e v e r a l l u b r i c a t o r s , o r each l u b r i c a t o r can be f i t t e d w i t h s p e c i a l b u i l t - i n s u c t i o n pumps whi ch su pp l y t h e c o n t a i n e r w i t h l u b r i c a n t from t h e main s u p p ly tank. Each l u b r i c a t o r pump u n i t ( o u t l e t ) can be connected d i r e c t t o t h e

l u b r i c a t i o n p o i n t s o r t o a p o s i t i v e volume d i v i d e r , depending on t h e number o f feeds and t h e l u b r i c a t i o n re qu i reme nt s o f t h e p o i n t s . The l u b r i c a n t i s r e t u r n e d under g r a v i t y t o t h e main supply tank through d r a i n ways o r r e t u r n p i p e s (which can be a rran ge d w i t h b e a r i n g sump l e v e l c o n t r o l dev ic e s ) f o r r e c i r c u l a t i n g t o t h e l u b r i c a t o r c o n t a i n e r s o r header t a n k by means of s u c t i o n pumps, as d escri b ed , o r t o t h e t a n k by a f l o a t - c o n t r o l l e d gear pump (Fig.20).

Discharge f i l t e r

b d

I
L

&
b
b

6
d
b

6
b
b

b
b b

b
b d

\
l b

/
b
d

b
l
b

O
b b

Reservoir

F ig . 20

System w i t h smal l amount o f heat removal

As i n t h e case o f t h e p r e v i o u s group,

t h e l u b r i c a t o r can be d r i v e n e i t h e r Each

d i r e c t f r o m t h e machine b e i n g l u b r i c a t e d o r f i t t e d w i t h i t s own motor,

pump can be f e d e i t h e r f ro m t h e machine sump o r from a separate d r a i n and supply tank. The system i s u s u a l l y i n s t a l l e d on machine t o o l s , sugar machinery, gear

boxes, p r i n t i n g machines, and spe ci al -p urp ose machinery.

17.6.2.3

Group

Systems designed f o r l u b r i c a t i o n c o o l i n g .

Where t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e ambient h ea t o r where t h e power t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e p a r t b e in g l u b r i c a t e d c r e a t e s a h i g h degree o f h e a t , t h e c o o l i n g f u n c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t assumes g r e a t importance.

I t i s necessary i n such cases t o

ap p ly s u f f i c i e n t l u b r i c a n t t o e x t r a c t t h e h eat and t o m a i n t a i n t h e bearings o r gears a t an optimum t emp era t u re. Arrangements must a l s o be made f o r r e t u r n i n g

t h e l u b r i c a n t t o a sup pl y t a n k f o r c o o l i n g , f i l t r a t i o n , and r e c i r c u l a t i o n , between t h e l u b r i c a t i o n equipment man uf act urer, t h e p l a n t designers, and t h e operators. Such a system u s u a l l y comprises a l a r g e o i l r e s e r v o i r o r s t o r a g e tank; motor d r i v e n pump ( n o r m a l l y a gear t y p e pump a d j a c e n t t o o r on t h e s t o r a g e t a n k ) ; coolers; f i l t e r s ; p r e s s u r e gauges; a l a r m and f l o w c o n t r o l equipment; t o g e t h e r The system may be simple p e r minute, o r a

w i t h t h e necessary v a l v e s and i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g pipework. and s e l f - c o n t a i n e d w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 3 8 c c / s e c

t o 750cc/sec

complex system c a pa bl e o f d e l i v e r i n g s e v e r a l l i t r e s / s e c .

These systems can be

p r o v i d e d w i t h s i m p l e o r e l a b o r a t e f l o w c o n t r o l , w arning d e v i c e s , and o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e needs o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n (Fig.21).

Fig.21

T y p i c a l example o f l u b r i c a t i n g and c o o l i n g system packaged u n i t f o r t h e l u b r i c a t i o n o f rubber machinery.

419
17.6.3
Micro-Fog L u b r i c a t i o n Systems

Aerosol l u b r i c a t i o n i s t h e g e n e r i c term f o r o i l m i s t o r M i c r o - f o g systems which have been used s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r o v e r t w e n t y y e a r s . Compared w i t h CentraIt

l i s t e d Grease o r O i l l u b r i c a t i o n , a M i c r o - f o g system, t o p e r f o r m t h e same t a s k , r e q u i r e s l e s s l u b r i c a n t and energy and t h e i n i t i a l c o s t i s r e l a t i v e l y low. i s a l s o a h i g h l y f l e x i b l e system, as a t t h e new machine stage.

r e a d i l y i n s t a l l e d o n t o e x i s t i n g p l a n t as w e l l

17.6.3.1

Working P r i n c i p l e s (Fig.22) o u t 1 i n e s t h e e s s e n t i a l and a u x i 1 i a r y

elements o f t h e M i c r o - f o g system and p r o v i d e s a g u i d e t o some o f t h e more common areas o f a p p l i c a t i o n . During operation, t h e system produces c o n t i n u o u s l y a dense

c o n c e n t r a t i o n of m i c r o p a r t i c l e s o f o i l which a r e conveyed i n a ' d r y ' f o g i n a

low p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n system.

On r e a c h i n g t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n t h e

' d r y ' f o g i s passed t h r o u g h r e c l a s s i f i e r s , which a r e r e a l l y m e t e r i n g and condens i n g o r i f i c e s , so as t o a c c u r a t e l y f e e d an e x a c t q u a n t i t y o f l u b r i c a n t t o s u i t the operating conditions.

M i cro-foq

1u b r i c a t i o n

lubrication 1u b r i c a t i o n

Fig.22

M i c r o - f o g system.

420
To ensure t h a t t h e f o g reaches t h e r e c l a s s i f i e r d r y , the d i s t r i b u t i o n piping

i s sized t o allow o i l p a r t i c l e s t o travel along the piping a t a v e l o c i t y less tha n 7.3 metres/sec, which i s sl o w enough t o p r e v e n t condensation. The t u r b u -

l en c e i n t h e r e c l a s s i f i e r s causes t h e o i l p a r t i c l e s t o 'w et o u t '

i n t o the l i n e

l e a d i n g t o o r d i r e c t o n t o t h e b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s where they then form a p r o t e c t i v e f i l m of oil.

In o r d e r t o c r e a t e ' d r y '

f og , o i l i s f i r s t drawn i n t o a compressed a i r stream

as i t passes t h r o ug h a V e n t u r i l o c a t e d on t o p o f t h e l u b r i c a t i o n c o n t r o l u n i t (Fig.23). O i l p a r t i c l e s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.002mm i n diameter a r e c o l l e c t e d i n

t h e a i r stream and can be t r a n s p o r t e d l o ng d i s t a n c e s i n t h e d r y c o n d i t i o n .

Lubricator head A i r bypass a d j u s t i n

Low pressure w i t c h

lligh pressure s w i t c h Electrical conduit ent Auxiliary requlatcr

Supply t o pressur j e t reclassifier

Waste pipe e x i t

Fig.23

Lubrication control unit.

Since M i c r o - f o g systems r e q u i r e no r e t u r n l i n e s they can be designed t o easy i n s t a l l a t i o n and assembly; hence, l o w c o s t i n s t a l l a t i o n , w i t h o u t t h e problems

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i n g l e - l i n e s e r i e s o i l c i r c u l a t i n g systems w hich i n c o r p o r a t e q u i t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d and r e l a t i v e l y expensive v a l v e b l o c k s t h a t have a b u i l t - i n self-reversing operation. A l t ho ug h such systems may r e q u i r e no separate reverse

and r e c y c l e v a l v e o r v e n t i n g phase d u r i n g t h e l u b e c y c l e , they do have, however, a d i s t i n c t d is a d va nt ag e because t h e y r e q u i r e a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f system t u b i n g (Fig.20). Moreover, Once a M i c r o - f o g system has been i n s t a l e d i t i s much less demandi n g t h a n o t h e r a ut o mat i c l u b e systems. The system
s e a s i l y assembled,

using a

b u i l d i n g b l o c k approach, whi ch i s designed f o r easy s e r v i c i n g , r e p a i r s and general maintenance.

421
17.6.3.2

O i l Quality.

C o r r e c t o i l s e l e c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t as some o i l s i n c o r p o r a t e polymers w hich suppress a e r o s o l p r o p e r t i e s , w h i l e h e a v i e r g rade o i l s may r e q u i r e h e a t i n g up t o between 4Oo/45OC t o a t t a i n t h e v i s c o s i t y f o r maximum o u t p u t . For a l l normal

purposes t h e c o n t r o l u n i t s w i l l p e r f o r m w e l l when w orking w i t h o i l s up t o 700 c e n t i s t o k e s a t 20C. Summarised l u b r i c a t i n g o i l re qu i reme nt s f o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y M i c r o - f o g system are:(i) (ii) Good a e r o s o l p r o p e r t i e s . Low r a t e o f co nd en sat i on t hro ug h p i p e s .

( i i i ) Low l e v e l o f s t r a y i n g by t h e p a r t i c l e s . (iv) (v)

A h i g h degree o f r u s t i n h i b i t i o n .
Absence o f c l o g g i n g t en de nci e s a t t h e v e n t u r i n o z z l e o r any polymer precipitation.

17.6.3.3

Compressed A i r

A c c e p t in g t h a t most i n d u s t r i a l compressed a i r i s s u p p l i e d a t 7 bar (100 l b / i n ) 2 i n a M i c r o - f o g l u b r i c a t i o n system i t has t o be reduced t o about 2 b a r (30 l b / i n 1. Dur in g i t s passage t h r o u g h t h e v e n t u r i o r i f i c e on t h e c o n t r o l u n i t , a p r e s s u r e dro p o f 0 . 7 bar (10 I b / i n ) t ake s pl a ce.

17.6.3.4

System Design Con si de rat i o ns

To c a l c u l a t e t h e l u b r i c a t i o n re qu i reme nt s o f bearings, an e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r
r e f e r r e d t o as a ' l u b r i c a t i o n u n i t ' (L.U.) has been evolved, e n a b l i n g a l l moving rating.

s u r f a c e s r e q u i r i n g l u b r i c a n t t o be co nve rt e d t o t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t L.U. The amount o f l u b r i c a n t main

and bra nch l i n e p i p e bores and r e c l a s s i f i e r nozzles

may t h e n be s i z e d t o p r o v i d e t h e c o r r e c t amount o f l u b r i c a n t a t each l u b r i c a t i n g point. I n t h i s manner, a n t i - f r i c t i o n b ea ri ngs, j o u r n a l bearings, s l i d e s , gears,

c h a in s , and o t h e r we ari n g s u r f a c e s r e q u i r i n g l u b r i c a t i o n can a l l be converted t o e q u i v a l e n t L.U. systems. r a t i n g s and se rved by a p p r o p r i a t e l y s i z e d M i c r o - f o g l u b r i c a t i o n

17.6.3.5

Some T y p i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s

F i g u r e 24 i l l u s t r a t e s a t h r e e S t ran d Aluminium F o i l M i l l o p e r a t i n g a t 1000 t o 1500 m e t r e s / m in u t e w i t h two 1000 L.U. g e n e r a t i n g heads ( t h i r d a c t s as a standby) s e r v i n g t h e m i l l s t a c k and e x i t a n c i l l a r i e s , w i t h a s e p a r a t e 300 L.U. u n i t serving the entry a n c i l l a r i e s . generating

The t o t a l amount o f o i l used i s l e s s than

2.5 l i t r e s p e r w o r k i n g hour.
motor oears.

F i g u r e 25 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l u b r i c a t i o n o f v i b r a t o r

422

423

"i" 'i'
0I

Fig.25

Lubrication o f vibrator motor gears.

17.6.4

Check List

Based o n the foregoing, prior to actual selection of the appropr ate lubricant and associated equipment, it is advisable to draw up a check 1 st of known The following list, in simplified form, is for guide purposes only and can naturally be elaborated upon to suit the spec fic needs o f facts and requirements. the designer o r plant engineer. Specification o f Plant t o be lubricated: Type of plant and machinery to be lubricated. Industrial Application, including operating environmental conditions, e.g. is i t dirty, abrasive, wet, hot, etc.? Surfaces, sizes and speeds to be lubricated, e.g. Bearings (plain), Bearings (roller), Grease (type), Slideways, Chains, etc. Number and Location of lubrication Points (Fixed) and (Moving) and proposed site (if known) for lubricator enabling assessment of pipe and flexes: Frequency plant and machinery operators and whether lubrication needs to be continuous, semi-continuous, or intermittent.

424 L u b r i c a n t t ype and s p e c i f c a t i o n S e r v i ces a v a i l a b l e i n t h e P l a n t

Grease, O i l , o r M i c r o - f o g , e l e c t r i c , pneumatic.

etc

H e a l t h and S a f e t y a spe ct s e.g. normal, flameproof, a c c e s s i b i l i t y any h i s t o r y o f p r e v i o u s l y t r i e d l u b r i c a n t s / e q u i p m e n t . Method proposed f o r f i l l i n g t h e l u b r i c a t i o n t a n k / r e s e r v o i r , e.g. manual, semi-automatic, b u l k storage. Recommended L u b r i c a t i o n Equipment: Why? E s tima t e d performance w i t h any known Case Studies and References. Econom ic s

.
i n such circumstances i t i s

Spares and S e rvi ce. Sometimes equipment s e l e c t i o n i s an i n e v i t a b l e compromise as a r e s u l t

o f c o n f l i c t i n g l u b r i c a t i o n re qu i reme nts;

im p o r t a n t t o a p p r e c i a t e a l l t h e f a c t s and t o subsequently gauge p l a n t performance a c c o r d i n g l y . 17 7

SUMMARY

T h i s c h a p t e r has a t t emp t e d t o c l a r i f y t h e more g e n e r a l l y accepted methods o f l u b r i c a t i o n , where necessary i l l u s t r a t i n g a c t u a l examples o f p l a n t and l u b r i c a t i o n equipment.
I t i s n o t i n any way i n t e nded t o i n f e r t h a t t h i s i s t h e o n l y

l u b r i c a t i o n equipment a v a i l a b l e ; from Trade J o u r n a l s , e t c .

o f co urse , t h e r e a r e o t h e r s r e a d i l y determined

L i k e w i s e , t h e r e a r e many more s e l e c t items o f l u b r i -

c a t i o n equipment t a i l o r - m a d e t o meet t h e needs o f s p e c i a l i s t p l a n t . For example, Overhead and F l o o r Conveyors which can t r a v e l up t o 50 metres/ m in u te , u n l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y l u b r i c a t e d (and cl eaned where t h e environment demands) can wear and s e i z e , r e s u l t i n g i n c o s t l y stoppages. l n i t i a l y , c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t i c l u b r i c a t o r s were used where a m i x t u r e o f a i r and o i l not only

and now more r e c e n t l y j u s t o i l

- was

shot over a gap, w hich r e s u l t e d b u t a l s o caused d r i p -

n t h e f a i l u r e t o a de qu at el y l u b r i c a t e (Fig.1)

page w i t h c o n s e qu en t i a l p rod uct c o n t a m i n a t i o n and h e a l t h hazards. These problems were c o m p l e t e l y overcome by i n t r o d u c i n g a range o f s p e c i a l purpose l u b r i c a t o r s ; (F i g. 26 ) shows one such example.

The c o n c l u s i o n i s t o d et ermi n e a l l t h e f a c t s r e g a r d i n g t h e p l a n t t o be l u b r i c a t e d and t o t he n e v a l u a t e t h e l u b r i c a n t s and l u b r i c a t i o n equipment ava i 1a b le .

425

Fig.26

A dog c h a i n assembly engages t h e conveyor c h a i n which moves t h e o i l - d i s p e n s i n g n o z z l e p l a t e s i n and o u t o v e r t h e p i n l i n k s . O i l i s f o r c e d t h r o u g h each n o z z l e .

REFERENCES

1 2

3
4

Mechanical L u h r i c a t i o n o f E.O.T. Cranes by D r . H . P e t e r J o s t and P e t e r W. Murray. A F u l l y Automatic B u l k H a n d l i n g L u b r i c a t i o n System f o r a S i n t e r P l a n t by G. W i l l i a m s . An E n g i n e e r i n g Approach t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f C e n t r a l i s e d Grease L u b r i c a t i o n Systems by D r . H. P e t e r J o s t . Modern B r i t i s h and European Steelworks L u b r i c a t i o n Developments by D r . H. P e t e r J o s t . E!ew M i s t L u b r i c a t i o n Concepts f o r Tapered R o l l e r Bearinos used on High C.H. West and Speed R o l l i n g M i l l Back-up by R o l l s by \!.E.McCoy, P.E. W i l k s .

426

7
8 9
10

Aerosol L u b r i c a t i o n Systems - t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o savings i n o p e r a t i n g and maintenance c o s t s by R.E. K n i g h t and J.G. M e r r e t t . Micro-Fog L u b r i c a t i o n f o r b e a r i n g e f f i c i e n c y by J.G. M e r r e t t . Automatic L u b r i c a t o r s and Cleaners Increase Conveyor L i f e by J.G. M e r r e t t . Automatic L u b r i c a t i o n o f Chain and Conveyor Systems by R.M. Dombroski. The James C l a y t o n L e c t u r e - "Energy Saving through T r i b o l o g y " by D r . H. P e t e r J o s t and D r . J. S c h o f i e l d .

421

18
R.A.

ON CONDITION MAINTENANCE
,

COLLACOTT, Ph.D.,

B.Sc(Eng)

F. I .Mar. E . ,

F. I .Mech.E.

Director Head

UK Mechanical H e a l t h M o n i t o r i n g Group

F a u l t D i a g n o s i s Centre, L e i c e s t e r P o l y t e c h n i c .

18.1

INTRODUCTION

Maintenance c a r r i e d o u t when r e q u i r e d a f t e r a s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n a component as i n d i c a t e d by a sensor o r m o n i t o r e d parameter i s c a l l e d o n - c o n d i t i o n m i n tenance. a I f a person, when v i s i t i n g t h e d o c t o r f o r a h e a l t h - c h e c k was i n v i t e d t o have t h e i r body opened up t o see whether ' e v e r y t h i n g was c o r r e c t ' a most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e o f a f f a i r s would e x i s t . S i m i l a r l y , t o open up a machine i n o r d e r

t o check t h a t i t i s a l r i g h t i s j u s t as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y good can be done t o a machine i n t h i s way.

much more harm than

A c c o r d i n g l y i t i s l o g i c a l t o use

d i a g n o s t i c techniques t o assess t h e ' h e a l t h ' o r c o n d i t i o n o f p l a n t and machi n e r y i n j u s t t h e same way as a medical d o c t o r uses symptoms and a i d s t o assess t h e c o n d i t i o n o f human beings

and v e r y o f t e n s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l equipment

i s used b o t h by t h e medical d o c t o r and d i a g n o s t i c engineer.

18.2

BACKGROUND

O n - c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g i s a l r e a d y a c t i v e l y and e f f e c t i v e l y used i n many industries

i n a i r c r a f t , nuclear reactors, steel m i l l s , petroleum r e f i n e r i e s , I t i s a technology which has r a p i d l y e v o l v e d

s h i p s , power g e n e r a t i o n e t c .

d u r i n g t h e p a s t 5 t o 10 years by u s i n g methods and techniques which have been developed s i n c e 1945. H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e c h a i n o f e v o l u t i o n i s shown i n Fig.1. 1750

1915
1940
1950 1960 1970

... steam engines ... steam t u r b i n e s ... steam t u r b i n e s ... n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s ... space v e h i c l e s ... ... ... ... ...

s i m p l e c o n t e n t s gauges, simple governor p r e s s u r e , tempe rature, c o n t e n t s gauges e t c . automatic c o n t r o l s robotry m i n u t i a r i s a t i o n , remote t e l e m e t r y computer m i n u t i a r i s a t i o n , microprocessors

Figure 1

H i s t o r i c a l chain o f e v o l u t i o n of c o n d i t i o n monitorinq

428

18.3

MANAGEMENT OF CONDITION MONITORING

There a r e t h r e e e f f e c t i v e stages i n t h e management o f an o n - c o n d i t i o n maintenance system which go hand-in-hand w i t h a change i n o r g a n i s a t i o n whereby maintenance i n v o l v e s t h e r u n n i n g o f ( i ) a d i a g n o s t i c c a p a b i l i t y , team. The t h r e e stages i n d i a g n o s t i c management a r e : ( i i ) a repair

1)

F a i l u r e Modes and E f f e c t s A n a l y s i s

whereby t h e whole/complete p l a n t i s analysed s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o determine which p a r t s a r e c r i t i c a l and need t o be m o n i t o r e d , a l s o t o a p p r a i s e t h e i r t y p i c a l f a i l u r e cause whereby t h e most e f f e c t i v e method i s chosen whereby t h e amount o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n which can be p e r m i t t e d i s decided upon

2)

M o n i t o r i n g Technique S e l e c t i o n and Sensor A p p r a i s a l L i m i t Decision

3)

A f u l l account o f a l l t h r e e stages i s g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e

[l].

18.4

FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS B r i d g e s [ 3 ] and mentioned by Davies [ 4 ] , i n essence i t

A t y p i c a l example o f t h e way i n which t h i s can be done was e x p l a i n e d by

Venton and Harvey [ 2 ] ,

i s t h e use o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r e p a r e a numerical assessment o f t h e o r d e r o f e s s e n t i a l i t y o f v a r i o u s components (sub-systems) w i t h i n a p l a n t o r machinery.

A t i t s most elementary t h i s may be prepared by a s i m p l e ' D e l p h i ' a n a l y s i s ;

at

i t s more complex i t may i n v o l v e an i n t e g r a t e d d a t a - a p p r a i s a l method u s i n g f a i l u r e r a t e data which can be o b t a i n e d f o r d i f f e r e n t components

such f a i l u r e

r a t e data can be o b t a i n e d f r o m a number o f e s t a b l i s h e d d a t a banks [ 5 ] .

A t y p i c a l ' s t a r t i n g ' a p p r a i s a l f o r a marine power p l a n t m i g h t be t h e i n t e r dependency c h a r t f o r a l l sub-systems as shown i n Fig.2. T h i s a l r e a d y shows t h a t

f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r m i s s i o n f o r which t h i s a p p r a i s a l was made, h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y o f e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n was i m p o r t a n t

a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s which was c o n f i r m e d

by a b a s i c PHASE CRITICALITY ANALYSIS and remained unchanged when allowance was made f o r t h e i n h e r e n t s a f e t y t h r o u g h a HAZARDS AND R I S K S ANALYSIS. The causes o f p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e need t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . be d e r i v e d from h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s Again, t h i s must

i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o make, m a i n t a i n and

analyse r e c o r d s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e adequate i n f o r m a t i o n upon which t o choose t h e c o r r e c t m o n i t o r i n g methods. I n a t y p i c a l a n a l y s i s by W i l k i n s o n and K i l b o u r n [61 t h e f a i l u r e r a t e d a t a o f Table 18.1 was used t o determine t h e best arrangement o f an e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i n g standby p l a n t t o choose t h e most re1 i a b l e system.

429 I nter-dependen t System

System

(1)
X

(2)

(3) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) (7) ( 8 ) (9)

(10)

(11)

(12) (13)

1 ) Main e n g i n e 2) T r a n s m i s s i o n

x
X X

3) o i l
air

fuel

4 ) Compressed

5) E l e c t r i c a l
genera t i o n

x
X X
X X X

6) S t e e r i n g
gear

7) Deck
machinery

8) Sea w a t e r 9 ) B i I g e and
ballast

10) V e n t i l a t i o n 11) Exhaust 12) C o n t r o l s

X
X

13)

Steam

Fig.2

System i n t e r - d e p e n d e n c y A n a l y s i s

As a consequence o f p a s t o p e r a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e - e i t h e r by an i n d i v i d u a l user o r f r o m a m a n u f a c t u r e r o r some d a t a c e n t r e such as t h a t p r o v i d e d by L l o y d s R e g i s t e r o f S h i p p i n g o r t h e UK Atomic Energy A u t h o r i t y (Systems Re1 i a b i l i t y S e r v i c e ) - i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p r e p a r e FAULT TREES such as t h a t shown i n

F I ~ [ 7~. . ]

D e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f such f a u l t t r e e s w i l l

i d e n t i f y t h e poss-

i b l e p r i m a r y and secondary causes o f f a i l u r e s and t h e l i k e l y symptoms they w i l l produce. F a i l u r e symptoms a r e t h e p h y s i c a l consequences o f a m a l f u n c t i o n s i t u a t i o n .

I f f o r example one c o n s i d e r s b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s t h e r e a r e two q u i t e d i f f e r e n t

p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s between r o l l e r element b e a r i n g s and p l a i n b e a r i n g s . With

r o l l e r e l e m e n t b e a r i n g s e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t f a i l u r e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o c a l s u r f a c e d e f e c t s , c o n s e q u e n t l y o p e r a t i o n o f d e f e c t i v e b e a r i n g s s e t s up u l t r a h i g h f r e q u e n c y shock waves whi& can be most e f f e c t i v e l y diagnosed by shock

p u l s e methods p o s s i b l y a i d e d by s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s by a method c a l l e d 'kurtosis'. O t h e o t h e r hand, p l a i n b e a r i n g s wear i n a u n i f o r m w h o l e - s u r f a c e n

method w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t c l e a r a n c e s a r e changed and some i n t e r f e r e n c e ( r u b b i n g ) may ensue; f o r such c o n d i t i o n s , methods o f c l e a r a n c e measurement by

i n d u c t i v e p i c k - u p s or v i b r a t i o n measurement or even d e b r i s a n a l y s i s may be appropriate. For t h e two c l a s s e s o f b e a r i n g s d i f f e r e n t sensor systems w i l l be

430

aao
m

FIGURE 3

Typical FAULT TREE for a bearing failure analysis

c
EVALUATION OF

PROBLEM IIEFINITION

AN0

RMA

OBJECTIVES, REOUIREMENTS

t1 i
TRADE-OFF STUDIES FORMULATION

I
I I

EVALUATION

OF

FUhCTlONAL BLOC DIALRAMS ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS

OF

I
I I
I

ENVIRONMEIITAL

A N A l YSI5

FORMULATION Of A N A I Y Y ,

PROGHAM

I
ANALYSIS REVIEW OUANTITATIVE RMA - ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY BLOC DIAGRAMS CHARACTERISTICS

+I

FORMUI.ATION

OF MATHEMATICAL

MODELS

f
FAlLlJRE DATA COLLECTION

.1
JI
ANALYSIS

t
I

PREDICTION

OF

R M A - CHARACTERISTICS

1
1

FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS REVIEW

e
f
MAINTENANCE DATA COLLEC

CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE

L
sequence

r
TRADE-OFF STUDIES

FIGURE 4

Reliability analysis

diagram

432
ava i 1 a b I e

.
[7].

Thus t h e w h o l e i n i t i a l a n a l y t i c a l s t a g e c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d b y a number o f p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h h a v e been f u l l y s e t o u t i n F i g . 4

TABLE 18.1

F a i l u r e / r e p a i r data Repair Rate, Repa i r s / h Mean Time t o Repair, h ( 2 men)

Components

T u r b o - a l t e r n a t o r and c o n t r o l s : a l t e r n a t o r end t u r b i n e end D i e s e l a l t e r n a t o r and c o n t r o l s : a l t e r n a t o r end d i e s e l end T u r b o - a l t e r n a t o r s y s t e m sea w a t e r c i r c u l a t i n g pump D i e s e l a l t e r n a t o r sea w a t e r c i r c u l a t i n g pump Condenser A i r ejector E x t r a c t i o n pump B o i l e r f e e d pump Waste h e a t e c o n o m i s e r - t y p e b o i l e r O i l fired boiler Composite b o i l e r c i r c u l a t i n g pump
:: l

0.08197 0.122

12.2 8.2

0.08197 0.05051

12.2 19.8

0.1

10.0

0.1493 0.1667 0.1136 0.09434 0.1429 0.03636 0.05+: 0.09259

6.7
6.0

8.8
10.6 7.0 27.5 20 . O 10.8

Estimated

To e n s u r e t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h f a i l u r e / d e f e c t m a l f u n c t i o n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o be a b l e t o r e c o g n i s e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s through extensive defect r e c o g n i t i o n experience.

which i s o n l y obtained

18.5

MONITORING TECHNIQUE SELECTION

There a r e b a s i c a l l y f o u r techniques f o r t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f p l a n t and machinery d e t e r i o r a t i o n :

1.

dynamic methods

in p a r t i c u l a r v i b r a t i o n monitoring but also

i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f a i r - b o r n e sounds

433
2. inspection/integrity s u r v e i l l a n c e methods

which o r i g i n a t e d w i t h n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g techniques b u t have now extended t o i n c l u d e leak-testing; odour i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ; corrosion

m o n i t o r i n g and s t r e s s wave emission

3. contaminant i n s p e c t i o n

as a means o f i d e n t i f y i n g wear d e b r i s and r e l a t i n g i t b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i t a t i v e l y t o i t s source

4. trends analysis

e f f e c t i v e l y data l o g g i n g e i t h e r as s t r a i g h t sensor o u t p u t s as f o r example temperatures, pressures and speeds o r i n a c o o r d i n a t e d form u s i n g such parameters as s p e c i f i c f u e l consumpt i o n r a t e o r even ' d e l t a s f r o m the norm

'

of variations

18.5.1

V i b r a t i o n Monitoring

T h i s i s a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d technique r a n g i n g i n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n from t h e use o f j u d i c i o u s l y p l a c e d d i a l gauges i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h stroboscopes t o broadband a n a l y s i s , narrow band a n a l y s i s , a u t o - c o r r e l a t i o n , o t h e r h i g h l y instrumented techniques [8]. s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d e a l t w i t h by means o f : ( i ) p r o x i m i t y probes and pick-ups w i t h p o s s i b l y a cathode ray tube ( c r t ) display s i g n a l a v e r a g i n g and

Most m o n i t o r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e

( ii ) seismic v e l o c i t y transducers o r p i e z o - e l e c t r i c accelerometers o u t p u t t i n g

to either (a) broad-band ( o v e r a l I ) v i b r a t i o n meters (b) v i b r a t i o n spectrum a n a l y s e r s ( p a r t - o c t a v e o r narrow-band width) ( i i i ) waveform a n a l y s e r s

18.5.1.1

P r o x i m i t y Probes

The o r b i t moved through a s h a f t which i s loose i n i t s b e a r i n g s y e t s u b j e c t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f v a r i o u s f o r c e s can be observed by u s i n g two p r o x i m i t y probes p l a c e d a t a 90" r e l a t i v e a n g l e and t h e i r o u t p u t s l e d t o an X - Y p l o t t e r o r a CRT. The r e s u l t i n g d i s p l a y , Fig.5, can be used t o measure t h e a c t u a l amount

o f o r b i t a l e c c e n t r i c i t y (and t h u s t o determine whether ' b e a r i n g w i p e ' i s 1 i k e l y t o o c c u r ) a l s o t h e shape o f t h e o r b i t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e t y p e o f d e f e c t f o r c e

90

that the source o f troub/e cdn be estab/ished.

434

PICKUP

Fi g .5

S h a ft o r b i t a l a n a l y s i s

18.5.1.2

Seismic V e l o c i t y Transducers/Accelerometers/Vibration Meters/Spectrum A n al yse rs accel-

T h i s i s th e deve l op i ng are a o f i n t e r e s t i n ' s t r a i g h t ' v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s . V e l o c i t y t r a n s d u cers a r e most a p p l i c a b l e a t t he lower frequency ranges; erometers a r e e f f e c t i v e a t t h e h i g h e r f req ue ncy ranges; a t intermediate

fre q u e n c ie s (around 500 Hz = 500 x 60 = 3000 cpm) e i t h e r transducer i s a p p l i c ab le . With o v e r a l l (wide) bandwidth v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s a transducer p i c k s up a s i g n a l d e r i v e d f rom a l l t h e c o n s t i t u e n t f r e q u e n c i e s and t h i s i s measured by the meter

which a c c o r d i n g l y t e l l s whether t h e v i b r a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g i n i e . t h e system i s d e t e r i o r a t i n g .

strength,

To t e l l what i s d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n a machine i t i s necessary t o measure t h e v i b r a t i o n s i g n a l produced by each c o n s t i t u e n t component. r e c o r d i n g t h e fr equ en cy 'sp ect rum' f o r t h e machine. T h i s i s done by

Thus each component w i l l

ge n e r a te v i b r a t i o n s a t a p a r t i c u l a r f req ue ncy ( i t s ' d i s c r e t e ' frequency) and when p l o t t e d as i n Fig.6 produce a ' s p i k e ' on t h e graph a t t h a t frequency.
I f the ' s p i k e '

incre ase s w i t h succeeding s p e c t r a i t w i l l mean t h a t a defect

is

de v e lo p in g i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r component.

To know t h e values f o r t h e d i s c r e t e

fr e q u e n c ie s f o r d i f f e r e n t components i t i s necessary t o make frequency c a l c u l ations o f various kinds

i n any event machine designers make these c a l c u l a t i o n s

when machines a r e designed and such i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d when t h e machines a r e b e i ng purchased. Table. Typical frequencies are given i n the f o l l o w i n g

435

FREQUENCY

Fig.6

T y p i c a l frequency spectrum D i s c r e t e Frequency C a l c u l a t i o n s Frequency Equation

f

TABLE 18.2

V i b r a t i o n Type Simple harmonic Pendu 1 um ( s imp1e ) Pendulum (compound) Bar, u n i f o r m l y loaded, f i x e d b o t h ends Shaft, t o r s i o n a l o s c i l l a t i o n s , s i n g l e f l y w h e e l Ball bearing

= -1-

2n M

f = L 9
2n L
f = -1
f

2n (k2
L2

gh

ih2)

- 3.57

L. !
w

f =

1 2
21 I 7
d - - cos D

m a l f u n c t i o n o f o u t e r race m a l f u n c t i o n o f i n n e r race defective b a l l

nN f = - (1 2 f =

B) B)

Ball b e a r i n g
Ball b e a r i n g Gear t e e t h

nN d - ( 1 + - cos 2 D

D f = N(d f = N
G J I n

d - - C O S ~8 ) D

tooth defect

where, A = s t i f f n e s s o f system M = mass o f system g = acceleration o f g r a v i t y L = l e n g t h o f pendulum h = distance,c.g. t o p i v o t , compound pendulum k = r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n about c.g., compound pendulum != l e n g t h o f b a r i E = m o d u l u s o f E l a s t i c i t y (Youngs Modulus) I = second mment of are a o f s e c t i o n about n e u t r a l a x i s w = load p e r u n i t l e n g t h a p p l i e d t o bar T = t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s o f s h a f t CJ . 9

= shear modulus = p o l a r second moment of area p e r s h a f t = p o l a r moment o f i n e r t i a o f f l y w h e e l = number o f b a l l s i n b e a r i n g N = s h a f t speed (rev/min) d = b a l l diameter D = b a l l p i t c h c i r c l e diameter N1= gearwheel speed (rev/min) t = number o f t e e t h on gearwheel.

436
When u s i n g v i b r a t i o n s sensors p a r t i c u l a r c a r e must be taken i n s e l e c t i n g t h e i r mounting p o s i t i o n and i n methods by means o f which they a r e a t t a c h e d . Some v i b r a t i o n d e f e c t s o n l y show up i n t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , o t h e r s o n l y p r o duce major e f f e c t s i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e t o be recommended t h a t 3 sensors be used a t each l o c a t i o n so t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n s can be e s t a b l i s h e d i n two p e r p e n d i c u l a r r a d i a l p o s i t i o n s as w e l l as t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n .

A study o f t h e e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s d e f e c t s i n d i c a t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g v i b r a t i o n a l
characteristics:

TABLE 18.3

V i b r a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f D e f e c t i v e Components

unbalance misalignment

... ..

o c c u r s a t s h a f t speed a t s h a f t speed (sometimes 3 o r 4 x )

"

........
........

in a radial direction i n a r a d i a l o r more dominantly i n an a x i a l d ir e c t ion

p l a i n bearing loose i n housing worn gears

..

occurs a t 1 / 2 o r 1 / 3 s h a f t speed

........
..

in a radial direction in a radial or axial d ir e c t ion in a radial direction

...
...

occurs a t t o o t h mesh frequency = rpm x no. t e e t h

f a u l t y be1 t drive

occurs a t b e l t frequency

.....

mechan c a l looseness e l e c t r c a l induced

... ...

2 x s h a f t speed a t synchronous frequency

........

should disappear o f f power

18.5.1.3

Waveform A n a l y s i s

The shape o f t h e v i b r a t i o n waves and t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f superimposed v b r a t i o n s can be s t u d i e d by p a s s i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n s i g n a l through a time-doma n r e c o r d e r such as an u l t r a - v i o l e t i n genera
(UV) r e c o r d e r .

Such methods a r e

l i m i t e d t o v e r y low frequency ( s t r u c t u r a l ) v i b r a t i o n s and some

transient studies.

18.5.2

I n s p e c t i o n / l n t e g r i t y Surveillance

Methods t o determine t h e presence o f f l a w s which have been adopted f r o m n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e ( n d t ) t e s t i n g methods i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : (i) Dye p e n e t r a t i o n

which r e v e a l s c r a c k s a s small as 0.025 pm t o t h e naked eye

431 ( i i ) Flux t e s t i n g

magnetic m a t e r i a l s magnetised t o r e v e a l t h e presence o f c r a c k s when t h e s u r f a c e i s spread w i t h magnetic p a r t i c l e s / p o w d e r

(iii)

E l e c t r i c a l resistance

by which two probes a r e moved o v e r t h e s u r f a c e w i t h an e l e c t r i c a l p.d. them; between

c r a c k s a l t e r t h e r e s i s t a n c e and

therefore the passing current (iv) Eddy c u r r e n t t e s t i n g

c u r r e n t s induced i n a m a t e r i a l ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y magnetic) and c r a c k s l o c a t e d by a search c o i l

(v)

Ultrasonic testing

whereby c r a c k s a r e l o c a t e d by t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f u l t r a s o n i c waves propagated i n t o the m a t e r i a l ; t h i s method i s

d e v e l o p i n g i n t o one o f t h e p r i m a r y n d t techniques (vi) Radiographic

by which X-rays p e n e t r a t e t h e s u r f a c e and l o c a t e hidden c r a c k s .

I f one adds t o t h i s c a t a l o g u e o f techniques t h e newer ones which have been d e v e l o p e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r i n s p e c t i o n / s u r v e i l l a n c e purposes and add t o t h i s leak

d e t e c t i o n and c o r r o s i o n m o n i t o r i n g , a v a s t a r r a y o f p o s s i b l e methods i s p r e sented. An i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e range o f these i s g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e : C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f I n t e g r i t y S u r v e i l l a n c e Techniques

TABLE 18.4

Acoustic/ultrasonic Electr ica1 Magnetic Radiography Thermal

holography;

s t r e s s wave emission;

ultrasonic;

c a p a c i t a n c e ; corona d i s c h a r g e ; c o r r o s i o n probe; eddy c u r r e n t ; microwave; resistance hysteresis; particles; prints X-ray; gamma-ray; neutron

beta-ray backscatter; infra-red; compounds

s u r f a c e impedance;

thermographic

Visual

borescopes; C.C.T.V.; dye-penetrant; holography p h o t o - e l e c t r o n emission;

438
TABLE 18.5 Some f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s t o determine l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ; c o m p o s i t i o n o f aggregates assess t h e

Beta-ray B a c k s c a t t e r Capacitance Corrosion-probe Dye Penetrant Eddy Current F l u x Sensors Magnetic H y s t e r e s i s Magnetic P a r t i c l e s

c r a c k d e t e c t i o n , bond d e f e c t s i n n o n - m e t a l l i c materials m a t e r i a l loss by c o r r o s i o n measurement crack penetration using v i s i b l e o r fluorescent dyes surface d e f e c t s d e t e c t e d by e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c induction uses r e s i d u a l o f induced magnetic f l u x p e r t u r ba t i o n s measures magnetic changes due t o t h e presence o f faults s o l i d magnetic p a r t i c l e m i g r a t i o n i n t h e presence o f an a p p l i e d magnetic f i e l d l o c a t e s surface defects a s t r i p p a b l e p a i n t f i l m under magnetic f i e l d e f f e c t s which i l l u s t r a t e s s u r f a c e d e f e c t s i n f e r romagne t ic mate r ia 1 s infra-red i n s p e c t i o n o f non-conducting m a t e r i a l s

Magnetic P I i n t s

Microwave O p t i c a l Aids P h o t o e l e c t r o n Emission Radiography Resistivity S t r e s s Wave Emission U1 t r a son i cs

borescopes, f i b r e o p t i c s , CCTV t h e d e t e c t i o n o f spontaneous e l e c t r o n emissions f r o m p l a s t i c a l l y deformed s u r f a c e s p e n e t r a t i o n t o show up d e f e c t i v e and b u r n t - o u t parts c r a c k o r bond t e s t i n g by e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e measurement a method f o r l o c a t i n g t o p o s i t i o n and s e v e r i t y o f d e f e c t s i n metal s u r f a c e s and s t r u c t u r e s which uses t r a n s m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f u l t r a - h i g h frequency s o n i c waves t o l o c a t e d e f e c t s .

18.5.3

Contaminant A n a l y s i s

Moving c o n t a c t between t h e m e t a l l i c components o f any mechanical system i s accompanied by wear, which r e s u l t s i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f wear d e b r i c p a r t i c l e s . I n a l u b r i c a t e d system these p a r t i c l e s a r e i n suspension i n t h e c i r c u l a t i n g oil. Under normal c o n d i t i o n s t h e r a t e o f wear i s low and p a r t i c l e s formed a r e The s i z e and r a t e o f g e n e r a t i o n o f these p a r t i c l e s increase as t h e By i d e n t i f y i n g and measuring these m e t a l l i c p a r t i c l e s ,

v e r y small,

r a t e o f wear increases.

t h e s u r f a c e f r o m which t h e p a r t i c l e s were worn can be i d e n t i f i e d and t h e r a t e of wear can be determined t o be normal o r abnormal.

439
Techniques f r e q u e n t l y used i n o i l c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g a r e (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Magnetic p l u g i n s p e c t i o n S p e c t r o m e t r i c O i l A n a l y s i s Procedure (SOAP) Ferrography P a r t i c l e Counting ( f o r h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s ) Patch T e s t i n g i n c o r p o r a t e s a n o n - r e t u r n v a l v e so t h a t i t

A t y p i c a l magnetic p l u g , F i g . 7 ,

can be i n s e r t e d i n t o a p i p e - l i n e and/or withdrawn w i t h o u t loss o f f l u i d . D e b r i s which has been trapped by such a magnetic p l u g can be measured w i t h a magnetometer t o determine t h e amount t h a t has been c o l l e c t e d ; recorded t o determine t h e c o l l e c t i o n t r e n d . t h i s may then be

A t t h e same time, examination under

a s i m p l e microscope and comparison w i t h Debris R e c o g n i t i o n Drawings/Photographs makes i t p o s s i b l e t o t e l l t h e component from which t h e major amount o f wear m a t e r i a l has a r i s e n , as shown i n Fig.9. When spectroscopy was f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d as a chemical a n a l y t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t

100 years ago,

i t b r o u g h t about a r e v o l u t i o n i n c h e m i s t r y .

I t s advantages were

n o t m e r e l y t h a t spectroscopy was a s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t o r b u t t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t c o u l d d e t e c t and measure the q u a n t i t y o f an element p r e s e n t i n t h e sample i n dependently o f how t h e element was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a compound. The flame o r

spark o f t h e e m i s s i o n o r a b s o r p t i o n apparatus broke down t h e compounds and each element d i s p l a y e d i t s i n d i v i d u a l s e t o f spectrum l i n e s , Fig.10. Nothing was

occluded, t h i s was t h e fundamental d i f f e r e n c e f r o m a l l p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t i n g methods of chemical a n a l y s i s . When t h e advantages o f o i l a n a l y s i s were f i r s t r e a l i s e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i e s e l locomotives t o t h e r a i l r o a d s , t h e emission spectrograph was adapted t o o i l a n a l y s i s , t h e t h e o r y b e i n g t h a t a r a p i d increase o f a m e t a l l i c element i n t h e l u b r i c a t i n g o i l would imply t h a t a p a r t made o f t h a t element was wearing r a p i d l y . A i r d i r t , assembly o r r e p a i r d e b r i s , system wear

metals, c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s and c o o l a n t water i n h i b i t o r s a r e some of t h e mate r a i l s which may be detected.

E l emen t

wavelength (Angstrom u n i t s ) 3092 3247 3579 3720 2833 589 0 2354

A l umi n ium
Copper Ch rom i um Iron Lead Sod i um Tin

440

Fig.7

Magnetic p l u g ( c h i p d e t e c t o r )

VALVE OPEN-

FLOW

VALVE CLOSED

MAGN

O-RING SEALS
BAYONET PINS

Fig.8

Operating p r i n c i p l e o f t h e TEDECO/Muirhead V a c t r i c Magnetic Plug/ Chip D e t e c t o r

B a l l Debris rounded ' r o s e - p e t a l ' r a d i a l l y s p l i t shape

(b) Track D e b r i s rounded, s u r f a c e break up, c r i s s cross scratches

Rol l e r D e b r i s (d) Gear Tooth D e b r i s g e n e r a l l y c u r l e d and i r r e g u l a r shape, g r e y rectangular, p a r a l l e l l i n e s s u r f a c e as s p l a s h o f across width solder Magnetic p l u g d e b r i s source r e c o g n i t i o n

441

40

1
-

30

20 -

1 0

IB
C

L9-J-J
WAVE- LENGTH
T y p i c a l s p e c t r o s c o p i c spectrum Element sodium iron, lead

I d

1
3800

(ANGSTRON UNITS 1

Fip.10

TABLE 18.6

Element d e t e c t e d and f r e q u e n t source Sources Dust and A i r b o r n e d i r t Coolant i n h i b i t o r r e s i d u e s S a l t water r e s i d u e s Wear, c o r r o s i o n o r r e s i d u a l assembly d e b r i s Engine o i l a d d i t i v e s

Aluminium, S i l i c o n Borax, potassium, Calcium, Sodium Chromium, cooper, tin, zinc

Barium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, z i n c

Some manufacturers i n c o r p o r a t e s p e c i a l elements i n t o d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f an engine t o a c t as t r a c e r s so t h a t t h e i r presence i n a sample p r o v i d e s an unambiguous i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e source o f t r o u b l e .

SOAP has developed t o t h e p o i n t where t h e m a j o r i t y o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s ,

r a i l r o a d s and a i r l i n e s o p e r a t e s p e c t r o g r a p h i c o i l a n a l y s i s as a s t a n d a r d p r o cedure f o r d e t e c t i n g problem areas, schedule o v e r h a u l s and r o u t i n e o i l mon it o r i n g .

44 2
I t m ig h t be tho ug ht t h a t wear p a r t i c l e s c o u l d be examined by v i e w i n g a f i l t e r and measuring t h e number o f p a r t i c l e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r most cases

o t h e r t h a n h y d r a u l i c systems t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e . c e l l a n e o u s mass o f p a r t i c l e s a r e found.

I f o i l i s f i l t e r e d a mis-

Large and small p a r t i c l e s a r e p i l e d

one on t h e o t h e r so t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , size distribution etc. "just dirt". I n f a c t , f i l t e r e d d e p o s i t s g i v e t h e impression o f being

COLLECTOR RECEPTACLE

0L 1 SAMPLE

Fig.11

Schematic diagram o f 'F erro gra ph ' ( t h e s t r e n g t h o f the magnetic f i e l d i s g r e a t e s t a t t h e b ot t o m o f t h e s l i d e . ) on the o t h e r

The m o n i t o r i n g o f wear p a r t i c l e s on t h e F errograph, Fig.11, hand, i s a t e c h ni qu e i n which most t h i n g s a r e occluded.

One o f i t s most v a l -

ua b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s stems f ro m t h e f a c t t h a t i t does n o t see every p a r t i c l e and, i n fact, ig nore s e v e r y t h i n g exce pt wear metal p a r t i c l e s i n the o i l . The

s e p a r a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f wear p a r t i c l e s f o r s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , type o f m e t a l , p h y s i c a l shape, c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e e t c .

i s o f t e n a much more s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r

of t h e wear s i t u a t i o n than a d i r e c t vi e w o f t h e worn surface.

on wear.

Characteristic

d e b r i s f r o m modes o f f a i l u r e have been d i scussed by S c o t t i n a p r e v i o u s chapter

443

A l l wear d e b r i s a n a l y s i s t ech ni q ue s a r e p a r t i c l e s i z e dependent and any

p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n iq ue i s s e n s i t i v e o n l y t o a s p e c i f i c range o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s . Fig.12 summarises t he e f f i c i e n c y o f these t echniques as a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e size [g].

ISOA

Ferrography

Magnetic plug

10 100 Particle size (microns)

1000

Fig.12

E f f i c i e n c y o f v a r i o u s sensors as a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e

The c le a n 1 in e ss re qu i reme nt s o f h y d r a u l i c systems have become more c r i t i c a l i n r e c e n t years. Systems employing e l e c t r o h y d r a u l i c servo v a l v e s i n n u m e r i c a l l y

c o n t r o l l e d machine t o o l s , h i g h pre ssure systems where pump o r v a l v e clearances may be as s m a ll as 0.5 micrometre a r e p a r t i c u l a r examples. Analysing p a r t i c -

u l a t e c o n t a m i n a t i o n f o r these cases a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t by p a r t i c l e count methods u t i l i s i n g e i t h e r microscopes o r a ut omatic c o u n t e r s . Microscope c o u n t i n g methods (ASTM F312, F 3 1 3 , ARP 598A, I P

2751, a r e p r o -

cedures which a r e con si de red u n s u i t a b l e f o r p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r than 5 microns. These methods s i z e and co un t s t a t i s t i c a l l y p a r t i c l e s r e t a i n e d on a membrane surface a f t e r t h e f l u i d sample has been f i l t e r e d . A p a r t f r o m c o u n t i n g being v e r y

time consuming, t h e r e can be v a r i a t i o n when d i f f e r e n t people count t h e same

444 slide. Automatic c o u n t e r s a r e however now a v a i l a b l e u t i l i s i n g scanning com-

p u t e r s and TV screens. Other in s tr u m ent s u s i n g t he p r i n c i p l e o f l i g h t i n t e r c e p t i o n count p a r t i c l e s suspended i n a l i q u i d f r o m e i t h e r a sample b o t t l e o r d i r e c t f r o m a h y d r a u l i c system. As these i nst rume nt s o p e r a t e on t h e blockage o f l i g h t p r i n c i p l e , they

measure the p r o j e c t e d a rea o f a p a r t i c l e and then r e c o r d the diameter o f a c i r c l e o f e q u i v a l e n t area. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h ey cannot d i f f e r e n t i a t e between

s o l i d p a r t i c l e s and a i r bubbles. The t y p i c a l c o l o u r o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n any g i v e n h y d r a u l i c system remains f a i r l y constant. The darkness o f t h e p a r t i c u l a t e d i s c o l o u r a t i o n o f a f i l t e r is

t h e r e f o r e a rough i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e c l e a n l i n e s s o f the t e s t f l u i d .

T h i s Patch

Test procedure i s however o n l y g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o gross l e v e l s o f contami n a t io n .

18.5.4

Trends A n a l y s i s

T h i s i s l i t t l e more t h an t h e d at a l og ge r w i t h a memory and t r e n d a n a l y s i s capability. The most el e men t a ry f o r m i s t h e h a n d w r i t t e n watch l o g w hich i s As i n p r a c t i c e , r e a l use i s o n l y made o f t h e l o g a f t e r

inspected and analysed.

a f a i l u r e has o c curre d, t h e modern tendency i s t o use sensors t o i n p u t t o a general d a ta system which scans t h e m o n i t o r p o i n t s and produces a r e g u l a r p r i n t out. I n more advanced form, a computer i s capable o f combining many o f t h e

i n p u t s and e s t a b l i s h i n g t r e n d s which, by mathematical m o d e l l i n g , can be associ a t e d w i t h t h e changes whi ch would occu r f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c d e f e c t s and cons e q u e n t ly when t h e system i s i n t e r r o g a t e d ,

i t can s t a t e (through a l o g i c
w i t h preset-1 i m i t s

process) t h e p l a n t and component whi ch i s d e t e r i o r a t i n g ;

such a system w i l l even produce a st at eme nt o f t h e ' u n e x p i r e d l i f e ' remaining. Such advanced t r e n d s m o n i t o r s a r e more commonly known as 'performance' m o n ito r s .

18.6

DETERIORATION LIMITS

Most c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o c i e t i e s and b od i es o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e have establ i s h e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and codes o f p r a c t i c e which d e f i n e t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n l i m i t s which s h oul d be a l l o w e d b e f o r e c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n i s taken. Typically,

l i m i t s which have been e s t a b l i s h e d f o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d by v i b r a t i o n methods in c lu d e :

V D I Code o f P r a c t i c e 1056 (October 1964)

D I N 45665 (November 1967) B S 4675: 1971

IS0 2372/3 I t does seem t h a t f o r v i b r a t i o n l i m i t s , most people i n general e r r on the

445 side o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n a l t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e , t h e l i m i t must depend upon a large range o f environmental f a c t o r s s p e c i f i c t o each i n s t a l l a t i o n . I t i s o n l y by experience, b o t h p e r s o n a l and t h a t o f o t h e r t h a t a c t i v e I n t h e whole f i e l d o f c o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g ,

decision l i m i t s can be reached.

developments a r e o c c u r r i n g a t such a r a p i d speed t h a t o n l y an o r g a n i s a t i o n such as the UK Mechanical H e a l t h M o n i t o r i n g Group through i t s r e g u l a r seminar/ symposia and courses i s i t p o s s i b l e t o a c q u i r e a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n consultants

known t o

needed t o implement and manage an o n - c o n d i t i o n maintenance system.

REFERENCES Collacott,R.A. 'Mechanical Fau t D i a g n o s i s and C o n d i t i o n M o n i t o r i n p ' Chapman & H a l l , London 1977. 2 Venton ,A. D. F. and Harvey ,B. F. R e l i a b i l i t y assessment i n machinery system d e s i g n ' Proc. 1.Mech.E. 973. 3 Bridges,D.C. 'The a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e l i a b i l i t y t o t h e design o f s h i p ' s machinery' Trans. 1.Mar.E. 86, P a r t 6 1974. 4 Davies,A.E. ' P r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e o f a i r c r a f t powerplant maintenance' Trans. 1.Mar.E. 85 P a r t 6 1973. 5 Collacott,R.A. 'Data Sources f o r Re1 i a b i l i t y S t a t i s t i c s ' UKM P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d . , 92 London Road, L e i c e s t e r LE2 OQR 1976. 6 Wilkinson,H.C. and Ki1bourn.D.F. 'The d e s i g n o f s h i p ' s machinery i n s t a l l a t i o n s ' S h i p p i n g World and S h i p b u i l d e r , August 1971. 7 Mathieson,Tor-Chr. ' R e l i a b i l i t y e n g i n e e r i n g i n s h i p machinery p l a n t design' Report IF/R.12 U n i v e r s i t y o f Trondheim,N.I.T. 1973. 8 Col l a c o t t ,R.A. ' V i b r a t i o n M o n i t o r i n g and D i a g n o s i s ' George Godwin L i m i t e d 1978. 9 Pocock,G. ' Introduction t o Ferrography' Symposium on Ferrography, B r i t i s h I n s t . Non D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , London 1979.

446

I!)

THE TRIBOLOGY OF METAL CUTTING

E. M. TRENT

Department o f I n d u s t r i a l M e t a l l u r g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f Birmingham, Birmingham 815 2TT

19.1

INTRODUCTION

The e f f i c i e n c y o f metal c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s i s v e r y l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e behaviour o f t h e work m a t e r i a l and t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between them near t h e c u t t i n g edge o f t h e t o o l . Metal c u t t i n q i s c a r r i e d o u t on all The machining

the m a jo r c l a s s e s o f m e t a l s and a l l o y s produced commercially.

o p e r a t i o n s such as b o r i n g , d r i l l i n g , t a p p i n g , t u r n i n q , m i l l i n g , p l a n i n g and sawing a r e v e r y v a r i e d i n c h a r a c t e r . Ob j ect s as small as instrument p a r t s o r

as l a r g e as i n d u s t r i a l b o i l e r s a r e machined t o remove excess m a t e r i a l and t o ge n e r a t e t h e necessary shapes w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d p r e c i s i o n , b u t , however v a r i e d , a l l machining o p e r a t i o n s have c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s i n common.

19.2

METAL CUTTING PHENOMENA

A l l machining o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e use o f one o r more t o o l s o f a wedge

shape w i t h a c u t t i n g edge, whi ch remove a t h i n l a y e r f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f a l a r g e r body as shown i n Fig.1. The t o o l s a r e always moved a s y m m e t r i c a l l y w i t h

re s p e c t t o t h e wedge a n g l e s o t h a t t h e l a y e r removed

t h e " chip"

bears

a g a i n s t and moves ove r one s u r f a c e o f t h e wedge, known as t h e "rake face" o f the t o o l . The t o o l i s so shaped t h a t t h e f r e s h l y c u t metal s u r f a c e does n o t rub

a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r f a c e o f t h e wedge tool. (Fig.1).

t h e "cl earance face" o r " f l a n k "

o f the

The l a y e r o f metal removed i s f i r s t p l a s t i c a l l y deformed by a shearing a c t i o n , r o u g h l y a l o n g a p l a n e A-B

i n Fig.l.,

e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e t o o l edge A t o This

t h e p o s i t i o n B where t h e c h i p sep ara t e s f rom t h e undeformed work m a t e r i a l . i n v o l v e s severe shear s t r a i n

usually a natural s t r a i n o f a t least 2 but often which shows a s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e The shear plane i s under h i g h com-

v e r y much h i g h e r as can be seen f r o m F i g. 2. forming c h i p d u r i n g t h e c u t t i n g o f copper.

p r e s s i v e s t r e s s and t h e t r i - a x i a l s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n i s such t h a t w i t h most d u c t i l e m e t a l s and a l l o y s t h e h i g h shear s t r a i n can be s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t f r a c t u r e s o t h a t a c ont i nu ou s c h i p i s formed, as w i t h t h e example o f copper. With

m e t a ls and a l l o y s o f low d u c t i l i t y , however, o r under c u t t i n g c o n d i t i o n s where t h e compressive s t r e s s on t h e shear p l a n e i s low, t h e c h i p may be broken i n t o

447

CLEARANCE FACE

TOOL

Fig.1

Features o f Metal C u t t i n g

Fig.2

S e c t i o n through c h i p and b a r o f h i g h p u r i t y copper a f t e r "quick-stop". Machined a t 122111m i " - ' .

448 small fragments.

A d i s c o n t i n u o u s c h i p i s formed, f o r example, when c u t t i n g

c a s t i r o n o r a f r e e c u t t i n g brass. The c h i p moves across t h e r a k e s u r f a c e o f t h e t o o l away f r o m t h e c u t t i n g edge and breaks c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t o o l s u r f a c e a t some p o s i t i o n C, u s u a l l y r a t h e r i l l defined. Always t h e c o n t a c t l e n g t h A-C i n Fig.1.) i s g r e a t e r than t h e o r i g i n a l t h i c k n e s s

o f t h e l a y e r b e i n g removed ( t l

t h e "feed"

A-C

i s o f t e n 5 o r even

10 times t h e feed tl.

The work and t o o l m a t e r i a l s a r e i n c o n t a c t a t t h e

c u t t i n g edge and u s u a l l y f o r a s h o r t d i s t a n c e down t h e c l e a r a n c e f a c e o r f l a n k o f the t o o l . The l e n g t h o f c o n t a c t i n t h i s r e g i o n A-D The c l e a r a n c e a n g l e (Fig.1.) i s u s u a l l y much s h o r t e r which i s u s u a l l y about

than on t h e rake f a c e A-C.

6" t o 15" r e s t r i c t s t h e l e n g t h of c o n t a c t on t h i s s u r f a c e , b u t d u r i n g c u t t i n g
t h e most common f o r m o f wear i s one i n which a s u r f a c e i s worn on t h e t o o l nearly p a r a l l e l t o the d i r e c t i o n o f c u t t i n g

t h e " f l a n k wear land"

i n Fig.1.

T h i s worn s u r f a c e , and hence t h e l e n g t h o f c o n t a c t A-D,

tends t o i n c r e a s e w i t h

c u t t i n g t i m e b u t , t o a v o i d t o t a l t o o l f a i l u r e , t h e f l a n k wear should n o t be a l l o w e d t o become t o o l a r g e b e f o r e t h e t o o l i s reground o r replaced.

19.3
19.3.1

CONDITIONS AT THE TOOL-WORK INTERFACE Tool Forces and Stresses

The f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l a r e ( 1 ) t h a t r e q u i r e d t o shear t h e work material over t h e area o f t h e shear p l a n e A-8 (Fig.1.) and ( 2 ) t h a t r e q u i r e d t o move t h e The f o r c e t o move t h e work

c h i p across t h e t o o l rake f a c e c o n t a c t r e g i o n A-C. m a t e r i a l o v e r t h e f l a n k A-D

i s small compared w i t h t h e o t h e r f o r c e s and can be Tool dynamometers have been developed and

neglected i n a f i r s t approximation.

used t o measure t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l i n two d i r e c t i o n s d i r e c t i o n o f c u t t i n g Fc and i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f e e d F f .

i n the

I n mast c u t t i n g

o p e r a t i o n s t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l v a r y f r o m a few k i l o g r a m s t o a few hundred k i l o g r a m s . The c u t t i n g f o r c e Fc a c t s n e a r l y normal t o t h e r a k e f a c e o f t h e t o o l and e x e r t s a l a r g e l y compressive s t r e s s on t h i s s u r f a c e . The f e e d

f o r c e F f i s almost always s m a l l e r than t h e c u t t i n g f o r c e ( t y p i c a l l y 40-60% o f t h e c u t t i n g f o r c e ) and e x e r t s a s h e a r i n g s t r e s s on t h e t o o l s u r f a c e . While t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l can be measured w i t h accuracy, even t h e mean v a l u e o f the s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e c o n t a c t area between work m a t e r i a l and t o o l i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e because t h e a r e a o f c o n t a c t i s d i f f i c u l t o r impossible t o measure e x a c t l y . The s t r e s s e s a r e n o t e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d on t h e

c o n t a c t area and i t i s n o t easy t o determine t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h i s area. The general c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e rake f a c e o f a i s now g e n e r a l l y accepted t o be t h a t suggested by Zorev

c u t t i n g t o o l , however,

111 and shown d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y i n Fig.3.

a t t h e end o f t h e c o n t a c t area.

The compressive s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e

rake face i s a t a maximum a t o r c l o s e t o t h e c u t t i n g edge and d i m i n i s h e s t o z e r o The maximum compressive s t r e s s near t h e edge

449

(COMPRESSIVE

STRESS CHIP SHEAR STRESS

*
ul

' -\ b
(DISTANCE

, ,

'FROM 'CUT

Fig.3

S t r e s s d i s t r b u t i o n i n c u t t i n g t o o l ( a f t e r Zorev)

2,000

1,500

0
4 -

'
I

5
C .c U 0
0,

1,000

Cl J

A,

I? .

'

500

50

100

150

200

Cutting speed rn min?

Fig.4

Forces a c t i n g on a t o o l as f u n c t i o n o f c u t t i n g speed. Depth o f c u t 1.25mm. Feed 0.25mm/rev.

450
i s o f t e n t w i c e t h e mean s t r e s s on t h e area o f c o n t a c t . The shear s t r e s s on t h e

rake f a c e i s more u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d as shown i n Fig.3. The v a l u e s o f t h e compressive s t r e s s near t h e edge a r e h i g h r e l a t i v e t o t h e y i e l d stress o f the material being c u t

t h e work m a t e r i a l .

For example, i n

c u t t i n g s t e e l t h e compressive s t r e s s near t h e edge may be o f t h e o r d e r o f -2 1500 N mm A major requirement o f a s a t i s f a c t o r y t o o l m a t e r i a l i s t h u s h i g h

y i e l d s t r e s s i n compression, and t h e V i c k e r s o r Rockwell hardness v a l u e s a r e u s u a l l y taken as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s p r o p e r t y . The most commonly used c u t t i n g The minimum

t o o l m a t e r i a l s a r e hardened h i g h speed s t e e l and cemented c a r b i d e .

hardness o f c u t t i n g t o o l m a t e r i a l s i n common use i s 750 HV (62 Rockwell C). Although t h e r e a r e few r e l i a b l e d a t a f o r t h e s t r e s s e s on t h e c o n t a c t area o f t o o l s i n real c u t t i n g operations, y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e work m a t e r i a l . i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t they are r e l a t e d t o the Approximate values f o r t h e mean s t r e s s

a c t i n g normal t o t h e r a k e f a c e o f a t u r n i n g t o o l under a standard s e t o f c u t t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e shown i n Table 19.1 f o r d i f f e r e n t work m a t e r i a l s . TABLE 19.1 Mean compressive s t r e s s on c o n t a c t area Compressive S t r e s s
N mm

Work m a t e r i a l

-2

I ron Steel (medium carbon) T i taniurn Copper 70/30 brass Lead

340 770 570

310
420 14

For t h e c u t t i n g o f m a t e r i a l s o f v e r y h i g h y i e l d s t r e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a t t r e a t e d s t e e l s and n i c k e l base a l l o y s , t h e usual s t e e l and cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s may be inadequate because t h e s t r e s s imposed by t h e work m a t e r i a l i s h i g h enough t o deform t h e c u t t i n g t o o l edge even a t v e r y low c u t t i n g speed where t h e t o o l edge temperature i s low.
I t i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d i n a machine shop

t h a t h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s cannot be used t o c u t s t e e l s w i t h hardness h i g h e r than 350 HV (36 Rc) and t h a t t h e c u t t i n g o f s t e e l w i t h hardness o v e r 550 HV (53 Rc) becomes v e r y d i f f i c u l t even w i t h cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s . For t h e mach-

i n i n g o f f u l l y hardened s t e e l i t has been more usual t o r e s o r t t o g r i n d i n g u s i n g s i l i c o n c a r b i d e , aluminium o x i d e o r bonded diamond wheels, o r t o shape by e l e c t r o d i s c h a r g e machining (EDM) o r e l e c t r o chemical machining (ECM). Recently t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new c u t t i n g t o o l m a t e r i a l s w i t h s t i l l h i g h e r y i e l d strength tools

i n c l u d i n g compacted p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e diamond and c u b i c boron n i t r i d e

has made t h e c u t t i n g o f f u l l y hardened s t e e l s , h i g h e r s t r e n g t h n i c k e l -

based a l l o y s , and o t h e r v e r y h a r d m a t e r i a l s , a more f e a s i b l e p r o p o s i t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l shaping o p e r a t i o n s .

451
19.3.2
C u t t i n g Speed

One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t parameters i n metal c u t t i n g i s t h e v e l o c i t y a t which the work m a t e r i a l passes t h e c u t t i n g edge

t h e c u t t i n g speed.

This

varies g r e a t l y i n i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s f r o m almost zero, f o r example near t h e centre o f a d r i l l , t o 300 m min-' o r even h i g h e r . Rather t o t h e i r s u r p r i s e
i n g e n e r a l , these f o r c e s do

research workers measuring t o o l f o r c e s found t h a t , not i n c r e a s e as t h e c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d .

I n many cases t h e f o r c e s decrease, -1 p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e speed range up t o 65 m min as shown f o r example i n Fig.4. This has been shown t o be t r u e f o r a wide range o f work m a t e r i a l s and c u t t i n g conditions. The f o r c e s decrease m a i n l y because t h e a r e a o f c o n t a c t between t o o l A l t h o u g h t h e r e have been no v e r y

and work decreases as c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d .

d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s o f t h e s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l s u r f a c e as a f u n c t i o n o f c u t t i n g speed, t h e r e i s no evidence t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l i s r a i s e d as c u t t i n g speed i s increased. C u t t i n g speed i s o f p a r t i c u l a r importance i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e economics o f machining. The c o s t o f machining o p e r a t i o n s i s reduced by i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a t e

of metal removal, and t h e main i n c e n t i v e t o t h e development i n machining i n t h e l a s t hundred y e a r s has been t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e v e r y h i g h c o s t s by t h e use o f new machines and t o o l s capable o f machining a t increased r a t e s . In the c u t t i n g

o f h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t m e t a l s and a l l o y s t h e l i f e o f t h e c u t t i n g t o o l becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y s h o r t e r as t h e c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d u n t i l t h e c o s t o f r e p l a c i n q worn o u t t o o l s more than outweighs t h e advantages o f h i g h e r speed.

I t has been

the a b i l i t y o f t h e c u t t i n g t o o l t o w i t h s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e t o o l edge which has l i m i t e d t h e r a t e o f machining o f s t e e l and c a s t i r o n . The development

and commercial use f i r s t of h i g h speed s t e e l s and then o f cemented c a r b i d e s has enabled c u t t i n g speeds t o be r a i s e d by a f a c t o r o f about 20 t i m e s compared w i t h carbon s t e e l t o o l s and t h e r e a r e s t i l l many o p e r a t i o n s i n which t o o l l i f e i s the f a c t o r l i m i t i n g t h e r a t e o f metal removal.
In g e n e r a l as t h e c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d n e i t h e r t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e

t o o l n o r t h e s t r e s s e s on t h e area o f c o n t a c t a r e increased.

The energy expended

i n metal c u t t i n g , however, increases a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e c u t t i n g speed,

i f o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s remain c o n s t a n t .

T h i s energy i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o heat

near t h e c u t t i n g edge, and r a i s e s t h e temperature o f t h e t o o l , r e d u c i n g i t s y i e l d s t r e s s and i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a t e o f t o o l wear. I t i s t h i s r i s e i n temper-

a t u r e which l i m i t s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e t o o l s t o w i t h s t a n d i n c r e a s i n g c u t t i n g speed. The g e n e r a t i o n o f temperatures i n metal c u t t i n g must now be considered. Heat i n Metal C u t t i n g

19.3.3

I n metal c u t t i n g energy i s expended i n t o two main r e g i o n s (1) a l o n g t h e shear p l a n e A-B (Fig.1.) where t h e work m a t e r i a l i s sheared t o form t h e c h i p ,

and (2) a t t h e r a k e surface o f t h e t o o l where t h e c h i p i s moved across t h e contact area.

452
The energy expended i n s h e a r i n g t h e work m a t e r i a l t o f o r m t h e ch p m a i n l y r e s u l t s i n r a i s i n g t h e temperature o f t h e c h i p and almost a l l o f t h s h e a t i s c a r r i e d o u t o f t h e system when t h e c h i p breaks c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t o o

Since any

one element o f t h e c h i p i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t o o l f o r o n l y a v e r y s h o r t time

t y p i c a l l y a few m i l l i - s e c o n d s

o n l y a small p r o p o r t i o n o f t h i s h e a t c o u l d be
I t i s probable,

conducted i n t o t h e t o o l under t h e most f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s .

as w i l l be shown, t h a t a l l t h e h e a t i n t h e body o f t h e c h i p i s c a r r i e d o u t o f t h e system i n most cases.

A small p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e h e a t generated on t h e
The energy ex-

shear p l a n e i s conducted back i n t o t h e body o f t h e workpiece.

pended on t h e shear p l a n e i s n o r m a l l y t h e largest p a r t o f t h e t o t a l energy o f cutting

o f t e n o f t h e o r d e r o f 75 t o 8 0 % o f t h e t o t a l .

The temperature o f t h e

c h i p i s o f t e n r a i s e d t o 200-350C when c u t t i n g s t e e l o r o t h e r h i g h m e l t i n g point materials.

I t i s t h e s m a l l e r p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l energy o f c u t t i n g - t h a t expended i n

moving t h e c h i p o v e r t h e t o o l temperatures a t t h e t o o l / w o r k must t h e r e f o r e be considered.

which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f h i g h

i n t e r f a c e and t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h i s i n t e r f a c e The h i g h compressive s t r e s s normal t o t h e t o o l The mean s t r e s s on t h e c o n t a c t area

r a k e s u r f a c e has a l r e a d y been emphasised.

i s always much h i g h e r than t h e s t r e s s e s n o r m a l l y encountered a t moving i n t e r faces i n e n g i n e e r i n g systems. The v e r y h i g h s t r e s s e s a l o n e would r e s u l t i n t h e

area o f r e a l c o n t a c t between t h e two s u r f a c e s b e i n g a much h i g h e r p o r p o r t i o n o f t h e apparent c o n t a c t a r e a than is usual f o r s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s , and would t e n d t o promote s e i z u r e . Other f a c t o r s a r e a l s o f a v o u r a b l e t o s e i z u r e . The t o o l i s

c o n t i n u a l l y c u t t i n g i n t o clean metal, being brought i n t o contact w i t h surfaces f r e e f r o m o x i d e o r o t h e r l a y e r s which i n h i b i t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c o n t a c t areas i n many s l i d i n g s i t u a t i o n s . The c l e a n work m a t e r i a l f l o w s c o n t i n u o u s l y o v e r t h e

t o o l s u r f a c e i n one d i r e c t i o n , sweeping away o x i d e o r o t h e r l a y e r s i n i t i a l l y p r e s e n t on t h e t o o l , which have l i t t l e chance t o r e - f o r m . Relatively high

temperatures generated a t t h e i n t e r f a c e i n c r e a s e atomic a c t i v i t y and t h i s a l s o tends t o promote s e i z u r e .

19.3.4

Seizure o f t h e Tool/Work

Interface
i t i s not surprising t o f i n d that

When these c o n d i t i o n s a r e considered,

s e i z u r e between the t o o l and work s u r f a c e s i s commonly observed on c u t t i n g tools

[Z]. The process o f f r i c t i o n w e l d i n g i s o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t under conFor example, sound and p e r i p h e r a l

d i t i o n s l e s s severe than those encountered i n metal c u t t i n g .

j o i n t s can be made by f r i c t i o n w e l d i n g a t p r e s s u r e s o f 75 N mm- speeds o f 50 m min-, 750 N mm-

whereas i n metal c u t t i n g s t r e s s e s on t h e c o n t a c t area o f That s e i z u r e occurs a t t h e

o c c u r and h i g h e r speeds a r e o f t e n used.

t o o l / w o r k i n t e r f a c e i s confirmed by numerous m e t a l l o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s , o f which t h r e e examples w i l l be g i v e n here.

453 Fig.5. shows a p o l i s h e d and e t c h e d s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e rake f a c e o f a

cemented c a r b i d e t o o l and a d h e r i n g work m a t e r i a l a f t e r c u t t i n g s t e e l a t 1 0 0 m -1 min I t shows t h e work m a t e r i a l i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t o o l s u r f a c e n o t j u s t a t

the tops o f t h e a s p e r i t i e s b u t a t a l l t h e h i l l s and v a l l e y s o f t h e s u r f a c e on a

micro scale. To say t h a t these s u r f a c e s a r e s e i z e d t o g e t h e r means t h a t s l i d i n g as normally conceived, w i t h t h e two s u r f a c e s separated by a f l u i d f i l m o r i n contact o n l y a t t h e a s p e r i t i e s , i s not possible. The two s u r f a c e s a r e mechan-

i c a l l y i n t e r l o c k e d and/or m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y bonded o v e r t h e whole o r a l a r g e p a r t of the i n t e r f a c e . That m e t a l l u r g i c a l bonding i s o f t e n i n v o l v e d i s shown by

examples, such as those shown i n Figs.6 and

7, i n which, a f t e r s t o p p i n g c u t t i n g

by p r o p e l l i n g t h e t o o l r a p i d l y f r o m t h e c u t t i n g p o s i t i o n , t h e c h i p remains f i r m l y adherent t o t h e t o o l o r separates f r o m t h e t o o l a t some p o s i t i o n remote from the i n t e r f a c e , l e a v i n g a l a y e r o f work m a t e r i a l welded t o t h e t o o l surface.

Fig.5

S e c t i o n t h r o u g h c a r b i d e t o o l w i t h adherent work m a t e r i a l ( w h i t e ) a f t e r cutting steel. Shows s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s a t i n t e r f a c e .

Seizure i s n o r m a l l y t h o u g h t o f as a c o n d i t i o n where a mechanism ceases t o f u n c t i o n , as when a b e a r i n g s e i z e s , b u t i n m e t a l c u t t i n g t h e s e i z e d area i s small, t h e r e i s adequate power t o c o n t i n u e c u t t i n g and t h e t o o l i s s rong enough t o r e s i s t t h e s t r e s s e s imposed by s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s . Movement c o n t nues by This gives ayers o f i s then

shear in t h e work m a t e r i a l i n a r e g i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e t o o l s u r f a c e . r i s e t o two main s o r t s o f c o n d i t i o n s near t h e i n t e r f a c e . The f i r s t

work m a t e r i a l s e i z e d t o t h e t o o l a r e s e v e r e l y work hardened and shea transferred t o the next layers.

I n t h i s way a body o f "dead m e t a l " may be

b u i l t up, adherent t o t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l , which p e r s i s t s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f cutting. Fig.8 shows an example o f t h i s f e a t u r e , known as a " b u i l t - u p edge".

The b u i l t - u p edge reaches a s t a b l e s t a t e and t h e s i z e and shape depending on the work m a t e r i a l and t h e c u t t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

I t i s a dynamic s t r u c t u r e w i t h

454

Fig.6

S e c t i o n through h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l and adherent c h i p ( a u s t e n i t i c s t a i n l e s s s t e e l ) a f t e r machining a t 3 0 m min-1.

Fig.7

S e c t i o n throuqh h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l and adherent c h i p fragment a f t e r c u t t i n g low carbon s t e e l a t 107111min-'.

fragments b e i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y added and broken away.

The s h e a r i n g a c t i o n l e a d i n g

t o c h i p f o r m a t i o n may t a k e p l a c e a t a d i s t a n c e o f 300 urn o r more from t h e t o o l surface.

A b u i l t - u p edge i s o f t e n formed when c u t t i n g a l l o y s c o n t a i n i n g more than one

phase, such a s s t e e l , c a s t i r o n and a l p h a - b e t a b r a s s

[31.

With such m a t e r i a l s

a b u i l t - u p edge o c c u r s when c u t t i n g a t r e l a t i v e l y low speeds, b u t disappears

455

Fig.8

B u i l t - u p edge formed d u r i n g c u t t i n g low carbon s t e e l a t 15m min

-1

when speed o r f e e d a r e r a i s e d .

When c u t t i n g pure m e t a l s and s o l i d s o l u t i o n s a t

almost any speed, and when c u t t i n g two phase a l l o y s i n t h e h i g h e r range o f speeds, s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e observed t o e x i s t a t most o f t h e i n t e r f a c e , b u t Movement o f t h e work m a t e r i a l t a k e s p l a c e by

t h e b u i l t - u p edge i s absent.

shear c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t o a v e r y t h i n l a y e r a d j a c e n t t o t h e t o o l s u r f a c e u s u a l l y o f t h e o r d e r o f 25-50 um i n t h i c k n e s s . Fig.2. An example of such a l a y e r i s seen i n

f o r t h e c u t t i n g o f copper and a l a y e r when c u t t i n g a low carbon s t e e l i s I n t h i s l a y e r t h e work m a t e r i a l behaves

seen a t h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n i n Fig.9.

more l i k e a v e r y v i s c o u s l i q u i d than a normal metal and t h e l a y e r i s termed a "flow-zone". I n t h e flow-zone t h e r a t e o f shear s t r a i n i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h

l o 4 t o l o 5 p e r second

and t h e amount o f s t r a i n i s so extreme t h a t o r i g i n a l

s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s (such as p e a r l i t e and f e r r i t e i n s t e e l ) a r e c o m p l e t e l y destroyed. There i s good evidence t h a t , w i t h i n t h e flow-zone, dynamic recovery

456 and/or r e c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n a r e t a k i n g p l a c e and t h e behaviour o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s a k i n t o i t s behaviour i n h o t w o r k i n g p r o c e s s e s .

Fig.9

Flow zone a t under s u r f a c e of c h i p , a d j a c e n t t o r a k e f a c e of t o o l , formed d u r i n g c u t t i n g low carbon s t e e l a t 63m min-'.

19.3.5

C u t t i n g Tool Temperatures per u n i t

The energy expended i n deforming t h e work m a t e r i a l i n t h e flow-zone volume o f metal deformed,

i s much h i g h e r than on t h e shear p l a n e and t h e tempThe c o n t a c t between

e r a t u r e s generated i n t h e flow-zone a r e t h e r e f o r e h i g h e r . t h e flow-zone and t h e t o o l i s v e r y good.

As has been demonstrated t h e r e i s

continuous m e t a l l i c c o n t a c t i n many cases and heat f l o w s r e a d i l y across t h e boundary t o heat t h e t o o l . I t i s t h e heat generated i n t h e flow-zone a t t h e

i n t e r f a c e between t o o l and work m a t e r i a l which i s t h e main h e a t source r a i s i n g t h e temperature o f t h e t o o l and c r e a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which c u t t i n g t o o l s a r e worn. The r e g i o n s o f t h e t o o l s which a r e heated t o h i g h temperature a r e v e r y l o c a l i s e d and w i t h i n these r e g i o n s temperature g r a d i e n t s a r e v e r y steep, b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o study t h e temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n some d e t a i l f o r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s o f c u t t i n g by o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e changes i n s t r u c t u r e o r hardness o f s t e e l t o o l s i n those p a r t s o f t h e t o o l s heated by c u t t i n g a c t i o n above t h e i r tempering temperature. Fig.10 shows, f o r example, t h e temperature g r a d i e n t s i n

457
a h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l used t o c u t a l o w c a r b o n s t e e l a t a speed o f 76m m i n - l a t a f e e d o f 0.25 mm p e r r e v . T h i s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e t y p e o f temperature

d i s t r i b u t i o n f o u n d t o o c c u r i n t o o l s u s e d t o c u t s t e e l u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s where a flow-zone o c c u r s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e . t o o l edge was r e l a t i v e l y l o w Fig.10 shows t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e n e a r t h e

i n t h i s c a s e u n d e r 650C

but there i s a high

t e m p e r a t u r e r e g i o n j u s t o v e r l m m f r o m t h e edge i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c h i p f l o w , where, i n t h i s example, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e was o v e r 800C.

It i s

f o r t u n a t e t h a t i n c u t t i n g s t e e l and many o t h e r a l l o y s a t h i g h speed t h e r e g i o n o f h i g h e s t t e m p e r a t u r e i s a t a d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e edge where t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s o n t h e t o o l i s a maximum ( F i g . 3 ) .

As t h e c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d t h e maximum t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e r a k e f a c e o f
t h e tool i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y , w h i l e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e n e a r t h e edge i s i n c r e a s e d The y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l d e c r e a s e s w i t h r i s i n g tem-

more s l o w l y .

p e r a t u r e and, a s c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e edge may r e a c h a v a l u e where t h e y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e t o o l i s r e d u c e d b e l o w t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e x e r t e d by t h e w o r k m a t e r i a l . The t o o l edge i s t h e n p l a s t i c a l l y deformed

and t h i s l e a d s t o a r a p i d r i s e i n t h e r a t e o f h e a t g e n e r a t i o n a t t h e c u t t i n g edge. The t o o l t h e n f a i l s c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y u s u a l l y w i t h i n a f e w seconds. This

i s t h e m a i n mechanism w h i c h s e t s t h e u p p e r l i m i t t o t h e r a t e o f m e t a l removal w h i c h c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s (and, a t a h i g h e r l e v e l o f speeds, w i t h cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s ) when c u t t i n g s t e e l and o t h e r h i g h m e l t i n g point alloys.

Fig.10

T e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s i n t o o l used t o c u t l o w c a r b o n s t e e l a t 76m m i n - l , 0.25mm/rev f e e d .

458
19.3.6
S1 i d i n g a t t h e TooI/\,dork

Interface

Many o f t h e p e c u l i a r and c h a r a c t e i i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f machining o p e r a t i o n s a r i s e from t h e unusual f e a t u r e o f s e i z u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between t o o l and work m a t e r i a l , b u t these c o n d i t i o n s do n o t e x i s t under a l l c u t t i n g c o n d i t i o n s and on a l l p a r t s o f t h e c o n t a c t area. The model o f s e i z u r e which has been g i v e n i s t o o

s i m p l i f i e d and must be c o r r e c t e d .
A t v e r y low speeds s e i z u r e may n o t o c c u r .

S i m i l a r l y a t t h e p e r i p h e r y o f the

c o n t a c t r e g i o n , even a t h i g h r a t e s o f metal removal, t h e r e i s good evidence t o show t h a t s l i d i n g t a k e s p l a c e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e by a t y p e o f s t i c k - s l i p process. Thus a s e c t i o n through t h e o u t e r edge o f a s t e e l c h i p o f t e n shows a segmented c h i p w i t h a p e r i o d i c s t r u c t u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e (Fig.11.) s l i p action. indicating a stick-

The c e n t r e o f t h e same c h i p shows a flow-zone d e m o n s t r a t i n g That s l i d i n g o c c u r s i n these

seizure a t t h i s p a r t o f the i n t e r f a c e (Fig.12).

p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o two main f a c t o r s (1) lower compressive s t r e s s near a f r e e s u r f a c e o f t h e c h i p and ( 2 ) access o f atmospheric oxygen t o t h e i n t e r f a c e a t t h i s p o s i t i o n , r e d u c i n g t h e tendency t o m e t a l l i c bonding. Since t h e mechanisms o f wear may be v e r y d i f f e r e n t under c o n d i t i o n s o f s e i z u r e and s l i d i n g ,
i t i s u s e f u l t o have i n mind a model o f t h e r e a i o n s where

s e i z u r e and s l i d i n g o c c u r most u s u a l l y . o n a c u t t i n g t o o l . map f o r a simple t u r n i n g t o o l .

Fig.13 shows such a

Fig.11

S e c t i o n through o u t e r edge o f c h i p a f t e r c u t t i n g medium carbon s t e e l a t h i g h speed. Shows s t i c k - s l i p a c t i o n a t i n t e r f a c e .

459

Fig.12

S e c t i o n t h r o u g h c e n t r e o f same c h i p as Fig.11. Shows flow-zone a t i n t e r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f seizure.

19.4

CUTTING TOOL WEAR

While t h e upper l i m i t t o t h e r a t e o f metal removal when c u t t i n g s t e e l o r o t h e r h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t a l l o y s i s determined by t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e t o o l t o w i t h stand t h e c u t t i n g s t r e s s e s a t e l e v a t e d temperatures, t h e l i f e o f t h e t o o l decreases as t h e c u t t i n g speed i s r a i s e d b e f o r e t h i s l i m i t i s reached. A t lower

speeds t h e shape o f t h e t o o l i s changed by one o r more o f a number o f d i f f e r e n t wear mechanisms u n t i l i t can no l o n g e r c u t e f f i c i e n t l y . Fig.14 shows diapram-

m a t i c a l l y on a model t u r n i n g t o o l t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e c h i e f wear f e a t u r e s observed. "Flank wear" on t h e c l e a r a n c e f a c e o f t h e t o o l o f t e n increases s t e a d i l y w i t h t i m e o f c u t t i n g u n t i l , when a c r i t i c a l amount o f wear i s reached, t h e tempera t u r e on t h i s s u r f a c e s t a r t s t o r i s e r a p i d l y and t o o l f a i l u r e may be sudden. The c r i t i c a l amount o f f l a n k wear v a r i e s under d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s .but i t may be between 0.4 and 1.5 mm. To a v o i d complete f a i l u r e , which may be expensive,

t o o l s a r e n o r m a l l y reground o r r e p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e c r i t i c a l wear i s reached. Flank wear may o c c u r a t any c u t t i n g speed b u t t h e wear r a t e increases w i t h

460

, L
I
INCOMPLETE SEIZURE SECTION X - X

Fig.13

Diagram o f t u r n i n g t o o l showing r e g i o n s o f s e i z u r e and o f s l i d i n g a t the tooI/work i n t e r f a c e

ACCELERATED WEAR IN REGION OF 1 . DEFORMAT1ON OR SLIDING

/
CRATER

RAKE FACE
WtAK

$4 ffw

ACCELERATED WEAR IN REGION OF SLIDING

FLANK OR CLEARANCE FACE

Fig.14

Diagram showing wear f e a t u r e s on t u r n i n g t o o l

461
speed as t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t f o r t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l i s approached. In the region

o f h i g h speed c u t t i n p t h e r a t e o f f l a n k wear and t h e t o o l l i f e o f t e n f o l l o w t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p g i v e n by T a y l o r [ 4 ] f o r t o o l l i f e i n r e l a t i n g t o c u t t i n g speed

Vt"
=

V
t

c u t t i n g speed c u t t i n g t i m e t o f a i l u r e o r t o some s t a n d a r d amount o f wear

n and C

c o n s t a n t s f o r a g i v e n t o o l and work m a t e r i a l i s t h e term used f o r a groove o r c r a t e r worn on the rake face Cratering

" C r a t e r wear"

o f t h e t o o l , u s u a l l y a t some d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c u t t i n g edge ( F i g . 1 4 ) .

wear i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y observed on t o o l s used a t h i g h c u t t i n g speeds and t h e r a t e o f c r a t e r wear increases as t h e c u t t i n g speed approaches t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t f o r the t o o l material. As t h e c r a t e r becomes deeper i t weakens t h e t o o l edge

and may l e a d t o f r a c t u r e o f t h e edge and t o o l f a i l u r e . "Flank wear" and " c r a t e r wear" a r e d e s c r i p t i v e terms and t h e words do n o t imply d i s t i n c t wear mechanisms. The mechanisms o f wear w i l l now be discussed.

Where s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r a t t h e t o o l / w o r k i n t e r f a c e a t l e a s t f o u r d i f f e r e n t mechanisms o f wear have been observed and these w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t . under c o n d i t i o n s o f s l i d i n g a t t h e i n t e r f a c e w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y . Wear

19.4.1

Abrasion

The a b r a s i v e a c t i o n o f h a r d phases i n t h e work m a t e r i a l , such as o x i d e s o r c a r b i d e s may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e wear o f c u t t i n g t o o l s . Abrasion i s , however,

p r o b a b l y n o t a m a j o r cause o f wear under s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s u n l e s s t h e p a r t i c l e s o f t h e h a r d phases a r e l a r g e , e.g., g r e a t e r than 40 pm, o r p r e s e n t i n v e r y h i g h Even

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , as t h e y may be f o r example on t h e s u r f a c e o f c a s t i n g s .

w i t h h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s t h e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n o f d i s p e r s e d , f i n e h a r d p a r t i c l e s i s p r o b a b l y small because, under s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s they r a r e l y impinge on t h e t o o l s u r f a c e i n such a way as t o remove t o o l m a t e r i a l . W i t h h a r d e r t o o l mat-

e r i a l s such as c a r b i d e s o r diamond, few i f any p a r t i c l e s i n t h e work m a t e r i a l a r e h a r d e r t h a n t h e t o o l s and a b r a s i v e a c t i o n i s l e s s l i k e l y . The hardness of

c u t t i n g t o o l m a t e r i a l s i s o f more s i g n i f i c a n c e as a measure o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d h i g h compressive s t r e s s than as a measure o f t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o abrasion.

19.4.2

Surface Shearing

When c u t t i n g h i g h e r m e l t i n g p o i n t m e t a l s a t h i g h speeds, t h e i n t e r f a c e temp e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e rake f a c e o f t h e t o o l ( F i g . l O ) , may be very h i g h ,

so t h a t t h e y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e s t e e l t o o l i s reduced t o a v e r y low value i n a

small volume of metal a t t h e i n t e r f a c e .

T h i n l a y e r s o f t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l may Fig.15

then be sheared away by t h e work m a t e r i a l bonded t o t h e t o o l s u r f a c e .

462
shows an example o f t h i s wearing a c t i o n i n which a c r a t e r i s b e i n g worn on t h e rake face o f a h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l when c u t t i n g carbon s t e e l a t h i g h speed. This wear mechanism i s u s u a l l y observed o n l y where t h e i n t e r f a c e temperature i s above 800C on s t e e l t o o l s .
It i s one o f t h e mechanisms o f wear r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r c r a t e r wear on s t e e l t o o l s and a l s o f o r t h e f i n a l stages o f f l a n k wear j u s t before complete t o o l f a i l u r e . T h i s mechanism causes r a p i d t o o l wear.

I t has

not been observed t o o c c u r on cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s .

Fig.15

S e c t i o n through t o o l used t o c u t low carbon s t e e l a t h i g h speed. Showing f o r m a t i o n o f c r a t e r on r a k e f a c e by s h e a r i n g o f h i g h speed t o o l i n r e g i o n of h i g h temperature.

19.4.3

D i f f u s i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n

Under c o n d i t i o n s o f c u t t i n g where t h e t o o l and work s u r f a c e s a r e m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y bonded, t h e t o o l shape can be changed by a process o f d i f f u s i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e two m a t e r i a l s . I n t h e s i m p l e s t s i t u a t i o n atoms from

the t o o l m a t e r i a l may d i f f u s e i n t o t h e work m a t e r i a l f l o w i n g o v e r t h e s u r f a c e and be c a r r i e d away by i t

i.e.,

t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l i s d i s s o l v e d i n t o t h e work

m a t e r i a l by a process o f t h e same c h a r a c t e r as t h a t of a b l o c k o f s a l t b e i n g d i s s o l v e d by a stream o f water r u n n i n g o v e r i t s s u r f a c e . Diffusion i s a highly

temperature dependent process and d i f f u s i o n wear o c c u r s a t an a p p r e c i a b l e r a t e o n l y a t r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c u t t i n g speeds where t h e i n t e r f a c e temperature i s h i g h . When c u t t i n g s t e e l s w i t h h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s wear by a d i f f u s i o n mechanism i s p r o b a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y where t h e i n t e r f a c e temperature exceeds 650C.
I t has been shown t h a t , even a t m o d e r a t e l y h i g h c u t t i n g speeds o f 25-30 m min

-1

when c u t t i n g s t e e l , temperatures o f 790C and o v e r o f t e n o c c u r a t p a r t s of t h e

463
i n t e r f a c e , and t h e r e i s a r a p i d r i s e i n t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h f u r t h e r increments i n speed. Simple d i f f u s i o n and a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n s depending on t h e chemical c o m p o s i t i o n s and m e t a l l u r g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e t o o l and work m a t e r i a l s , o c c u r across the i n t e r f a c e .

I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t wear based on a t o m i c i n t e r a c t i o n s i s

t h e most i m p o r t a n t mechanism c h a n g i n g t h e shape o f h i g h speed s t e e l , cemented c a r b i d e o r diamond c u t t i n g tools i n m a c h i n i n g t h e h i g h e r m e l t i n g p o i n t m e t a l s and a l l o y s a t h i g h speeds. Fig.16 shows a s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c r a t e r e d s u r f a c e o f a h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l w i t h a d h e r i n g work m a t e r i a l . The wear p r o c e s s was one o f d i f f u s i o n ; the

t o o l s u r f a c e shows no s i g n s o f p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n .

There i s good e v i d e n c e t h a t

wear by d i f f u s i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r most c r a t e r and f l a n k wear on h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s where t h e i n t e r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e i s above perature required f o r the shearing action.

650C b u t below t h e tem-

Fig.16

S e c t i o n t h r o u g h h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l i n worn c r a t e r a f t e r c u t t i n g Interface characteristic low a l l o y s t e e l a t 18m m i n - f o r 38 m i n u t e s . o f d i f f u s i o n wear

464
C u t t i n g t o o l m a t e r i a l s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d e m p i r i c a l l y and m o s t h a v e been developed f o r t h e machining o f s t e e l s i n c e t h i s i s t h e main market f o r c u t t i n p tools

[5].

The f i r s t cemented c a r b i d e s p r o d u c e d w e r e a l l o y s o f t u n g s t e n c a r b i d e These a r e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l f o r t h e c u t t i n g o f n o n - f e r r o u s

and c o b a l t (WC-Co).

m e t a l s and c a s t i r o n a t speeds much h i g h e r t h a n c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h s t e e l t o o l s because t h e WC-Co a l l o y s have h i g h e r y i e l d s t r e s s and c a n r e s i s t t h e s h e a r i n g a c t i o n a n d d e f o r m a t i o n a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d a l s o b e c a u s e t h e WC-Co a l l o y s do n o t r e a c t w i t h t h e s e w o r k m a t e r i a l s a t t h e h i g h c u t t i n g speeds.

For t h e c u t t i n g o f s t e e l h o w e v e r , t h e WC-Co a l l o y s a r e n o t so s u c c e s s f u l ,

s i n c e r a p i d c r a t e r i n g wear i n p a r t i c u l a r o n t h e r a k e f a c e o f t h e t o o l s g i v e s a v e r y s h o r t l i f e f o r t o o l s used a t speeds n o t much h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e u s e d w i t h h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s . Cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s w e r e s u c c e s s f u l f o r c u t t i n g o f

s t e e l a t h i g h e r speeds o n l y when a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n ( 5 t o 20%) o f T i c o r TaC was added t o t h e WC-Co a l l o y s . These " s t e e l c u t t i n g g r a d e s " o f cemented c a r b i d e a r e

a b l e t o m a c h i n e s t e e l a t more t h a n t h r e e t i m e s t h e speed w i t h WC-Co a l l o y s because t h e r a t e o f w e a r , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c r a t e r wear o n t h e r a k e f a c e , much l o w e r . i s so

I t i s now known t h a t t h e i r s u c c e s s must be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e much

l o w e r r a t e o f s o l u t i o n o f TIC o r TaC i n s t e e l a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , compared w i t h t h a t o f WC. The r a t e o f c r a t e r i n g in particular i s a f f e c t e d because i t i s t h a t the highest The r a t e o f f l a n k

on t h e r a k e f a c e o f t h e t o o l , away f r o m t h e c u t t i n g edge, temperatures a t t h e tool/work

i n t e r f a c e a r e located (Fig.10).

wear a l s o i s g e n e r a l l y r e d u c e d b y t h e i n c l u s i o n o f T I C a n d TaC i n t h e t o o l m a t e r i a l s when c u t t i n g s t e e l

[5].

I n a more r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t t h e r a t e o f wear h a s been d e c r e a s e d s t i l l f u r t h e r b y c o a t i n g cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s w i t h t h i n l a y e r s o f s o l u t i o n r e s i s t a n t materials. The s u b s t a n c e s used f o r t h e c o a t i n a s a r e TIC, T i N o r H f N , w h i c h a r e

deposited on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e t o o l s a s l a y e r s known as c h e m i c a l v a p o u r d e p o s i t i o n ("CVD'I).

t o 10

j m

t h i c k by a process

These c a r b i d e s a n d n i t r i d e s a r e b u t as t h i n l a y e r s w i t h

t o o b r i t t l e t o be u s e d b y t h e m s e l v e s a s c u t t i n g t o o l s ,

v e r y f i n e g r a i n s i z e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e t o u g h e r cemented c a r b i d e s u b s t r a t e t h e y w i t h s t a n d w e l l t h e s t r e s s e s o f m a c h i n e shop o p e r a t i o n s , and t h e y a r e l e s s r e a d i l y dissolved i n the steel flowing over the t o o l surfaces. t o o l I i f e may be p r o l o n g e d b y a f a c t o r o f 1.5 to With these coated t o o l s

t i m e s compared w i t h u n c o a t e d

cemeiited c a r b i d e s , o r c u t t i n g speeds 30 t o 60 m m i n same t o o l l i f e when c u t t i n g s t e e l .

-1

h i g h e r c a n be used f o r t h e

Even more r e s i s t a n t t o s o l u t i o n i n s t e e l a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s i s a l u m i n i u m oxide.

A1 0

2 3

( a l u m i n a ) has a h i g h y i e l d s t r e s s a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and t o o l

t i p s a r e s i n t e r e d o r h o t p r e s s e d f r o m a l u m i n a powder. as " c e r a m i c tools")

A l q 0 3 t o o l t i p s (known

o f h i g h d e n s i t y a n d f i n e g r a i n s i z e c a n be used f o r c u t t i n g w i t h v e r y low r a t e s of

s t e e l and c a s t i r o n a t speeds a s h i g h a s 600-700 m m i n - ' wear.

These t o o l s , h o w e v e r , a r e l a c k i n g i n t o u g h n e s s and t h e i r u s e i n c u t t i n g

465
s t e e l i s r e s t r i c t e d f o r t h i s reason t o a v e r y small p r o p o r t i o n o f machine shop o p e r a t i o n s on s t e e l . h i g h speed. They can be more w i d e l y used f o r c u t t i n g c a s t i r o n a t v e r y

Recently cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s have been p u t on the market w i t h

t h i n c o a t i n g s o f A1203 d e p o s i t e d by CVD and these a r e being assessed f o r t h e c u t t i n g o f b o t h s t e e l and c a s t i r o n . Reaction between t o o l and work m a t e r i a l a l s o l i m i t s t h e speeds used when c u t t i n g s t e e l and n i c k e l - b a s e d a l l o y s w i t h diamond t o o l s . Cubic boron n i t r i d e

i s a s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l made by t h e same t y p e o f u l t r a h i g h pressure process used f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c diamond. diamond and, a l t h o u g h i t i s less hard, I t has a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e t o

i t can be used i n c u t t i n g s t e e l s and

n i c k e l - b a s e d a l l o y s a t h i g h e r speeds because i t r e a c t s w i t h them l e s s r e a d i l y than does diamond a t e l e v a t e d temperatures

161.

Thus, under t h e s e i z u r e c o n d i t i o n s which p r e v a i l i n many metal c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h e l i f e o f t h e c u t t i n g t o o l s i s o f t e n c o n t r o l l e d by processes o f d i f f u s i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n between t o o l and m a t e r i a l a t h i g h i n t e r f a c e tempera t u r e s when c u t t i n g m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t a t h i g h speeds.

19.4.4

Attrition

I f , under c o n d i t i o n s o f s e i z u r e , t h e temperature-dependent wear processes o f

s h e a r i n g and d i f f u s i o n were t h e o n l y ones r e s p o n s i b l e f o r changing t h e t o o l shape, t o o l l i f e might be expected t o be almost i n f i n i t e a t low c u t t i n g speed. A t low speeds, however, t o o l s a r e f r e q u e n t l y worn by another mechanism which can Sections through t h e edge o f t o o l s used a t low speeds

be c a l l e d " a t t r i t i o n " .

o f t e n show t h a t t h e t o o l has been worn by a mechanism i n v o l v i n g b r e a k i n g away from t h e t o o l s u r f a c e o f fragments o f m i c r o s c o p i c s i z e Fig.17. f o r a h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l .

as shown f o r example i n

Such a wear mechanism has been observed

w i t h almost a l l c l a s s e s o f t o o l m a t e r i a l a f t e r c u t t i n g a t low speed, and as t h e speed i s r a i s e d i t becomes l e s s i m p o r t a n t . I n many cases b o t h d i f f u s i o n and

a t t r i t i o n wear a r e observed on t h e same worn s u r f a c e s . A t t r i t i o n wear seems t o be most severe when t h e machine t o o l l a c k s r i g i d i t y , when v i b r a t i o n o c c u r s o r when t h e r e a r e pronounced i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e work material. I t i n v o l v e s an i n t e r m i t t e n t a c t i o n i n which small fragments o f the High speed

t o o l a r e t o r n away t o leave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y rough worn s u r f a c e s .

s t e e l t o o l s a r e more r e s i s t a n t t o a t t r i t i o n than a r e cemented c a r b i d e s and the l i f e o f h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l s i s o f t e n l o n g e r a t low c u t t i n g speeds t h a n . t h a t o f cemented c a r b i d e s f o r t h i s reason. T w i s t d r i l l s f o r example a r e most

commonly made f r o m h i g h speed steels, n o t o n l y because t h e y a r e cheaper but because, i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e l i f e i s l o n g e r than t h a t o f cemented c a r b i d e When cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s a r e used

d r i l l s and performance i s more c o n s i s t e n t .

466

Fig.17

S e c t i o n t h r o u g h c u t t i n g edge of h i g h speed s t e e l t o o l a f t e r c u t t i n g s t e e l a t 20m min Worn s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a t t r i t i o n wear

'.

i n t h e low speed range where a t t r i t i o n wear i s dominant, t h e r a t e o f wear i s v e r y dependent on t h e c a r b i d e g r a i n s i z e . F i n e g r a i n e d cemented c a r b i d e s a r e

much more r e s i s t a n t t o a t t r i t i o n wear than coarse g r a i n e d ones, and WC-Co a l l o y s a r e more r e s i s t a n t t h a n t h e s t e e l c u t t i n g c a r b i d e grades and a r e o f t e n used t o c u t s t e e l a t low speed f o r t h i s reason. Fig.13 shows d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y those p a r t s o f a t u r n i n g t o o l where s e i z u r e and s l i d i n g a r e most l i k e l y t o o c c u r d u r i n g c u t t i n g . Rather f r e q u e n t l y more For

r a p i d wear i s observed i n t h e s l i d i n g r e g i o n s than a t t h e s e i z e d s u r f a c e s .

example, Fig.18 shows a deep tongue o f wear on a t o o l i n t h e s l i d i n g wear r e g i o n where t h e o u t e r edge o f t h e c h i p crossed t h e c u t t i n g edge o f t h e t o o l . The wear

r a t e was many times h i g h e r a t t h i s p o s i t i o n than i n t h e a d j a c e n t s e i z e d r e g i o n . High r a t e s o f wear a r e o f t e n observed a l s o a t t h e nose o f t h e t o o l i n t u r n i n g o p e r a t i o n s , where t h e o t h e r edge o f t h e c h i p crosses t h e c u t t i n g edge.

467

Fig.18

Clearance f a c e o f t o o l used t o c u t low carbon s t e e l . Shows adherent work m a t e r i a l and deeply worn qroove a t o u t s i d e o f c u t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f wear by s l i d i n g a c t i o n

Such in c r e a s e d wear r a t e i n t h e s l i d i n g r e g i o n s does n o t always occur, and t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s e v e r i t y o f wear have n o t y e t been s t u d i e d i n sufficient detail.
I t seems most p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e wear i n t h e s l i d i n g r e g i o n s

i n v o l v e s r e a c t i o n between t h e t o o l and work s u r f a c e s and oxyaen o f the atmosphere, which has access t o t h i s p a r t o f t h e i n t e r f a c e . One p o s s i b l e wear

mechanism i s t h e f o r m a t i o n of o x i d e l a y e r s on t h e tool and the removal o f these p e r i o d i c a l l y by t h e s t i c k - s l i p a c t i o n o f t h e s l i d i n g c h i p (Fig.11). The worn

s u r fa c e s i n t h e s l i d i n g r e g i o n s a r e n o r m a l l y v e r y smooth and t h i s s o r t o f wear on c a r b i d e t o o l s may be a l most as r a p i d as on s t e e l t o o l s , so t h a t a b r a s i o n by h a r d p a r t i c l e s , a l t h o u g h p o s s i b l e i n t h i s r e g i o n , mechanism o f wear i n most o p e r a t i o n s . i s p r o b a b l y n o t the main

The r a t e o f s l i d i n g wear maybe i n -

fl ue n c e d by t h e use of c u t t i n g l u b r i c a n t s .

19.5

COOLANTS AND LUBRICANTS

A d i s c u s s i o n o f t r i b o l o g y i n metal c u t t i n g would n o t be complete w i t h o u t

c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o o l a n t s and l u b r i c a n t s . The c u t t i n g t o o l i s o f t e n Two main

f l o o d e d w i t h a f l u i d d e s c r i b e d e i t h e r as a c o o l a n t o r as a l u b r i c a n t . types a r e used

water-based f l u i d s c o n t a i n i n g o i l and o t h e r a d d i t i v e s i n sus-

pension o r s o l u t i o n and m i n e r a l o i l s w i t h o r w i t h o u t extreme pressure a d d i t i v e s (ma in ly s u l p h u r and c h l o r i n e c o n t a i n i n g substances). The f u n c t i o n o f t h e w ater-

468
based f l u i d s i s m a i n l y as a c o o l a n t w i t h t h e o i l p r e s e n t m a i n l y t o p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n , w h i l e t h e o i l based f l u i d s have r e l a t i v e l y poor c o o l i n g c a p a c i t y and a r e used m a i n l y f o r t h e i r l u b r i c a n t a c t i o n . C o o l a n t s a r e o f t e n necessary t o reduce t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f machine, t o o l and w o r k p i e c e i n o r d e r t o promote e f f i c i e n t o p e r a t i o n and t o m a i n t a i n d i m e n s i o n a l tolerances. P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t a s t r o n g f l o w o f c o o l a n t can a c t

t o i n c r e a s e t o o l l i f e when c u t t i n g a t h i g h speeds, o r t o p e r m i t t h e use o f h i g h e r c u t t i n g speeds. The d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f a c o o l a n t on t h e maximum t e m p e r a t u r e interface i s usually rather s l i g h t

generated a t t h e t o o l / w o r k

[71.

The tempCoolant cannot

e r a t u r e i s generated i n t h e f l o w - z o n e a t t h e r a k e f a c e ( F i g . 1 0 ) .

p r e v e n t t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t a t t h i s s u r f a c e and can a c t o n l y t o steepen t h e t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s and reduce t h e volume o f t o o l m a t e r i a l h e a t e d t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , b u t i t can have l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e maximum t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e rake f a c e . A c t i n g n e a r t h e c u t t i n g edge t h e c o o l a n t can be more e f f e c t i v e and

t h e m a j o r c o o l i n g e f f e c t i s p r o b a b l y t h a t o f r e d u c i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e near t h e edge, t h u s i n c r e a s i n g t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f t h e t o o l t o p r e v e n t l o c a l deforma t i o n , and a l s o r e d u c i n g t h e r a t e o f d i f f u s i o n wear on t h e f l a n k o f t h e t o o l . From what has been s a i d about s e i z u r e a t t h e t o o l / w o r k u n l i k e l y t h a t any l u b r i c a n t , i n t e r f a c e , i t seems

i n e i t h e r gaseous o r l i q u i d form, can p e n e t r a t e t o L u b r i c a n t s can, however, a c t

t h a t p a r t o f t h e i n t e r f a c e where s e i z u r e o c c u r s .

e f f e c t i v e l y i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s where s l i d i n g o c c u r s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e . By p e n e t r a t i n g f r o m t h e p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s t h e y may be a b l e t o r e s t r i c t t h e area o f complete s e i z u r e and t h u s t o reduce t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e t o o l . Force

measurements have shown r e d u c t i o n s i n b o t h c u t t i n g f o r c e and f e e d f o r c e caused by t h e use o f c o o l a n t s and l u b r i c a n t s a t low c u t t i n g speed. Many t e s t s have

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f l u b r i c a n t s i s g r e a t e s t a t speeds below 30 m min w h i l e t h e y have v e r y l i t t l e l u b r i c a t i n g e f f e c t o v e r 60 m min

-1

-1

The most

e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a n t s i n m e t a l c u t t i n g a r e t h o s e w i t h extreme p r e s s u r e a d d i t i v e s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t s u c c e s s f u l l u b r i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f e a s i l y sheared s u r f a c e l a y e r s when t h e l u b r i c a n t s come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h f r e s h l y exposed m e t a l s u r f a c e s on t h e work m a t e r i a l . When a b u i l t - u p edge i s formed, c o o l a n t s and ' l u b r i c a n t s a r e o f t e n e f f e c t i v e i n g r e a t l y reducing i t s size. A l a r g e b u i l t - u p edge i s o f t e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

v e r y p o o r s u r f a c e f i n i s h and one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s o f a c u t t i n g l u b r i c a n t i s t o improve t h e s u r f a c e where t h i s i s a r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e s u r f a c e b e i n g machined. Often, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , water-based l u b r i c a n t s , and even w a t e r

i t s e l f , a r e e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e b u i l t - u p edge. For many c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s l u b r i c a n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l . A t h i g h speeds t o o l

l i f e may be improved by c o o l a n t a c t i o n , b u t t h e use o f l u b r i c a n t s a t l o w e r speeds t o improve s u r f a c e f i n i s h i s n o t always e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g t h e r a t e o f wear. I n f a c t tool wear r a t e i s o f t e n i n c r e a s e d by t h e a c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t s i n

469
t h e s l i d i n g r e g i o n s where i t can p e n e t r a t e . w i t h b o t h s t e e l and cemented c a r b i d e t o o l s . T h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n o f w e a r may occur High r a t e of wear i n r e g i o n s o f I n many e n g i n e e r i n g mech-

s l i d i n g a t t h e i n t e r f a c e has a l r e a d y been discussed. anisms a major f u n c t i o n of

l u b r i c a n t s i s t o p r e v e n t s e i z u r e between moving p a r t s .

I n t h e case o f metal c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s e i z u r e i s n o t t h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e use o f l u b r i c a n t s . The e l i m i n a t i o n o f s e i z u r e i n many cases I n most

c o u l d r e s u l t i n a d i s a s t r o u s i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f t o o l wear.

c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s s e i z u r e between t o o l and work m a t e r i a l i s a normal and desirable condition, r a t h e r than a hazard t o be avoided. The main u s e f u l fun-

c t i o n s o f c u t t i n g f l u i d s a r e t o reduce temperature and thus increase c u t t i n g e f f i c i e n c y , t o reduce c u t t i n g f o r c e s , t o improve s u r f a c e f i n i s h , and t o h e l p

c l e a r c h i p s away f r o m t h e c u t t i n g t o o l . There i s one way i n which s e i z u r e between tool and work m a t e r i a l can be modified,

i f n o t e l i m i n a t e d , t o t h e advantage o f c e r t a i n c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , and

t h i s i s t o i n c l u d e w i t h i n t h e work m a t e r i a l a phase which may i n t e r p o s e i t s e l f between t o o l and work d u r i n g t h e c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n . f r o m w i t h i n t h e work m a t e r i a l can renew i n t e r f a c i a l away by t h e f l o w o f t h e work m a t e r i a l o v e r t h e t o o l . Such a substance a p p l i e d l a y e r s as they a r e swept Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s

such substances can be d e s c r i b e d as p e r f o r m i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s o f an i n t e r n a l l u b r i c a n t and a r e g e n e r a l l y known as free-machining a d d i t i v e s . Manganese s u l p h i d e i n s t e e l may a c t i n t h i s way and, when t h e s t e e l c u t t i n g grades o f c a r b i d e a r e used, t h e s u l p h i d e s from t h e s t e e l w i l l o f t e n form an intermediate layer a t the seized tool/work interface. C e r t a i n calcium-aluminium

s i l i c a t e s i n s t e e l , which l i k e manganese s u l p h i d e a r e p l a s t i c a l l y deformed when t h e s t e e l i s sheared, a l s o f u n c t i o n i n t h e same way as t h e s u l p h i d e s . Silicate

l a y e r s a r e formed on s t e e l - c u t t i n g c a r b i d e t o o l s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e when c u t t i n g a t h i g h speeds and a r e o f t e n e x t r e m e l y e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g t o o l wear r a t e and p e r m i t t i n g t h e use o f h i g h e r c u t t i n g speeds. Sulphides i n copper a l s o t e n d t o f o r m a t h i n l a y e r a t t h e t o o l / w o r k interface

where t h e i r main f u n c t i o n seems t o be t o reduce t h e a r e a o f c o n t a c t on the t o o l rake f a c e and t h u s g r e a t l y t o reduce t h e c u t t i n g f o r c e s which a r e e x t r e m e l y h i g h when c u t t i n g h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y copper. The a d d i t i o n o f l e a d t o brass r e s u l t s i n i n t e r f a c e under many c o n d i t i o n s o f

an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f l e a d a t t h e b r a s s / t o o l cutting.

The g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t which t h e l e a d c o n f e r s i s t h e b r e a k i n g up o f the

brass c h i p s i n t o small fragments which a r e e a s i l y disposed o f i n h i g h speed a u t o m a t i c machining.

O f a l l t h e aspects o f machining t h e f u n c t i o n s o f c u t t i n g f l u i d s as c o o l a n t s

and l u b r i c a n t s have p r o b a b l y r e c e i v e d t h e l e a s t a t t e n t i o n from s c i e n t i f i c research. There i s much t o be l e a r n e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e ways i n which they a c t t o

achieve t h e r e s u l t s f o r which t h e y a r e used by p r a c t i c a l m a c h i n i s t s .

470
REFERENCES
1

3 4

5
6

Zorev,N.N., I n t e r n a t i o n a l Research i n P r o d u c t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g (1963), A.S.M.E., P i t t s b u r g h , p.42. Trent,E.M., I . S . I . Report N0.94., 1967, p . 1 1 . W i l l iarn5,J.E. and Rollason,E.C., J., I n s t . , Met., (19701, 144. Boothroyd,G., "Fundamentals of Metal M a c h i n i n g and Machine Tools", McGraw-Hi 1 1 (1975). Trent,E.M., "Metal C u t t i n g " , 1977, B u t t e r w o r t h s . Hibb5,L.E. and Wentorf,R.E. J r . , 8 t h Plansee Seminar ( 1 9 7 4 ) , Paper No.42. Smart,E.F. and Trent,E.M., Proc., 1 5 t h I n t . , Conf., M.T.D.R., (1975) 187.

98,

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v ( ) ROLE OF LABORATORY TEST MACHINES

U

PROFESSOR F.T.

BARWELL, H.H.

JONES

Department o f Mechanical Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e o f Swansea.

20.1

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f a c t s and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p h y s i c a l phenomena can o n l y be based on experience, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l method

should t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s t o f s t r u c t u r i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o as t o produce unambiguous answers t o c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s . meaning, For s t r u c t u r e d experience o r experiment t o have

i t must reproduce t h e circumstances s u r r o u n d i n g t h e occurrence o f t h e

phenomena under study.

Otherwise t h e r e s u l t s , though perhaps i n t e r e s t i n g , w i l l

be i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e purpose o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
T r i b o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e b e s t c a r r i e d o u t under s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s on f u l l s c a l e apparatus b u t t h i s i s seldom p o s s i b l e . I n f o r m a t i o n may o f t e n be

r e q u i r e d i n advance o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e machine i n v o l v e d , measurements may n o t be p o s s i b l e i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l environment ( i n space f o r example) and f u l l s c a l e t e s t i n g may be t o o c o s t l y e s p e c i a l l y when t e s t s t o d e s t r u c t i o n a r e required. L a b o r a t o r y t e s t methods have t h e r e f o r e been e v o l v e d which serve a

number o f v i t a l f u n c t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f e n g i n e e r i n g . The t e s t i n g o f l u b r i c a n t s by measurement o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l and chemical p r o p e r t i e s i s w e l l developed (See Standard Methods o f T e s t i n g Petroleum and i t s Products, I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum and ASTM) b u t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e r e q u i r e -

ments o f many e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s i s such t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y performance cannot always be p r e d i c t e d f r o m such t e s t s and i t i s necessary t o s i m u l a t e service conditions. Thus, f o r a p r o d u c t t o be approved f o r supply t o t h e U . S . engines,
i t has t o be s u b m i t t e d t o a s e r i e s o f

Army f o r l u b r i c a t i o n o f I.C.

engine t e s t s and has t o s a t i s f y c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d c r i t e r i a .

Once approval has

been g i v e n , b u l k s u p p l i e s may be accepted on t h e b a s i s o f s u f f i c i e n t p h y s i c a l and chemical t e s t i n g t o ensure c o n s i s t e n c y o f c o n s t i t u t i o n . Many i n d u s t r i a l processes i n v o l v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y o f raw m a t e r i a l and f u l l s c a l e t e s t i n g may be i n c o n v e n i e n t o r expensive.
I t may n o t always be

p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n access t o t h e i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s o f i n t e r e s t and i t may be d e s i r e d t o e x p l o r e t h e e f f e c t o f a v a r i a b l e o v e r a g r e a t e r range than would be p o s s i b l e w i t h e x i s t i n g machinery. I n these circumstances, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

s p e c i a l l a b o r a t o r y machines may be e s s e n t i a l .

472

T r i b o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s can g e n e r a l l y be reduced t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i n t e r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s o f g i v e n c o m p o s i t i o n and shape w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e i o a d i n g and r e l a t i v e m o t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h l u b r i c a n t and e n v i r o n m e n t , and i t i s t h e r e f o r e a t t r a c t i v e t o p r o v i d e s p e c i a l t e s t machines w h i c h p r e s e n t no a p p a r e n t resemblance t o any p r a c t i c a l machine, b u t w h i c h reproduce s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e l y the t r i b o l o g i c a l conditions involved. A number o f machines a r e a v a i l a b l e

c o m m e r c i a l l y which p u r p o r t t o do t h i s and p r o v i d e d c a r e i s taken t o ensure t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e y may produce much useful information. F i n a l l y where an e f f o r t i s b e i n g made t o expand knowledge o f t h e fundamentals u n d e r l y i n g t r i b o l o g i c a l a c t i o n , s p e c i a l equipment i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x t e n d t h e range o f o b s e r v a t i o n and t o i s o l a t e p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a b l e s . I t i s o f t e n found

t h a t a p p a r a t u s d e v i s e d f o r fundamental r e s e a r c h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r applied investigations.

20.2 20.2.1

LUBRICANT TYPE APPROVAL TESTING MACHINES Engine T e s t s

A great deal o f l u b r i c a n t t e s t i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t i n or der t o s a t i s f y the r e l e v a n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r e n g i n e o i l , t y p i c a l examples a r e DEF-2101-D U n i t e d Kingdom and MIL-L-46152 TABLE 20.1 i n the United States. i n the

Summary o f T y p i c a l Engine T e s t s Engine T e s t ( s ) P r o p e r t i e s under t e s t

Specification DEF-2101-D

P e t t e r W1 gasoline

O i l oxidation, bearing corrosion, lacquer format ion

Detergency and h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e stability Low t e m p e r a t u r e r u s t i n g and deposits

P e t t e r AV1 diesel

O l d s m o b i l e V-8 sequence I I B - gasoline MIL-L-46152 F o r d V-8 sequence VC - gasoline O l d s m o b i l e V-8 sequence I I I C - gasoline

B u i l d up o f d e p o s i t s due t o i n t e r m i t t e n t low temperature operat ion

High temperature o x i d a t i o n

CRC L-38 (CLR) - gasoline

C a t e r p i 1 l a r TH - diesel

B e a r i n g c o r r o s i o n and shear s t a b i l i t y of multigrade5 Ring s t i c k i n g wear and a c c u m u l a t i o n o f deposits

473

Fig.1

P e t t e r A v l Rig

Fig.2

Caterpillar r i g

Fig.3

Piston examination

474
The main c r i t e r i o n o f acceptance o f a l u b r i c a n t which has been s u b j e c t e d t o t y p e approval t e s t i n g i s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p i s t o n a f t e r t e s t . This i s rated

by a panel o f e x p e r t s who assess such f.actors as t h e freedom o f t h e r i n g s , a minimum o f s c u f f i n g o f t h e p i s t o n crown and a minimal amount o f carbon i n t h e t o p r i n g groove. There should a l s o be no carbon d e p o s i t i n t h e lower r i n g

grooves and t h e p i s t o n s k i r t should be e n t i r e l y f r e e o f l a c q u e r . As w i l l have been g a t h e r e d f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , t h e a c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s i s complex and t h e r e may be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s o f an u n d e s i r a b l e nature. For example, some a d d i t i v e s l e a d t o c o r r o s i o n o f c o p p e r - l e a d b e a r i n g s

and i n p e t r o l - e n g i n e s l e a d e d - f u e l s may a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e o f p i s t o n d e p o s i t s ("grey p a i n t " ) . A d d i t i o n a l t e s t s a r e t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d which were o r i g i n a l l y The copper-lead

c a r r i e d o u t f o r 36 hours i n a f o u r c y l i n d e r C h e v r o l e t engine.

b e a r i n g s o f t h e t e s t e n g i n e were weighed and examined i n o r d e r t o assess c o r r o s i o n and t h e p i s t o n s examined t o assess any d e p o s i t .

A P e t t e r \ / I . spark-

i g n i t i o n engine has been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e C h e v r o l e t e n g i n e i n t h e U.K. engine, t h e CRC L-38, i n the U.S.A.

and an

has been s p e c i a l l y developed f o r l u b r i c a n t a p p r o v a l t e s t s

Although i t may appear a t f i r s t s i g h t t h a t t h e use o f an a c t u a l engine i s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d means f o r assessing t h e q u a l i t y o f an o i l , t h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s are very c r i t i c a l . The c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e f u e l , t h e t i m i n g o f t h e v a l v e s , t h e

c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i n j e c t i o n system a l l may a f f e c t t h e performance o f a l u b ricant. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e exhaust arrangements can markedly a f f e c t r e s u l t s

[la.

20.2.2

Gear T e s t s

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h y p o i d gears i n back a x l e s was made p o s s i b l e o n l y by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f extreme p r e s s u r e l u b r i c a n t s and t h e maintenance o f adequate l u b r i c a n t q u a l i t y i s essential t o t h e i r successful functioning. qua1 i f y l u b r i c a n t s t o t h e U . K . (CS 3000) and U.S.A. (MIL-L-2105C) Tests t o specifications

a r e c a r r i e d o u t on a c t u a l gears i n a t e s t arrangement o f t h e t y p e shown i n Fig.4. The l o a d c a r r y i n g and extreme p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f gear l u b r i c low-torque o p e r a t i o n , f o l l o w e d

a n t s i n a x l e s under c o n d i t i o n s o f high-speed, by low-speed,

h i g h - t o r q u e o p e r a t i o n should s a t i s f a c t o r i l y p r e v e n t t h e occ-

u r r e n c e o f gear t o o t h r i d g i n g , r i p p l i n g , p i t t i n g , w e l d i n g , e x c e s s i v e wear, o r o t h e r s u r f a c e d i s t r e s s o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f o b j e c t i o n a b l e d e p o s i t s when t e s t e d on b o t h u n t r e a t e d and phosphate t r e a t e d gear assemblies i n accordance w i t h t h e s p e c i f i e d procedures. The p r i m a r y a c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e i s t o c o n f e r E.P. on t h e l u b r i c a n t . properties

T h i s i m p l i e s p r e v e n t i o n o f s c u f f i n g by a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e

c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e a d d i t i v e s by t h e occurrence o f instantaneous temperature

475

Fig.4

Low speed high torque test r i g hypoid gear and dynamometer installation

Fig.5

Ridging t y p e gear failure

416

Fig.5

Examples o f g e a r damage

477

Fia.6

Rippling type near f a i l u r e

Fig.7

I.A.E.

h i g h speed g e a r r i g

478
" f l a s h e s " between p a i r s o f gears. The High-speed, Low-torque t e s t i s used t o

assess t h i s behaviour u s i n g equipment w h i c h embodies an a u t o m o b i l e r e a r - a x l e assembly. Evidence o f f a i l u r e i s p r o v i d e d by t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f s c u f f i n g .

TABLE 20.2

Summary o f t h e F u l l A x l e Test o f MIL-L-2105C

and CS 3000

Test Moisture Corrosion 7 days

Equipment CRC L-33 Federal method 5326

Requ i remen t s Maximum o f 5% vapour phase c o r r o s i o n o f cover p l a t e , no corrosion o f functional parts. Score p r e v e n t i o n equal t o or b e t t e r than RG 1 1 0 o r CRC 10/90 r e f e r e n c e o i l .
No gear s u r f a c e d i s t r e s s o r deposit formation allowable.

High Speed Shock Load Test

CRC L-42 Federal method 6507 lP.234/69

Low Speed High Torque Test

CRC L-37 Federal method 6506 I P 232 Proc. 8.

When c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e a d d i t i v e s a r e used, t h e r e i s always t h e r i s k t h a t they w i l l a c t under c o n d i t i o n s and i n a manner which i s n o t d e s i r e d . example, " r i d g i n g " Fig.6. t y p e f a i l u r e may o c c u r as i n F i g . 5 and " r i p p l i n g " For as i n

The "Low-speed

High-torque'' t e s t i s used t o ensure t h a t l u b r i c a n t s a r e

f o r m u l a t e d t o p r e v e n t these t y p e s o f f a i l u r e s f r o m o c c u r r i n g under s e r v i c e conditions. L u b r i c a n t s f o r use i n spur gears a r e u s u a l l y t e s t e d f o r t h e i r a n t i - s c u f f i n g p r o p e r t i e s i n machines which embody means f o r power c i r c u l a t i o n . One o f t h e

o r i g i n a l machines i n t h i s c l a s s was designed by Mansion and i s known as t h e

I.A.E.

machine.

The gears under t e s t a r e geared t o g e t h e r ,

supported on two

p a r a l l e l s h a f t s , and loaded by t h e " l o c k i n g - u p " s t r a i n i n the shafts.

o f a predetermined t o r s i o n a l relation-

The gear s e t s a r e assembled i n a "back-to-back"

s h i p so t h a t power c i r c u l a t e s c o n t i n u o u s l y and t h e d r i v i n g motor i s o n l y r e q u i r e d t o make up t h e l o s s e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e system. Another machine which employs t h e power c i r c u l a t i n g p r i n c i p l e i s t h e "Ryder" machine.
In t h i s d e s i g n one s e t o f gears a c t s as t e s t s e c t i o n and t h e o t h e r i s

o f the single-helical

configuration.

Load i s t h e n a p p l i e d by means o f an a x i a l

f o r c e which i s c o n v e r t e d i n t h e h e l i c a l - g e a r s t o a t o r q u e t e n d i n g t o t w i s t t h e s h a f t thereby l o a d i n g t h e t e s t gears. The F.Z.G. Machine (Fig.8) a l s o employs i n v o l u t e gears on t h e p o w e r - c i r c -

ulating principle.

A l l t h e above machines r e q u i r e gears as t e s t p i e c e s and, because each t e s t

must be t a k e n t o d e s t r u c t i o n , t h e t e s t procedures a r e v e r y expensive. There i s a s t r o n g tendency t h e r e f o r e t o employ disc-machines wherein t h e r e l a t i v e amount

419

Test gears

Lubr i c a n t T

Fig.8

FZG Gear o i l t e s t

o f r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g can be a d j u s t e d t o correspond w i t h t h e events i n t h e meshing c y c l e o f a spur gear.

20.2.3

Simulation o f I n d u s t r i a l Situations

Many i n d u s t r i a l processes r e q u i r i n g l u b r i c a t i o n do n o t correspond t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t y p e approval t e s t o f l u b r i c a n t s , and i t i s necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x i s t i n g t r i b o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n t a k i n g i n t o account t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i n g m a t e r i a l s , t h e i n d u s t r i a l environment and t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e s and n o t i o n s . I n t h i s circumstance,
i t i s f r e q u e n t l y necessary t o c o n s t r u c t a s p e c i a l

machine t o reproduce w i t h i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t h e s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s surrounding t h e i n d u s t r i a l problem. An example o f such a machine i s shown i n Fig.9

[2].

This consists o f a

machine designed and c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e Swansea T r i b o l o g y Centre t o s i m u l a t e the c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s i d e g u i d e s of r o l l i n g m i l l s . s i d e g u i d e s , n o r m a l l y made o f bronze, a r e a c t e d on by t h e edges o f t h e s t e e l s t r i p undergoing c o l d - r o l l i n g which t h e y r e s t r a i n f r o m unwanted sideways movement. They a r e s u b j e c t e d t o much wear ( F i g . g c ) , and moreover, t h e n o n - f e r r o u s The

m a t e r i a l t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e guide t o t h e s t e e l was o b j e c t i o n a b l e t o t h e customers o f t h e m a t e r i a l . A c c o r d i n g l y a guide member was f i t t e d w i t h s t r a i n - g a u g e s and t h e r m i s t o r s and s u b j e c t e d t o normal o p e r a t i o n so t h a t t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e guide c o u l d be determined t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l temperature. The machine i l l u s t r a t e d

480

Fig.g(a)

R o l l i n g M i l l w i t h s i d e guides

i n F i g . g ( b ) was then designed t o embody a c o n t i n u o u s s t e e l b e l t t o r e p r e s e n t t h e c o l d s t r i p beimg r o l l e d i n t h e f u l l s c a l e apparatus and a member which resembled a s i d e guide and which was f o r c e d a g a i n s t t h e edge o f t h e s t r i p w i t h a f o r c e which was determined on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s t r a i n - g a u g e measurements. A f t e r a s e r i e s o f t e s t s had c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e wear mode o b t a i n e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y corresponded e x a c t l y w i t h t h a t observed i n p r a c t i c e , a s e r i e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e m a t e r i a l s was i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t was concluded t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f

n o d u l a r c a s t - i r o n f o r t h e bronze presented s e v e r a l advantages as f o l l o w s : (a) The r a t e o f wear was reduced (b) The m a t e r i a l was l e s s expensive t o p r o c u r e (c) The c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t w i t h n o n - f e r r o u s m a t e r i a l was avoided. T h i s example demonstrates t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f study o f i n d u s t r i a l problems u s i n g

1 a bora t o r y met hods.

20.3

ANALYSIS INTO SYSTEM ELEMENTS AS THE BASIS FOR SELECTION OF LABORATORY TESTS

T r i b o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s encountered i n d i f f e r e n t machines may p r e s e n t c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s i n common i n s o f a r as t h e y a l l embody s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e motion.

481

Fig.9(b)

E x p e r i m e n t a l R i g f o r S i m u l a t i n q S i d e Guide Wear

Fig.g(c)

S i m u l a t e d worn s i d e g u i d e

482
However,
i t w i l l be apparent t h a t t h e n a t u r e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f s u r f a c e s may

v a r y w i d e l y as between one machine and another as w i l l t h e modes o f f o r c e and motion. Therefore t h e r e can be no s i n g l e l a b o r a t o r y r i g which can r e p r e s e n t a l l However,

tribological situations.

i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t many machines possess

f e a t u r e s which a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a l i k e t o j u s t i f y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e s t machines f o r t h e purpose o f e v a l u a t i n g l u b r i c a n t s o r m a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r use t h e r e i n . Great c a r e i s necessary however t o analyse p r e c i s e l y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r i b o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n o r d e r t o s e l e c t t h e c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s t o be a p p l i e d i n t h e t e s t machine.

A s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e i s necessary and meaningless

should be avoided. (An example o f

j a r g o n such as " f i l m - s t r e n g t h ' ' o r " l u b r i c i t y "

a l l o w i n g j a r g o n t o t a k e o v e r i s g i v e n by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r who s u b j e c t e d t o an

E.P.

t e s t a l u b r i c a n t r e q u i r e d f o r a process imposing h i g h p r e s s u r e a t v e r y low

speed). The f i r s t s t e p i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l process must be t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e machine element under study w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e k i n e m a t i c c h a i n ; a "Higher P a i r " o r a "Lower Pair"? is it

O f t h e lower p a i r s , t h e s l i d i n g p a i r , F i g . Pair" Fig.lO(b) is

l O ( a ) i s encountered on machine slideways and t h e "Revolute the basis o f the m a j o r i t y o f bearings.

A p a r t f r o m t h e "screw1' p a i r (which i s a

combination o f t h e s l i d i n g and r e v o l u t e p a i r s ) a l l o t h e r p a i r s a r e h i g h e r p a i r s and a r e so c h a r a c t e r i s e d because t h e y must accommodate r e l a t i v e motion which i s p a r t l y s l i d i n g and p a r t l y t u r n i n g . From t h e p o i n t o f vie!+ o f T r i b o l o g y , t h e i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n between lower and h i g h e r p a i r s i s t h a t the former a l l o w c o n t a c t t o be made throughout t h e f u l l e x t e n t o f a s u r f a c e , whereas t h e l a t t e r o n l y a l l o w " p o i n t " o r "1 ine" c o n t a c t . Thus lower p a i r s I t w i l l be

Some common examples o f h i g h e r p a i r s a r e shown i n F i g . l O ( d - 9 ) . a r e s a i d t o be "conformal" and h i g h e r p a i r s a r e "counterformal".

apparent t h a t the p r o f o r m a l d i f f e r e n c e between d i s p e r s e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d cont a c t s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e design o f t h e i n t e r a c t i n g components, in their

m a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d o f any l u b r i c a n t s applied.

[3].

Fig.11 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f some common machine

elements i n t o conformal and c o u n t e r f o r m a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s as w e l l as i n d i c a t i n g t h e mode o f damage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each a p p l i c a t i o n . To be s u c c e s s f u l , l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g machines must be s i m p l e and must employ e a s i l y manufactured t e s t p i e c e s . They must however reproduce t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f

thermal and s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y t o which i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e l u b r i c a t e d system w i l l be s u b j e c t e d i n s e r v i c e . i n t o lower and h i g h e r p a i r s . There a r e r e l a t i v e l y few simple machines a v a i l a b l e commercially f o r t e s t i n g l u b r i c a n t s i n lower p a i r s because, as f a r as l u b r i c a t i o n proper i s concerned, The f i r s t broad c l a s s i f i c a t i o n must be

. I

(d) Gear tooth contact

FIGURE 10

c 9

v)

+ z ,

Q,

lei

& I (

bearmg

IfJ Taper roller

bearing

l g J Wheel on roil

483

Classification of machine elements into higher and lower pairs

Nature of Contact

Characteristic Mode of Damage

Lower pair (Conformal 1 Fixtures subject to

Higher pair (Counterformal1

Hertzian

Gears

I
~

Wheel on rail

FIGURE 11

Classification of mode of damage of common machine elements

485
t h i s i s u s u a l l y hydrodynamic and t h e o n l y p r o p e r t y r e q u i r e d o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s i t s v i s c o s i t y wh i ch can e a s i l y be measured by p h y s i c a l methods. The i m p o r t a n t

p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i n t he se a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e r e l a t e d t o such f a c t o r s as detergency o r a n t i - c o r r o s i o n and f u l l s c a l e t e s t s a r e necessary t o safeguard against undesirable i n t e r a c t i o n s . For t e s t i n g m a t e r i a l - l u b r i c a n t co mbi n at i on s under c o n d i t i o n s o f p u r e s l i d i n g , a very c o n v e n ie n t arrangement c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e c y l i n d r i c a l p i n s w hich a r e h e l d i n an upper member w i t h t h e i r axes p a r a l l e l and t h e assembly i s loaded a g a i n s t the s i d e o f an a n n u l a r t e s t p i e c e which i s r o t a t e d about i t s g e n e r a t i n g a x i s . The "Cygnus" (Fig.13) machine i s o f t h i s t ype . Both t h e Almen (Fig.13) and t h e Falex

machines a r e b a s i c a l l y 1 i n e - c o n t a c t machines b u t a c e r t a i n degree o f These two machine types

c o n f o r m i t y u s u a l l y a r i s e s from.wear o f t h e t e s t pieces.

present t h e common f e a t u r e t h a t two i d e n t i c a l t e s t p i e c e s a r e f o r c e d a g a i n s t a r o t a t i n g member from d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed d i r e c t i o n s , on t h e s p i n d l e . thus balancing the f o r c e

The Almen t e s t p i e c e s f orm segments o f a c y l i n d e r having an

i n t e r n a l r a d i u s some 1.5 x 10 which i s 0.35 mm (0.25 "Falex" a r e "V" shaped.

-4m

(0.006

i n ) g r e a t e r than t h a t o f t h e s p i n d l e The corresponding t e s t p i e c e s o f t h e i s h y d r a u l i c and the "Falex"

i n ) i n d i ame t e r.

Loading on t h e "Almen"

mechanical.

R e s u l t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e because o f t h e l o a d i n g methods

u s u a l l y employed [ 4 ] .
As r e g a r d s h i g h e r p a i r s ,

t h e r e i s a wi de v a r i e t y o f machines w hich a p p l y These have g e n e r a l l y been developed t o

s l i d i n g under c o u n t e r f o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s .

assess t h e q u a l i t y o f ge ar l u b r i c a n t s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n h i b ition o f scuffing. (Stanhope-Seta) One o f t h e most su ccessf ul o f these has been t h e S h e l l The problem o f o b t a i n i n g t e s t

f o u r b a l l machine (Fig.14).

pieces wh ic h a r e o f u n i f o r m f i n i s h and m e t a l l u r g i c a l c o n d i t i o n has been s o l v e d by u s i n g b a l l s s e l e c t e d i n batches f r o m commercial p r o d u c t i o n . Three o f these

b a l l s a r e clamped t o f orm a n e s t i n t o whi ch t h e f o u r t h b a l l ( h e l d i n a chuck) i s forced and r o t a t e d . The b a l l s a r e 12.7 mm (0.5 i n ) i n diameter and t h e r o t a t -

i on a l speed o f t h e s p i n d l e t o which t h e chuck i s a t t a c h e d i s 1450-1500 r e v min-'. Load may b e a p p l i e d i n increments up t o 800 kg. s e v e r a l procedures, The machine may be used i n diameter method",

t h e most common o f wh i ch i s t h e "Wear-scar

[5].

A number o f t e s t s ( u s u a l l y 20) a r e each made on a f r e s h s e t o f b a l l s , load

The d i a -

be in g in c r e a s e d between each t e s t t h e d u r a t i o n o f which i s one minute.

meter o f t h e wear s c a r a pp are nt a f t e r each t e s t i s measured and p l o t t e d a g a i n s t load on l o g a r i t h m i c paper. Duri n g t h e t e s t s a t t h e lower loads wear i s n e g l i g -

i b l e b u t s u f f i c i e n t r u b b i n g a c t i o n t ake s p l a c e t o leave a measurable mark which when measured and p l o t t e d , g i v e s r i s e t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e w hich c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t o b t a i n e d by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i ame t e r o f t h e H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t between the loaded b a l l s . W i t h most l u b r i c a n t s a l o a d i s reached a t w hich a sharp r i s e i n

486

Specimen arrangement

FIG.12

CYGNUS F R I C T I O N AND WEAR TEST MACHINE

Brass lockina
Almen blocks

at

w # + j L
Falex blocks

F I G . 13

FALEX LUBRICANT TEST MACHINE

Exploded view of pin and

V blocks

Cutaway view throughout sample pan

487

Male ball chuck Fourth ball (rotates)

-0

Ball pot lock ring -

(stationary ) Ball Dot insert Ball pot Calibrated arm

Ball pot _ _ mounting disc

Top boll rotates

Ball and flats

Load

Four ball machine

FIGURE 14

Cone and cylinder

488
diameter occurs. This value i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l y d e f i n i t e t o characterise a I n some cases however, r e -

l u b r i c a n t and i s c a l l e d t h e i n i t i a l s e i z u r e load.

covery may o c c u r a l t h o u g h t h e b a l l s o f t e n become welded t o g e t h e r a t t h e h i g h e r loads. Another method o f e v a l u a t i o n i s based on t h e t i m e e l a p s i n g under a con-

s t a n t load b e f o r e t h e occurrence o f a sudden i n c r e a s e i n f r i c t i o n . One disadvantage o f t h e f o u r b a l l machine i s t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e t e s t p i e c e s , b a l l b e a r i n g s t e e l , i s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f m a t e r i a l s w i t h which t h e l u b r i c a n t may be r e q u i r e d t o i n t e r a c t . A c c o r d i n g l y t h e c e n t r a l b a l l may be

r e p l a c e d by a c o n i c a l l y ended p i e c e and t h e f i x e d b a l l s by small c y l i n d e r s arranged t o form a t r i a n g l e i n a h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , Fig.14. The Timkin Machine (Fig.15) embodies a l i n e r a t h e r than a p o i n t c o n t a c t . The

r o t a t i n g element, formed f r o m t h e r i n g o f a t a p e r r o l l e r b e a r i n g a c t s on a stationary rectangular steel block. F r i c t i o n can be measured.

Most t e s t i n g machines a r e so arranged t h a t t h e wearing s u r f a c e s a r e i n cont i n u o u s o r repeated c o n t a c t so as t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e i n i t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f surface f a i l u r e .

A machine was a c c o r d i n g l y designed a t M.E.R.L.

(now N.E.L.)

which c o n s i s t e d o f two c y l i n d e r s which, i n a d d i t i o n t o r o t a t i o n , c o u l d be t r a v ersed one r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r so t h a t t h e c o n t a c t zone was made t o c o n t i n u a l l y embody f r e s h m a t e r i a l (Fig.16). I n a l l t h e aforementioned machines, o n l y s l i d i n g t a k e s p l a c e whereas i n many mechanisms, place. i n v o l u t e gears f o r example, r o l l i n g as w e l l as s l i d i n g can t a k e ( a l s o t h e M e r r i t t and S.A.E.

Disc inachines such as t h e "Amsler"

machines) have d i s c s which a r e loaded edgewise t o p r o v i d e v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g ( F i g . 1 7 ) .

P i t t i n g t y p e f a i l u r e i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r o l l i n g c o n t a c t and can be simulated i n the laboratory [ 6 ] using a simple m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the four b a l l machine ( F i g . 1 8 ) . I n s t e a d o f t h e t h r e e lower b a l l s b e i n g clamped i n t o p l a c e Where i t they a r e a l l o w e d t o r o t a t e w i t h i n a s p e c i a l l y designed b a l l r a c e [ 6 ] . i s d e s i r e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p i t t i n g behaviour o f a s p e c i a l s t e e l ,

it i s

p o s s i b l e t o s u b s t i t u t e a c o n i c a l l y ended t e s t p i e c e f o r t h e c e n t r a l b a l l a l t h o u g h t h e t h r e e f r e e b a l l s must be r e t a i n e d .
A h i g h speed v e r s i o n i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e .

20.4

EQUIPMENT FOR B A S I C RESEARCH

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s pursued i n b a s i c r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s may appear t o be u n r e l a t e d t o p r a c t i c e by reason of t h e a r t i f i c i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t e n imposed i n o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e some fundamental r e l a t i o n s h i p . The c l o s i n g o f t h e communic-

a t i o n gap between t h e fundamental i n v e s t i g a t o r and t h e engineer whose p r a c t i c e

lies i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y f o r example, has been made e a s i e r by t h e d e v e l opment o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f m o d e l l i n g complex systems u s i n g computers. Thus i n Fig.19 t h e r e c t a n g l e marked A r e p r e s e n t s a real. machine-element s u b j e c t e d t o t h e environmental c o n d i t i o n s and l o a d i n g w i t h i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l environment. Its

489

Lubricant sample

+
Load
Fig.15 Timken t e s t

Fig.16

N.E.L.

c ro ssed c y l i n d e r machine

490

Fig.17

Amsler machine

lL

Fig.18

Rolling four ball machine

491

MATHEMATICAL

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

E /

Fig.19

The r o l e o f the computer model i n r e l a t i n g b a s i c research t o engineering p r a c t i c e

response t o these c o n d i t i o n s can be determined by a methodical s e r i e s o f t e s t s , r e s u l t s o f which a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by r e c t a n g l e 8. Assuming t h a t n o t a l l i s w e l l

i t may

o r t h a t some development i n p r o d u c t o r p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y i s r e q u i r e d ,

be necessary t o f o r m u l a t e some p r e d i c t i o n s o f behaviour l y i n g o u t s i d e t h e range o f p r e v i o u s experience. The system can then be represented by a s e r i e s o f

e q u a t i o n s l i n k e d t o g e t h e r t o form a mathematical model o f t h e machine as indi c a t e d by r e c t a n g l e C. S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r a p p l i e d c o n d i t i o n s and l o a d i n g s would

be f e d i n and t h e computer would produce s o l u t i o n s t o t h e e q u a t i o n s represented by r e c t a n g l e D . These s o l u t i o n s would p r o v i d e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e magnitude o f

o u t p u t q u a n t i t i e s which a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e arrows p o i n t i n g t o the l e f t from

D t o B.

The arrows p o i n t i n g t o t h e r i g h t f r o m 3 t o D r e p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s o f
I f t h e r e i s agreement between measured o u t p u t s and c a l c u l a t e d pre-

actual t e s t .

d i c t i o n s , t h e model can be s a i d t o be complete.

I f t h e r e i s divergence, the Once

model must be r e f i n e d and a d j u s t e d u n t i l a c c e p t a b l e agreement r e s u l t s .

t h i s agreement has been a t t a i n e d , t h e model may be used t o p r e d i c t the behaviour o f an i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f machine elements and a p p l i e d c o n d i t i o n s p r o v i d e d they l i e w i t h i n t h e range o f e q u a t i o n s embodied i n t h e model. Attempts t o c o n s t r u c t r e a l i s t i c mathematical models however, f r e q u e n t l y r e v e a l gaps i n understanding o f t h e p h y s i c a l system i n v o l v e d which can o n l y be f i l l e d by c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y experiments such as those which were necessary t o e l u c i d a t e t h e n a t u r e and o p e r a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f e l a s t o hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n (as i n d i c a t e d a t E ) . Such experiments u s u a l l y form the

b a s i s o f advanced t e s t methods made necessary by developing p r a c t i c e .

492
REFERENCES Cree,J.C. ( 1 9 5 3 ) C a t e r p i l l a r L1 a n d C h e v r o l e t L4 t e s t p r o c e s s , Symposium o n E n g i n e T e s t i n g o f L u b r i c a t i n g O i l . I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum R o y l a n c e , B . J . (1977) The A p p l i c a t i o n o f E x i s t i n g Knowledge t h e S o l u t i o n o f I n d u s t r i a l T r i b o l o g y Problems. P r o c . I . Mech. E. I n t h e Press. B a r w e l l ,F.T. (1979) ' B e a r i n g Systems - P r i n c i p l e s a n d P r a c t i c e ' Clarendon, Oxford. Meckleburg,K.R. (1975) 'Forces i n the Falex c o n f i g u r a t i o n ' . Trans. ASLE., V01.18, pp. 97-104. Extreme P r e s s u r e P r o p e r t i e s : F r i c t i o n a n d blear T e s t s : Four B a l l I P 239/77. The I n s t i t u t e o f P e t r o l e u m . Standards f o r Machine. Petroleum and i t s p r o d u c t s . 'The e f f e c t o f l u b r i c a n t p i t t i n g B a r w e l 1 , F . T . a n d S c o t t , D . (1956) f a i l u r e o f b a l l b e a r i n g s ' E n g i n e e r i n g , Vo1.182, pp. 9-12.

493

GLOSSARY

Terms and D e f i n i t i o n s

Abrasion

Wear by displacement o f m a t e r i a l caused by h a r d p a r t i c l e s o r hard

protuberances. Absolute V i s c o s i t y

see v i s c o s i t y .

Additive

A m a t e r i a l added t o a l u b r i c a n t f o r t h e purpose o f i m p a r t i n g new

p r o p e r t i e s o r o f enhancing e x i s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s .

Adhesive Wear

Wear by t r a n s f e r e n c e o f m a t e r i a l f r o m one s u r f a c e t o another

d u r i n g r e l a t i v e motion, due t o t h e process o f s o l i d - p h a s e welding.

Anti-Wear A d d i t i v e

An a d d i t i v e used t o reduce wear.

Area o f Contact

The area o f c o n t a c t between two s o l i d s u r f a c e s i s d e s c r i b e d

i n two ways. ( i ) Apparent Area: t h e area o f c o n t a c t d e f i n e d by t h e boundaries

o f t h e macroscopic i n t e r f a c e o f t h e bodies ( i i ) Real Area: t h e sum o f t h e l o c a l areas t r a n s m i t t i n g i n t e r f a c i a l

f o r c e d i r e c t l y between t h e bodies.

Asperities

The s m a l l s c a l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s on a s u r f a c e .

B,O

Life

see r a t i n g l i f e .

B a b b i t t Metal

A n o n - f e r r o u s b e a r i n g a l l o y , e i t h e r t i n o r l e a d based con-

s i s t i n g o f v a r i o u s amounts o f copper, antimony, t i n and l e a d .

Base Stock ( o i l )

R e f i n e d p e t r o l e u m o i l used i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f l u b r i c a n t s The base s t o c k may be used a l o n e or blended w i t h

and o t h e r products.

o t h e r base s t o c k s and/or a d d i t i v e s .

Bearing

A support o r guide by means o f which a moving p a r t i s p o s i t i o n e d

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f a mechanism.

494
Bearing Area - The p r o j e c t e d b e a r i n g l o a d c a r r y i n g area when viewed i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f the load.

Beilby layer

An amorphous l a y e r o f deformed metal and o x i d e p a r t i c l e s formed

by p o l i s h i n g .

Blending

The process o f m i x i n g m i n e r a l o i l s t o o b t a i n d e s i r e d viscous

properties.

Boundary L u b r i c a t i o n

A c o n d i t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n which t h e f r i c t i o n and wear

between two s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n a r e determined by t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s u r f a c e s , and by t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t o t h e r than b u l k viscosity.

Brinelling

I n d e n t a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e o f a s o l i d body by repeated l o c a l

impact o r impacts, o r by s t a t i c o v e r l o a d .

Cavitation Erosion

Wear o f a s o l i d body moving r e l a t i v e l y t o a l i q u i d i n a

r e g i o n o f c o l l a p s i n g vapour bubbles which cause l o c a l h i g h impact pressure

0r

tempe r a t u r e s

Centre L i n e Average (CLA)

An E n g l i s h measure o f s u r f a c e topography r e p r e s -

e n t i n g t h e average d e p a r t u r e o f a l i n e p r o f i l e o f t h e s u r f a c e f r o m t h e centre line.

Channe i n g

The tendency o f a grease t o f o r m a channel by w o r k i n g down a

b e a r i n g o r d i s t r i b u t i o n system, l e a v i n g shoulders t o a c t as a r e s e r v o i r and s e a l .

Clearance R a t i o

In a bearing, the r a t i o o f r a d i a l clearance t o shaft radius.

C o e f f i c i e n t of F r i c t i o n

The r a t i o o b t a i n e d by d i v i d i n g t h e t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e

r e s i s t i n g m o t i o n between two b o d i e s by t h e normal f o r c e p r e s s i n g these bodies t o g e t h e r .

Composite Bearing M a t e r i a l

A s o l i d m a t e r i a l composed o f a c o n t i n u o u s o r

p a r t i c u l a t e s o l i d l u b r i c a n t phase dispensed t h r o u g h o u t a l o a d b e a r i n g m a t r i x t o p r o v i d e c o n t i n u o u s replenishment o f s o l i d l u b r i c a n t f i l m s as wear o c c u r s , and e f f e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m t h e f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e .

495
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r

A d d i t i v e s f o r p r o t e c t i n g l u b r i c a t e d surfaces a g a i n s t They may be p o l a r compounds w e t t i n g the metal s u r f a c e

chemical a t t a c k .

p r e f e r e n t i a l l y , or they may a bso rb t h e w ater t o form a w a t e r - i n - o i l e m u ls io n

o n l y t h e o i l touches t h e metal.

Some c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s

combine c h e m i c a l l y w i t h t h e metal t o g i v e a n o n - r e a c t i v e surface.

C o r r o s i v e Wear

A process i n which chemical or e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n w i t h

t h e environment predominates.

Cutting Fluid

A f l u i d applied t o a c u t t i n g tool t o assist i n the c u t t i n g

l u b r i c a t i n g o r o t h e r means.

o p e r a t i o n by c o o l i n g ,

Det e r g e n t A d d i t i v e s

compounds which, when blended w i t h l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s ,

d i s p e r s e t he d e t e r i o r a t i o n p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e f u e l and l u b r i c a n t , esp e c i a l l y t ho se formed under h i g h t emp erature c o n d i t i o n s , and, t h u s , m in im is e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f d e p o s i t s l i a b l e t o cause p i s t o n - r i n g s t i c k i n g

or o t h e r t r o u b l e .

Di s p e r s a n t A d d i t i v e s

compounds which, when blended w i t h l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s ,

m a i n t a i n t h e p r o d u c t s o f combustion f rom t h e fuel i n a f i n e l y dispersed s t a t e , and t h e r e b y mi ni mi se sludge f o r m a t i o n and f i l t e r b l o c k i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n g a s o l i n e engines o p e r a t i n g under c o l d c o n d i t i o n s .

Drop p o i n t

temperature a t which a drop o f grease o r o t h e r petroleum product

f i r s t detaches i t s e l f f ro m t h e main b u l k o f m a t e r i a l when a sample i s s t e a d i l y heated under p r e s c r i b e d c o n d i t i o n s .

Duty Parameter

A di me nsi o nl e ss number whi ch i s used t o e v a l u a t e t h e p e r -

formance o f b ea ri ng s.

Dynamic V i s c o s i t y

see: V i s c o s i t y .

Eccentricity Ratio c l earance.

In a b e a r i n g , t h e r a t i o o f t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y t o t h e r a d i a l

Elasto-hydrodynamic L u b r i c a t i o n

A c o n d i t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n which t h e
i n combination w i t h

f r i c t i o n and f i l m t h i c k n e s s between two bodies i n r e l a t i v e motion a r e determined by t h e e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e bodies,

t h e v is c o us p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a t t h e p r e v a i l i n g pressure, temperature and r a t e o f shear.

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Embeddability

The a b i l i t y o f a b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l t o embed harmful f o r e i g n

p a r t i c l e s and reduce t h e i r tendency t o cause s c o r i n g o r a b r a s i o n .

Emulsion

A d i s p e r s i o n o f g l o b u l e s o f one l i q u i d i n a n o t h e r i n which i t i s

insoluble.

EP (Extreme p r e s s u r e ) A d d i t i v e

A chemical substance c o n t a i n i n g one o r more

elements, e s p e c i a l l y s u l p h u r , c h l o r i n e o r phosphorus, a b l e t o r e a c t w i t h metal s u r f a c e s t o g i v e i n o r g a n i c f i l m s o f h i g h m e l t i n g p o i n t . The

presence o f these f i l m s h i n d e r s w e l d i n g and s e i z u r e and t h u s p r e v e n t s s c u f f i n g and s c o r i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n gears o p e r a t i n g under h i g h l o a d conditions.

Erosion

E r o s i v e wear i s loss o f m a t e r i a l f r o m a s o l i d s u r f a c e due t o

r e l a t i v e m o t i o n i n c o n t a c t w i t h a f l u i d which c o n t a i n s s o l i d p a r t i c l e s .

F a t t y Acids

Long c h a i n o r g a n i c a c i d s which o c c u r n a t u r a l l y as t h e i r g l y c e r i d e

e s t e r s i n animal and v e g e t a b l e o i l s and f a t s .

Filler

A substance such as l i m e , t a l c , mica and o t h e r powders, added t o

grease t o i n c r e a s e i t s c o n s i s t e n c y or t o an o i l t o i n c r e a s e v i s c o s i t y .

Flash P o i n t

The l o w e s t temperature a t which t h e vapour of a l u b r i c a n t can be

i g n i t e d under s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s .

Flash Temperature

The maximum l o c a l temperature generated a t some p o i n t o f

c l o s e approach i n a s l i d i n g c o n t a c t .

Flexure Pivot

A t y p e o f b e a r i n g f o r l i m i t e d movement i n which t h e moving

p a r t s a r e guided by f l e x u r e o f e l a s t i c members r a t h e r than by r o l l i n g o r s l i d i n g surfaces.

Fretting

The removal o f e x t r e m e l y f i n e p a r t i c l e s f r o m b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s due t o

the i n h e r e n t adhesive f o r c e s between t h e s u r f a c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y under t h e c o n d i t i o n o f small a m p l i t u d e v i b r a t i o n .

F r e t t i n g Corrosion

A f o r m o f f r e t t i n g i n which chemical r e a c t i o n predominates.

Friction

The r e s i s t i n g f o r c e t a n g e n t i a l t o a common boundary between two

bodies when, under t h e a c t i o n o f an e x t e r n a l f o r c e , one body moves o r tends t o move r e l a t i v e t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e o t h e r .

491
F r i c t i o n Polymer

An amorphous o r g a n i c d e p o s i t which i s produced when c e r t a i n

m e t a l s a r e rubbed t o g e t h e r i n t h e presence o f o r g a n i c l i q u i d s o r gases.

Galling

A severe f o r m o f s c u f f i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h gross damage t o t h e surfaces The use o f t h i s f o r m should be avoided.

or failure.

Grease

A l u b r i c a n t composed o f an o i l t h i c k e n e d w i t h a soap o r o t h e r t h i c k e n e r A lime-based grease i s prepared

Sodium, Barium, L i t h i u m and

t o a semi-solid o r s o l i d consistency.

f r o m a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l and Calcium soap. Aluminium based greases a r e a l s o used.

Hydraulic F l u i d

A f l u i d used f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e o r a c t i o n , May be o i l , water o r

not necessarily involving lubricant properties. synthetic ( f i r e r e s i s t a n t ) 1 iquids.

Hydrodynamic L u b r i c a t i o n

A system o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n which t h e shape and

r e l a t i v e m o t i o n o f t h e s l i d i n g s u r f a c e s causes t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a f l u i d f i l m h a v i n g s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e t o separate t h e s u r f a c e s .

Hydrostatic Lubrication

A system o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n which t h e l u b r i c a n t i s

s u p p l i e d under s u f f i c i e n t e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e t o separate t h e opposing s u r f a c e s by a f l u i d f i l m .

Initial Pitting

Surface f a t i g u e o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e e a r l y stages o f o p e r a t i o n

o f gears, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h removal o f h i g h l y s t r e s s e d l o c a l areas and running-in.

Journal

That p a r t o f a s h a f t o r a x l e which r o t a t e s o r o s c i l l a t e s r e l a t i v e l y

t o a r a d i a l bearing.

Kinematic V i s c o s i t y

See: V i s c o s i t y .

L,o

life

See: R a t i n g L i f e .

Lacquer

Hard,

lustrous, varnish-like,

o i l i n s o l u b l e d e p o s i t which tends t o

f o r m on t h e p i s t o n s and c y l i n d e r s o f i n t e r n a l combustion engines.

Load C a r r y i n g Capacity

The maximum l o a d t h a t a s l i d i n g o r r o l l i n g system can

s u p p o r t w i t h o u t f a i l u r e o r t h e wear exceeding t h e d e s i g n l i m i t s f o r the particular application.

498 Lubricant

Any substance i n t e r p o s e d between two s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e motion

f o r t h e purpose o f re du ci ng t h e f r i c t i o n o r wear between them.

M i l d Wear

A form o f wear c h a r a c t e r i s e d by removal o f m a t e r i a l i n v e r y small

fragments.

Non-Newtonian V i s c o s i t y

The ap pa ren t v i s c o s i t y o f a m a t e r i a l

i n which t h e

shear s t r e s s i s n o t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t he r a t e o f shear.

Oil

A l i q u i d o f ve ge t a bl e , an i mal , m i n e r a l o r s y n t h e t i c o r i g i n f e e l i n g

sl i p p e r y t o t h e touch.
Oiliness

That p r o p e r t y o f a l u b r i c a n t t h a t produces low f r i c t i o n under The lower t h e f r i c t i o n , t h e g r e a t e r

c o n d i t i o n s o f boundary l u b r i c a t i o n . the o i l i n e s s .

O i l M i s t (Fog)

An o i l atomised w i t h t h e a i d o f compressed a i r and then con-

veyed by t h e a i r i n a low-pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n system t o m u l t i p l e points o f lubricant application.

Pitting

Any removal o r displacement o f m a t e r i a l r e s u l t i n g i n the f o r m a t i o n o f

surface c a v i t i e s .

P l a i n B e a r in g

Any si mpl e s l i d i n g t yp e o f b e a r i n g as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from f i x e d -

pad, p iv o t ed -pa d o r r o l l i n g - t y p e b ea ri ngs.

Porous B e a r in g powders,

A b e a r i n g made f rom porous m a t e r i a l such as compressed metal

t h e po res a c t i n g e i t h e r as r e s e r v o i r s f o r h o l d i n g , o r passages

f o r supplying l u b r i c a n t .

Pour P o i n t

The l o we st t emp era t u re a t which a l u b r i c a n t can be observed t o

f l o w under s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s .

PTFE

P o l y t e t r a f l u o r e t h y l e n e , a polymer h a v i n g o u t s t a n d i n g l o w - f r i c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s ove r a wide t emp era t u re range.

PV F a c t o r

The p r o d u c t o f b e a r i n g p ressu re and s u r f a c e v e l o c i t y .

499
Rating L i f e

The f a t i g u e l i f e i n m i l l i o n s o f r e v o l u t i o n s o r hours a t a g i v e n

o p e r a t i n g speed which 90 p e r c e n t o f a group o f s u b s t a n t i a l y i d e n t i c a l r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s w i l l s u r v i v e under a g i v e n load. he 90 per ife".

c e n t r a t i n g 1 i f e i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o as llL,o-l i f e " or "B,o-l

Redwood V i s c o s i t y

A comrnerical measure o f v i s c o s i t y expressed as t h e t i m e i n

seconds r e q u i r e d f o r 50 c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f a f l u i d t o f l o w through a t u b e o f 10 mm l e n g t h and 1 . 5 mm d i ame ter a t a g i v e n temperature.

Root Mean Square Hei g ht (RMS)

An American measure o f s u r f a c e topography

r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e average d e p a r t u r e o f a l i n e p r o f i l e of t h e s u r f a c e f r o m a mean l i n e .

SAE

S o c i e t y o f Automotive Engineers.

Sa y b o lt V i s c o s i t y

A commerical measure o f v i s c o s i t y expressed as t h e time i n

seconds r e q u i r e d f o r 60 c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f a f l u i d t o f l o w through t h e o r i f i c e o f t h e Standard Sa ybo l t U n i v e r s a l Viscometer a t a g i v e n temp e r a t u r e under s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s .

Sc o r in g

The f o r m a t i o n o f severe s c r a t c h e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s l i d i n g .

Scratching

The f o r m a t i o n o f f i n e scrat che s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s l i d i n g

Scuffing

L o c a l i s e d damage caused by t h e o ccurrence o f solid-phase w elding

between s l i d i n g su rf a ces, w i t h o u t l o c a l s u r f a c e m e l t i n g .

Severe Wear

A f o r m o f wear c h a r a c t e r i s e d by removal o f m a t e r i a l i n r e l a t i v e l y

l a r g e fragments.

Soap

I n l u b r i c a t i o n , a compound formed by t he r e a c t i o n o f a f a t t y ' a c i d w i t h a metal o r metal compound.

Solid Lubricant

Any s o l i d used as a powder o r t h i n f i l m on a s u r f a c e t o

p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m damage d u r i n g r e l a t i v e movement, and t o reduce f r i c t i o n and wear.

Spalling

S e p a ra t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s f ro m a s u r f a c e i n t h e form o f f l a k e s .

Stick-Slip

A r e l a x a t i o n o s c i l l a t i o n u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h decrease i n the

c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n as t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y increases.

500
Synthetic Lubricant

A l u b r i c a n t produced by s y n t h e s i s r a t h e r than by e x t r a c t i o n

o r r e fin e me nt .

Th in F i l m L u b r i c a t i o n

A c o n d i t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i o n i n which t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s o f

t h e l u b r i c a n t i s such t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n between the s u r f a c e s i s d e t e r mined by t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s u r f a c e s as w e l l as by t h e v i s c o s i t y o f the l u b r i c a n t .

T o t a l A c i d Number (TAN)

The q u a n t i t y o f base, expressed i n terms o f t h e

e q u i v a l e n t number o f m i l l i g r a m s o f po t assium h y d r o x i d e t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o n e u t r a l i s e a l l a c i d i c c o n s t i t u e n t s p r e s e n t i n 1 gram o f sample.

T o t a l Base Number (TBN)

The q u a n t i t y o f a c i d , expressed i n terms o f t h e

e q u i v a l e n t number o f m i l l i g r a m s o f p ot assium h y d r o x i d e t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o n e u t r a l i s e a l l b a s i c c o n s t i t u e n t s p r e s e n t i n 1 gram o f sample.

Va r n is h

A d e p o s i t r e s u l t i n g f rom t h e o x i d a t i o n and/or p o l y m e r i s a t i o n o f f u e l s ,

l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s , o r organic c o n s t i t u e n t s o f bearing m a t e r i a l s .

Viscosity

That b u l k p r o p e r t y o f a f l u i d , s e m i - f l u i d o r s e m i - s o l i d substance

which causes i t t o r e s i s t f l o w . V i s c o s i t y i s d e f i n e d by t h e e q u a t i o n
q = -r/-

dv dx v t h e v e l o c i t y , ds t h e t h i c k n e s s o f an element dv/ds i s known a s

T i s t h e shear s t r e s s ,

measured p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l o w ; t h e r a t e o f shear.

V i s c o s i t y i n t h e normal, t h a t i s Newtonian sense Kinematic o r s t a t i c

i s o f t e n c a l l e d dynamic o r a b s o l u t e v i s c o s i t y .

v i s c o s i t y i s t h e r a t i o o f dynamic v i s c o s i t y t o d e n s i t y a t a s p e c i f i e d temperature and pre ssure .

V i s c o s i t y Index ( V I )

A r b i t r a r y s c a l e used t o show t h e magnitude o f v i s c o s i t y

changes w i t h t emp era t u re i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s and o t h e r products.

Wear

The removal of m a t e r i a l from s u r f a c e s i n r e l a t i v e motion, n o r m a l l y by a b r a s io n , adhesion o r c o r r o s i o n .

Wedge E f f e c t

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p r e s s u r e wedge i n a l u b r i c a n t .

Wettability

A term used t o i n d i c a t e t h e ease w i t h which a l u b r i c a n t w i l l

spread o r f l o w o v e r a b e a r i n g su rf a ce.

501
ZDDP

I n i t i a l s f o r z i n c dialkyl-dithiophosphate, which i s w i d e l y used a s an extreme p ressu re agent.

I t i s a l s o an e f f e c t i v e o x i d a t i o n i n h i b i t o r

b u t should n o t b e used i n mechanisms w i t h s i l v e r bearings.

Acknowledgement.

Permission t o qu ot e terms and d e f i n i t i o n s r e c e i v e d f r o m

The I n s t i t u t e o f Petroleum and t h e OECD.

502

AUTHOR INDEX

Numbers u n d e r l i n e d g i v e t h e page on which t h e complete r e f e r e n c e i s l i s t e d , o t h e r numbers r e f e r t o t h e page number on which t h e a u t h o r ( o r h i s work) i s mentioned i n t h e t e x t .

Amateau,M.F., Archard,J.F., Attwood,D.G., Aubert,F.,

210 13 3

221 2

Cameron,A.,

lo

Churchill,J.R., Chynoweth,A., Clausen,J.,

fi 52 78 130
3

130

lo
24

220 222

284 290

Babichev, 17 Bailey,J.M., Balmer,C.,

2
18

Collacott,R.A.,

30 427

428 433

445

2
7

Cree,J.C., Crooks,C.S., Czichos,H.,

474

492

329
1
14 15 17 25

130
4 10 428 445

Bartenev,G.M., Barwell,F.T.,

3s

Davies,A.E., Davis,T.A., Oawson,P.H., Decoufle,P., Devine,M.J.,

471 482 488 492 Bates,T.R., Beilby,G., 13

130
17 29 130 277 3

lo 13 2 Bickerman,J.J., 14 2 Bingham,E., 278 290

4
Blackwell ,J., Block.H., 12 Booser,E.R., Boothroyd,G., Bosma,R.,

289

De Vos,H., 281 Dobychin,M.N., Dombroski,R.M., Dowson,O.,

2 23 2 15 2 60 79
7
47 49 78 131
461

290 4 lo

426
206

2
25 2 8 0 -

1 5 10 11 130

Duckworth,W.E., Dumbleton,J.H., Orasche,H., 277

60

79
12 15 28 9

221 fi 14 2

Bowden,F.P., Bowen,E.R., Brainard,W.A.,

289

1 13 1
13 428 64

28
3 10 130 221

Eastham,D.R., E l w e l l ,R.C., Engel , P . A . , Evans,F.C., Eyres ,A. R.,

Braithwaite,E.R., Bridges,D.C., Brown,T.W.F., Bryce,J.B., Buckley,D.H., Bunshah,R.F., Burke ,A. E.

47
18 217 275

445
79
221

10 3 78
3

221

2
4 220

222
Fein,R.S., Fidler,F.,

222

fi

, 130

17 2 9 130

503
Forrester,P.G., F o r s y t h , I., 5 130 131 208

?21

Kennedy-Srnith,R., Kilbourn,D.F.,

'0

428

266 445

Fowle,T. I., 184 193

16 9

King,M., Kirk,J.A.,

lo
13

3
4

Garner,D.A., Gass,H.,

4 5 58 72 75 78 79 131

Knight,R.E., Kornbalov,V.S.,

426
4

220 222

Georges,J.M., Glasser,W.A., Godet,M.,

lo 210 221
4
18

K r a g e l s k y , I .V., Kruschov,M.M.,

lo lo 14 9

17
6

130
2
Lancaster,J.K.,

Godfrey,D., Gregory,J.C., Grunberg,L.,

1 217 221 1

220 20

222

Lansdown,A.R., Laventev,V.V., Leak,D.A., 206

223 267

2
330 353 370

1 1

221
290
49

Halligan,B.D., Halling,J., Hancock,B.T., Harvey,B.F., Hastings,G.W., Hibbs,L.E., Higginson,G., Hiley,R.W., 3

Lee,C.S., Lehrke,W.D., Leitch,A., Ling,F.F.,

75

lo 221 222 5 1 1
5
5

2 2 lo

278 3 8

428

445 fl

Linkinhoker,C.L., Lloyd,K.A., Love,P., Loy,B., 130

465

9
2
7

130
21

130

Hinterrnan,H.E., Hirst,W., 14

1 220 222 1

Ludema,K.C., Lund,J.W.,

2 lo 1 3
50 52 277

27

28

2
132

78

Hjertzen,D.G., H o l l igan,P.T., Horton,A.W.,

Lushbaugh,C.C.,

9
278 290 17 Martin,F.A.,

Hother-Lushington,S., Hunter,M.S.,

45 47 58 72 75 - 78 79
429

Mathieson,T.C., McCoy,W.E.,

445

10 3
13

425
7

Jahanrnir,S., Jarnes,R.D., Jarnieson,D.T., Jarvis,R.A., Johnson,K.L., Jones,G.J., Jones,M.H., Jones,M.P., Jost,H.P., Juntz,R.S.,

a
2

McCullagh,P.J., McDonald,D., Mear,R.B.,

2 23 2

29

130
28

20 132

Mear5,D.C..

30
485
395 426

Meckleburg,K.R., Merrett,J.G., Mills,G.H., Milne,A.A.,

492
--

5
72 471

2 2

21 25 27 29 30

15

3
9

to
222
206

2 3 9 - - 395 425 426 10 11 220

Ming Feng, I., 13 15 28 Moes,H., 60

2
17

Moore,M.A.,

Justusson,W.M.,

221

Morris,J.A., Murray,P.W.,

130
395

425

504
Neale,M.J., Newman,A.O., 2

lo 31 1 1 3

Shone,E.B.,

80

64

79
210 221

Smal lheer,C.V., Smart,E.F.,

Nicholson,O.W., Nonnen,F.A., 2

lo

Smi th,A. I . ,
Soul ,D.M., Spalvins,T., Spencer,J.B., Sridharan,P.,

130 266 468 470 216 221

221

242

130 P h i l l i p s , R . , 206 221 Pinkus,O., 52 78

Perkins,C.A., Pocock,G., Pratt,G.C., 443 445

222 291 329

13 52

Sternlicht,B., Suh,N.P.,

78
15

1 0 217 221 3 Przbyszewski,J.S., 221 222

Quayle,J.P.,

1 4

to 13
13

Summers-Smith,O., Swanson,T.D.,

216

221

29

130
Tabor,D., 12 15 216

Raask,E.,

2 3

Rabinowicz,E., Rafique,S.O., Rapp,C., 281

3 13 a
290

Tait,J.,

Taylor,C.M., Teer,D.G.,

221 130
222
5 1_1
4 5
52

130
2
284

221

Tevazwark,J.L., Thomas,T.R., Thomson ,K.K., Thony,C., 3 Tilley,G.P., Tourret,R., 283

Rastogi ,S.C., Reda,A.A., Reynolds,O.,

lo

13

8
5

78

fi
454 470
479

Richardson,R.C.D., Roehner,T.G., Rollason,E.C., Rose,A.,

2 23

290 lo

130

3
216

492

Tremain,G.R., Trent,E.M.,

130
25

215

221 221 446

452 464

Roylance,B. J., Ruff,W.,

468 470

30
49

281

Ryman,F.O.,

78
278 289

Van Peteghem,T., Venton,A.D.F.,

290

Saka,N.,

lo

428

445
290

Sanderson,J., Scala,R.A., Schofield,J., Scott,O.,

279

Wagner,W.D., Wahlberg,J.E., Walsh,W.,

277

289

279

2 10 426

lo
131

1 3 4 5 7 -- 13 14 15 17 10 11
18 20 21 23 24 25 27

Warriner,J.F., Waterhouse,R.B., Welsh,N.C., Wentorf ,R.E., 15

205 211 212 216 218 221 488 492 Scott,H.H., Sharp,W.F., Shen,C., 14

18 19

465

14 18 20 29
219

222
221

470
13 15 24

West,C.H.,

425
4 9
25 28 29 30

3
222

Westcott,V.C.,

Sherbiney,M.A.,

505
Wilkinson,H.C., Wilks,P.E.,

428 445

425
5

Williams,D.F., W i 1 1 iams,G., Williams,J.E., Wilson,R.W., Woldman,N.E., Wright,E.P., Wright,K.H.R.,

1 1

425
454 470 fi 80 130 218 222 205 221 23 9

17 18

Zakay,V.F.,

206

221
281

Zingmark,P.A., Zlatin,L., Zorev,N.N.,

290

lo
448 470

506 f r i c t i o n m o d i f i e r 246 264 hazards 275-290 head 280 metal c u t t i n g 262 467 metal d e a c t i v a t o r 247 pour p o i n t depressant 247 257 r u s t i n h i b i t o r 246 254 Abel method 244 Abrasion d e f i n i t i o n 17 493 economics 3 Ab r a s iv e Wear 3 12 17 c u t t i n g t o o l s 214 461 467 damage 17 e f f e c t o f hardness 17 gears 194 202 p a r t i c l e s 296 p l a i n b e a r in gs 81 97 207 r e s i s t a n c e 206 213 r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s 173 s e a l s 334 374 Accelerometers 434 A c i d i t y 244 A c i d tr e a tm e n t 275 Add i t ives a n t i c h a t t e r 265 a n t i c o r r o s i o n 276 a n t i foam 247 a n t i o x i d a n t s 232 246 251 252 276 a n t i squawk 265 a n t i wear 231 246 260 276 281 493 b i o c i d e s 276 289 c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r 246 251 253 254 t a c k i n e s s 247 v i s c o s i t y index improver 247 250 255 Adhesion wear t h e o r y 13 493 A i r entrainment 347

SUBJECT INDEX

A1 ignment, gears 184-187

Almen Weiland t e s t 261 Amides 250 Analysis Auger e l e c t r o n spectroscopy 4 i on spectroscopy 4 microprobe 4 scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy 4 s p e c t r o g r a p h i c o i l 8 24 439
x r a y photon

A n t i c h a t t e r a d d i t i v e 265 A n t i c o r r o s i o n a d d i t i v e 276 A n t i foam a d d i t i v e 247 A n t i o x i d a n t a d d i t i v e 232 246 251 252

276
A n t i squawk a d d i t i v e 265 A n t i wear a d d i t i v e 231 246 260 276 281

493
Area o f c o n t a c t a pparent 452 493 r e a l 452 493 A r t h r i t i s 28 Asbestos packings 377 378 h e a l t h 393 A s p e r i t i e s 493 r o l e i n wear 13 A t t r i t i o n 465 Aus f orming 206

495 d e t e r g e n t s 243 245 246 249 276 495

d i s p e r s a n t s 243 249 251 276 495 e m u l s i f i e r s 247 255 264 276 extreme p r e s sure 231 247 258 259

276 467 474 496 e f f e c t on gears 191 193 200 201

e f f e c t on p l a i n b e a r i n g s 1 1 2 e f f e c t on s c u f f i n g 15

507
B a c t e r i a 282 289 Bad bonding 89 B a r r i e r cream 286 Bearing area 494 materials aluminium a l l o y 83 87 aluminium l e a d 210 aluminium t i n 83 210 b a b b i t 82 493 copper l e a d a l l o y s 83 86 208 474 l e a d bronze 83 86 208 n y l o n 217 o v e r l a y 82 84 208 phosphor bronze 83 88 p l a s t i c 217 p o l y a c e t a l 218 porous 88 498 p t f e 215-218 s i l i c o n bronze 88 s i l v e r 88 t h e r m o p l a s t i c 217 thermoset 217 t r i m e t a l 82 88 w h i t e metal 82 208 Bearings f l e x u r e 32 36 42 h y d r o s t a t i c 35 37 magnetic 32 p l a i n journal b e a r i n g l o a d c a p a c i t y 54 61 c l e a r a n c e 65 d e s i g n l i m i t s 46 e f f e c t o f bearing temperature 48 60 g r o o v i n g 56 misalignment 67 o i l f i l m s t a b i l i t y 50 64 o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s 60 o i l o x i d a t i o n 50 s u r f a c e roughness 47 f a i l u r e s see f a i l u r e s f l u i d f i l m 35 Bear ings p l a i n journal heat balance 57 l u b r i c a t i o n requirements 402 m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 43 maximum p r e s s u r e 43 maximum temperature 71 minimum c l e a r a n c e 65 non l a m i n a r 72 performance 39 65 plastic

7 217

porous 32 88 power loss 67 70 p r o f i l e bore 72 pv f a c t o r 34 498 s p e c i f i c l o a d r a t i n g 66 s u r f a c e f i n i s h 47 r o l l i n g element a p p l i c a t i o n s 166 c l e a n i n g 171 c 1 earances 144 c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r 146 damage see f a i l u r e s dimensions 144 d i s m a n t l i n g 168 f a t i g u e l i f e 35 139 f i t s 163 f r i c t i o n 150 grease 152 l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y 139 l u b r i c a t i o n 151 151 m a t e r i a l 211 mounting 167 n o i s e 159 o i l m i s t 158 o i l s e l e c t i o n 156 performance 39 s e a l s 157 s e l e c t i o n 132 shock p u l s e 163 speed l i m i t 1 4 5 148 149

508
type angular contact 134 b a l l t h r u s t 138 c y l i n d r i c a l r o l l e r 135 double row a n g u l a r c o n t a c t 134 d o u b l e row r o l l e r 135 double row s p h e r i c a l 137 n e e d l e 136 s e l f a l i g n i n g 133 s i n g l e row deep groove 133 s p h e r i c a l r o l l e r t h r u s t 138 t a p e r r o l l e r 136 r u b b i n g 34 l i f e 140 m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 210 pv f a c t o r s 41 B e i l b y l a y e r 454 Beta r a t i o 307 Bioc i d e s 282 289 Boroscope 437 Brake m a t e r i a l a x i a l p i s t o n pump 298 gear pump 298 r a d i a l 45 67 r a t i o 494 spool v a l v e 301 vane pump 298 C l e v e l a n d method 244 Cloud p o i n t 235 Cold c r a n k s i m u l a t o r 255 Composites bearing design data 6 bearing material 6 b e a r i n g performance 6 m a t e r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n 207 Compression p a c k i n g see Seals C o n d i t i o n m o n i t o r i n g 427-445 Conradson method 244 Consumption o i l 267 C o n t a c t a r e a 184 452 493 Contaminant a n a l y s i s 438

Contamination b u i l t i n 292 294 c o n t r o l 315 e f f e c t on d i r e c t i o n v a l v e s 301 f l o w c o n t r o l s 302 g e a r s 194

B r i n e l l i n g 178 494 B r o o k f i e l d v i s c o m e t e r 255 B u i l t up edge 454 Bypass see f i l t r a t i o n

Cams 216 C a r b u r i s i n g 210 216 219 C a r c i n o g e n i c compounds 279 Case h a r d e n i n g 210 219 Cavitation e r o s i o n 101 117-121 397 494 m a t e r i a l r e s i s t a n t 10 19 s u r f a c e damage 19 Centre l i n e average 494 Ceramics 6 213 Channeling 494 C h e l a t i n g agents 254 Chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n Chromium p l a t i n g 216 Clearance c r i t i c a l 297 299

l u b r i c a n t s 234 motors 300 p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l 302 pumps 297 v a l v e s p o o l s 301 e n v i r o n m e n t a l 294 g e n e r a t e d 296 l e v e l s 304 seals

347

s p e c i f i c a t i o n 305 sources 294 315 Coolant

467

7 220 464

Copolymers 250

509
Corrosion ceramics Dye p e n e t r a t i o n 436

Dynamic l o a d r a t i n g 139 E c c e n t r i c i t y r a t i o 46 51 495 Eddy c u r r e n t t e s t 437 E l a s t o hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n 5 495 polymers 217 traction 5 E l e c t r i c discharge 119 181 r e s i s t a n c e method 437 E l e c t r o chemical machining 450 d i scharge machining 450 Embeddabi 1 it y 81 Emulsions 237 255 282 318 Engine t e s t s 472 Eros i o n b e a r i n q damage 117-121 ceramics

copper l e a d a l l o y s 107 i n h i b i t o r 251 253 254 p l a i n b e a r i n g s 102-117 r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s 181 r e s i s t a n c e 102-117 see a l s o f a i l u r e s C u t t i n g f l u i d s 6 262 C u t t i n g speeds 449 451 C u t t i n g t o o l s 215 a lu m in iu m o x i d e 450 464 boron n i t r i d e 450 465 ceramic 215 464 cemented c a r b i d e s 215 450 464 c o s t s 451 h i g h speed t o o l s t e e l 451 464 m a t e r i a l for 450 464 s i l i c o n c a r b i d e 450 wear o f

economics 2 p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l 302 steam 38

7 215 459-467

Debris a n a l y s i s 24 419 c u t t i n g wear 25 26 f a t i g u e 27 440 la m in a r wear 25 440 r u b b i n g wear 25 26 s p h e r i c a l wear 25 s y n o v i a l f l u i d 28 Del ami na t i o n t h e o r y 13 De lp h i a n a l y s i s 428 Dermat it i s 277 D e t e r i o r a t i o n l i m i t 444 De t e r g e n t s 243 245 246 249 D i s p e r s a n t s 243 249 251 D i t h i o c a r b o n a t e s 253 Di th io p h o s p h a te s 252 253 Drawing 263 D r i l l i n g 263 Drop p o i n t 495 Duty parameter 495

wear 12 496 see a l s o f a i l u r e s Extreme pressure a d d i t i v e 232 258 259 496 c u t t i n g o i l s 262 e f f e c t on s c u f f i n g 14 e f f e c t on p l a i n b e a r i n g s 112 e f f e c t on gears 191 193 200 201 t u r b i n e o i l s 262 see a l s o a d d i t i v e s Eye i r r i t a t i o n 280

Fa i 1 u r e s Gears a b r a s i v e wear 194 202 alignment 184-187 broken t e e t h 197 f a t i g u e p i t t i n g 189 197 198 474 498 foaming 204 f r e t t i n g 202

510
g a l l i n g 191 497 g r o o v i n g 188 n o i s e 203 o v e r h e a t i n g 203 r i d g i n g 188 474 475 r i p p l i n g 201 474 476 s c o r i n g 476 s c u f f i n g 191 199 474 476 v i b r a t i o n 203 p l a i n bearings a l l o y i n g 125 bad bonding 89 bad f i t t i n g 96 c a v i t a t i o n 117-121 c o r r o s i o n 102-117 e l e c t r i c a l d i s c h a r g e 119 e r o s i o n 117-121 e x c e s s i v e l e a d 91 extraneous p a r t i c l e s 97-101 f a t i g u e 123 gas c a v i t i e s 91 o v e r s i z e cuboids 91 thermal c y c l i n g 125 v i s c o s i t y 126 w i r e wool 122 r o l l ing bearings a b r a s i v e 173 cage 175 c o r r o s i o n 181 e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t 181 f a l s e b r i n e l l i n g 178 i n c o r r e c t mounting 174 smearing 177 v i b r a t i o n 178 wear 172 Falex t e s t 261 False b r i n e l l i n g 178 Fatigue f r e t t i n g 18 p l a i n b e a r i n g s 123 r o l l i n g c o n t a c t 20 see a l s o f a i l u r e s F a u l t t r e e 429 Ferrography 9 25 439 442 F i l l e r 496 Filtration e f f e c t o f f i r e r e s i s t a n t f l u i d s 318 emulsions 318 magnets 319 o f f l i n e 317 324 p r e s s u r e l i n e 316 320 pump i n l e t 318 327 r e t u r n l i n e 317 322 s e a l s 347 Fi 1t e r a b s o l u t e r a t i n g 306 a i r b r e a t h e r 294 295 b e t a r a t i o 307 bubble t e s t 306 bypass 308 309 320 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 307 d i r t c a p a c i t y 313 e f f i c i e n c y 310 321 gears 194 l o c a t i o n 318 mean r a t i n g 306 m u l t i p a s s t e s t 307 nominal r a t i n g 305 o f f l i n e 317 324 p r e s s u r e l i n e 316 320 p u l s a t i n g f l o w 308 r e t u r n l i n e 317 322 324 s e l e c t i o n 305-317 s i l t c o n t r o l 308 312 s i z i n g 312 F i r e r e s i s t a n t f l u i d 234 318 F l a m m a b i l i t y 234 F l a s h p o i n t 235 244 496 F1ash temperature 496 F l e x u r e b e a r i n g 32 36 496 performance 42 Flow zone 456

511
F l u i d e r o s i o n 19 Flushing 292 294 Flux t e s t i n g 437 Four b a l l machine 232 261 485 487 Frequency spectrum 435 Fretting d e f i n i t i o n 18 496 gears 202 wear d e b r i s 18 see f a i l u r e s F r i c t i o n m o d i f i e r 264 F r i c t i o n w e l d i n g 452 Hazards a d d i t i v e s 280 b a c t e r i a 282 289 b i o c i d e s 282 289 d e r m a t i t i s 277 eye i r r i t a t i o n 280 h e a l t h 545 o i l m i s t 277 287 o i l vapour 278 r e c l a i m e d o i l 283 r e - r e f ined o i 1 283 s c r o t a 1 cancer 279 s k i n cancer 278 s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s 283 G a l l i n g 191 497 Gears 184-204 a l ignment 184 c o n t a c t a r e a 184 f a i l u r e s see f a i l u r e s f a t i g u e p a r t i c l e s 25 f i l t r a t i o n 194 l u b r i c a t i o n systems 195 m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 210 o i l v i s c o s i t y f o r 193 194 s c u f f i n g 191 199 t e s t s 261 478 Graphite 239 240 242 380 Grease a p p l i c a t i o n 396 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 399 497 r o l l i n g b e a r i n g 152 s e l e c t i o n 224 396 temperature l i m i t s 224 4 0 1 Grooving 188 Lacquer 472 474 497 Lubricant a n t i f r i c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s 231 a n t i wear p r o p e r t i e s 231 e s t e r s 235 extreme p r e s s u r e p r o p e r t i e s 231 l i m i t s o f o i l 224 l i m i t s of grease 224 Hardenab i 1 i t y e f f e c t o f chromium 211 e f f e c t o f vanadium 211 Hardness t o o l s t e e l 214 e f f e c t on f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h 207 l i m i t s o f s o l i d 224 m i n e r a l o i l 226 polyphenol e t h e r s 236 s e l e c t i o n 223-241 400 467 s i l i c o n e s 235 s o l i d 239 K u r t o s i s 429 Jost report 1 IAE t e s t 261 l n f r a r e d technique 437 I n s p e c t i o n techniques 436 I r o n p r i n t i n g 99 H e a l t h and S a f e t y a t Work A c t 284 Holography 437 H y d r o s t a t i c b e a r i n g 32 34 35

FZG t e s t machine 261 478

512
v i s c o s i t y 226 229 L u b r i c a t i o n systems c o o l i n g 418 d u a l l i n e 409 d i r e c t f e e d 403 d i r e c t p o s i t i v e 414 gas 239 g e a r s 195 i n d i r e c t l i n e 405 m i c r o f o g 419 o i l 413 p o s i t i v e s p l i t 415 p r o g r e s s i v e 408 s e l e c t i o n 403 412 t o t a l loss 413 c u t t i n q t o o l t e m p e r a t u r e 456 d i f f u s i o n 462 e f f e c t o f h e a t 451 effect o f s l i d i n g 458

e f f e c t o f speed 451 e f f i c i e n c y 446 f e e d 448 f l a n k wear 447 f l o w zone 455 h e a t g e n e r a t i o n 451 l u b r i c a n t s 467 q u i c k s t o p method 447 r a k e 447 s e i z u r e 452 458 s u r f a c e s h e a r i n g 461 t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t 457

Machine e l e m e n t s h i g h e r p a i r 482 483 l o w e r p a i r 482 483 M a i n t e n a n c e o n c o n d i t i o n 427-445 M a g n e t i c b e a r i n g 32 M a g n e t i c p l u g 24 439 440 Mater i a 1 a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e 206 c o m p o s i t e 206 c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e 206 e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e 206 207 f i b r e r e i n f o r c e d 206 207 p l a s t i c bearing

tool force

448

t o o l wear 459 Molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e 239 240 242 Monitoring techniques c o n t a m i n a n t a n a l y s i s 8 429 433 438 s p e c t r u m a n a l y s i s 434 t r e n d a n a l y s i s 433 v i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s 8 429 432 433 w a v e f o r m a n a l y s i s 436

Niemann FZG t e s t 261 N i t r i d i n g 210 N o i s e r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s 159 Non d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g 436 dye p e n e t r a t i o n 436 e d d y c u r r e n t 436 e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e 436 f l u x 436 r a d i o g r a p h i c 436 u l t r a s o n i c 436

s e l e c t i o n 205-222 Metal c u t t i n g a b r a s i o n 461 a t t r i t i o n 465 b u i l t up edge 454 chip

4 4 7 454

c l e a r a n c e a n g l e 447 c l e a r a n c e f a c e 447 c o o l a n t s 467 c r a t e r wear 460 c u t t i n g edge 447 c u t t i n g speed

O i l d e g r a d a t i o n 270 f i l m i n s t a b i l i t y 50 64 f i l m w h i r l 72
m i s t 158 277 287 498

447 451

513
o x i d a t i o n l i m i t 50 s t a n d a r d t e s t s 244 vapours 278 287 O i l i n e s s 498 Ov e r la y b e a r i n g s 208 O x i d a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e 6 207 Re-ref i n i n g a c i d c l a y 272 economics 273 Matthys process 273 Ri dg i ng gears 188 474 475 R i p p l i n g gears 201 474 496 R o l l i n g bearings see b e a r i n g s Packed g l a n d 370 Particles t y p e o f wear 24 440 e f f e c t on f l u i d power systems 296 P a r t i c l e c o u n t i n g 439 Patch t e s t 439 Pensky M a r t i n Method 244 Phenates 248 Phenoles 252 Phosphonates 245 Piston r i n g m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 215 wear 216 P i t t i n g 189 197 198 474 498 P l a i n b e a r i n g s see be ari n gs Plastics S a f e t y l u b r i c a n t 275-290 Sal i c y l a t e s 249 S a ybo lt v i s c o s i t y 499 S co ri ng 476 499 S c u f f i n g 14 cams and tappets 216 e f f e c t o f extreme pressure a d d i t i v e 15 fatigue particles gears 191 199 474 476 i n c i p i e n t 15 mechanism o f 14 499 Ra d ia l c l e a r a n c e 45 144 Rad io g r a p h ic t e s t 437 Ramsbottom method 244 R a t i n g l i f e 499 Reaming 263 Reclaimed o i l s a f e t y 283 Reclamation 9 271 Redwood v i s c o s i t y 499 R e l i a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s 431 p i s t o n r i n g s 215 s u r f a c e changes 1 5 Seal l u b r i c a t i o n 356 357 Sea 1 s compression packings 370-394 a b r a s i v e wear 374 c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y 381 c o s t 372 387 f a u l t s 390 Rolling contact fatigue c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n 23 damage 20 d e f i n i t i o n 20 e f f e c t o f environment 20 e f f e c t o f l u b r i c a n t 23 e f f e c t o f m a t e r i a l 23 p a r t i c l e s 27 Root mean square h e i g h t 499 Rubbing bearings see b e a r i n g s Rust i n h i b i t o r 246 254 Ryder t e s t machine 261

Porous b e a r i n g s 88 498 Pour p o i n t 235 244 257 498 P r o f i l e b o r e b e a r i n g s 72 PTFE 6 216 239 240 242 Pumps e f f e c t o f contaminant 297 298 PV f a c t o r 34 498

514 f i t t i n g 388 f o r pumps 371 f o r v a l v e s 371 g la n d d e s ign 374 375 env i ronmen t 384 h e a l t h a s pe ct s 391 i n s t a l l a t i o n 372 leakage 382 m i ntenance 372 a m a t e r i a l s 376-382 packed g la n d 370 r e l i a b i l i t y 372 r o l l i n g b ea ri ng s 157 s e l e c t i o n 383 s h a f t wear 372 speed 385 s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n 391 s u r f a c e f i n i s h 375 temperature 386 Seals l i p 338 339 assembly 351 c o n t a c t a r e a 338 345 e f f e c t o f d e forma t i o n 351 h u m i d i t y 351 lobed 340

331 340

s i n g l e a c t i n g 340 Seals r o t a r y l i p 353-369 absorbed power 358 design 354 e c c e n t r i c i t y 359 f a u l t f i n d i n g 362 f i t t i n g 361 f r i c t i o n 358 hand1 ing 361 m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 367-369 maximum pressure 359 maximum speed 359 s e r v i c e problems 362-365 s h a f t s u r f a c e 357 storage 360 Seals s t a t i c compression packing 353 370-394 gasket 341

1 i p 341
r a d i a l f a c e mechanical 353 squeeze 341 S h e l l f o u r b a l l machine 232 262 485 387 Shock p u l s e measurement 163 S i l t i n g 303
S i l t removal 308 312

1 i g h t 351
oxone 351 oxygen 351 temperature 350 energ is e d 345 f r i c t i o n 344 leakage 339 m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n 331-338 m u l t i l i p 343 performance 343 s e l e c t i o n s 348 squeeze 338 339 s to r a g e 350 s u r f a c e roughness 343 Sea 1 s r e c i p r o c a t i ng double a c t i n g 340 e n e r g is e d s le eve 340 346

Skin cancer 278 288 Skin p r o t e c t i o n 285 S o l i d l u b r i c a n t s 6 239 499 S o l vent e x t r a c t i o n 276 Soap 499 S p a l l i n g 213 499 Spectroscopy Auger e l e c t r o n 4 x r a y photon 4 scanning i o n 4 ion s c a t t e r i n g 4 Sp ectrographic o i l a n a l y s i s 8 24 439 Spectrum a n a l y s e r s 434 S t i c k s l i p 467 499

515
S t r i b e c k c u r v e 227 Succinimides 250 Sulphonates 245 Surface f i n i s h e f f e c t on o i l f i l m 48 Surface t r e a t m e n ts b o r o n i s i n g 219 c a r b u r i s i n g 210 216 219 case h a r d e n in g 210 219 chemical vapour d e p o s i t i o n 7 220 464 chromosing 219 chromium p l a t i n g 216 e l e c t r o d e p o s i t i o n 219 flame h a r d e n ing 219 h a r d s u r f a c i n g 219 ion implantation 7 io n n i t r i d i n g 221 i o n p l a t i n g 7 221 molybdenum p l a t i n g 216 n i t r i d i n g 219 220 Noskuff 220 phosphating 219 plasma spray 219 s h o t peening 219 s i l i c o n i s i n g 219 s u i f BT 219 Sulphinuz 220 Synovial f l u i d 28 S y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s 276 500 V i b r a t i o n a n a l y s i s 8 434 Viscosity a b s o l u t e 226 600 index 229 500 index improver 229 255 Takiness 247 Tappet m a t e r i a l 216 Tes t machines Almen Weiland 261 485 486 h s l e r 488 c r o s s c y l in d e r 488 Cygnus 485 486 Falex 261 486 I A E 261 478 Neimann FZG 26 478 Waveform a n a l y s i s 436 Water based f l u i d s 247 255 264 467 Wa r e a b r a s i v e s 194 202 adhesive 12 17 chemical 12 k i n e m a t i c 226 500 p ressure r e l a t i o n s h i p 231 temperature r e l a t i o n s h i p 229 401 U l t r a s o n i c t e s t 437 S h e l l f o u r b a l l 232 261 485 487 Timken 261 488 Thermography 437 Th iophosphonates 245 T hre shold l i m i t value 277 T oo l s see c u t t i n g t o o l s T o t a l a c i d number 500 T o t a l base number 500 T o x i c i t y 235 276 280 282 amines 281 c h l o r i n a t e d napthalenes 281 l e a d compounds 280 o r t h o phosphates 281 sod ium mercaptobenzothiazole 282 sodium n i t r i t e
t r i c h 1 o r o e t h y l ene 282

Trend a n a l y s i s 444 T r ib o l ogy handbook 2 10 module 1 report 1 2 units 1 T u rbi ne o i l 262

516
c u t t i n g t o o l s 215 459 d e b r i s a n a l y s i s 8 24 429 mechanical 12 p i s t o n r i n g 215 r e s i s t a n c e t o a b r a s i o n 213 r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s 213 W e t t a b i l i t y 500 White m e t a ls 82 208 Wire wool f a i l u r e 122

ZDDP 501