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The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence 2003
The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence 2003
The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes: An examination among senior managers
Abraham Carmeli,
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Abraham Carmeli, (2003) "The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior
and outcomes: An examination among senior managers", Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 18 Issue:
8, pp.788-813, https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310511881
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JMP
18,8 The relationship between
emotional intelligence and
788
work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes
An examination among senior managers
Abraham Carmeli
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Introduction
What makes a senior manager successful has been a central research question
of organizational scientists for decades. Underlying this interest is the
assumption or observation regarding the impact of upper-echelon managers on
important issues of strategic vision, strategic positioning, strategic and tactical
moves, among others aimed at improving overall organizational performance
(Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Although over
the years we have been exposed to various approaches (e.g. management style)
for studying this elusive question, it still remains unanswered.
Studying managerial skills, however, seems to be one promising stream of
research that has potential for providing answers or at least shedding some
light on this enigma. As Whetten and Cameron (2001, p. 6) noted “management
skills form the vehicle by which management strategy, management practice,
tools and techniques, personality attributes and style work to produce effective
outcomes in organizations”.
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Vol. 18 No. 8, 2003 The author wishes to thank Sidika Nihal Colakoglu for her assistance, the editor and two
pp. 788-813 anonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable comments and suggestions, and the
q MCB UP Limited
0268-3946
participants who made this study a reality. The study was supported, in part, by a grant from
DOI 10.1108/02683940310511881 Schnitzer Foundation of the Faculty of Social Science at Bar-Ilan University.
In the last decade or so, we have been witness to a particular growing body Emotional
of research regarding the importance of emotional intelligence for successful intelligence
leadership. Underlying this research interest is the view that people with high
emotional intelligence competencies are more likely than less emotionally
intelligent people to gain success in the workplace. Particularly, scholars have
noted that social skills are essential for executive level leaders; as individuals
ascend the organizational hierarchy, social intelligence becomes an
789
increasingly relevant determinant of who will and will not be successful
(Hooijberg et al., 1997; Zaccaro, 2001). Though growing evidence indicates that
emotional intelligence competency has the potential to improve performance on
both personal and organizational levels, we are still only in the initial phase of
understanding the extent to which members with high emotional intelligence
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would be more valued assets than less emotionally intelligent members of their
organization. As Cherniss (2000) pointed out “it is more useful and interesting
to consider how important it is for effective performance at work”.
Furthermore, one of the criticisms of the influential work of Goleman (1995,
1998) is that the main argument stating that managers with high emotional
intelligence competencies are likely to provide their organizations with a
unique contribution has not yet received much empirical attention and support,
particularly with regard to various important work-related attitudes, behavior
and outcomes that may serve as good indexes for such investigation. As
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000, p. 341 and p. 351) indicate “little research has been
conducted in an organizational context” and “there is a need for rigorous
research to underpin the assertion in an organizational setting”.
This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically testing the degree to
which emotionally intelligent senior managers, employed in public sector
organizations, develop high job satisfaction, career commitment, job
involvement and effective commitment, diminish continuance commitment
and work-family conflict, display altruistic behavior, withdrawal intentions
and better job performance. In addition, this study examines the moderating
role of emotional intelligence for the relationship between work-family conflict
and job satisfaction and career commitment.
This article is organized as follows: the next section presents the importance
of managerial skills and stresses the concept of emotional intelligence and its
key components followed by the development of the research hypotheses. The
research method is presented in the following section and the results of this
study follow. Finally, the study’s results and limitations are summarized.
the building blocks of what Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) first termed as
emotional intelligence. Based on Bar-On’s previous work, Bar-On et al. (2000,
p. 1108) view emotional intelligence as a noncognitive intelligence which is
defined as an array of emotional, personal, and social abilities and skills that
influence an individual’s ability to cope effectively with environmental
demands and pressures”. This study focuses on the conceptualization
suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) and formulated in 1997 (Mayer
and Salovey, 1997).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990, p. 189) defined emotional intelligence as “the
subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and
others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. Later on, they refined and
defined emotional intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotions, to access
and generate emotions so as to assist thoughts, to understand emotions and
emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth” (Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p. 5). A key
construct in their definition that we need to explain is “emotions”. According to
Van Maanen and Kunda (1989, p. 53), emotions are “ineffable feelings of the
self-referential sort”, and are comprehensively defined as “self-referential
feelings an actor (employee) experiences or, at least, claims to experience in
regard to the performances he or she brings off in the social world”. States of
feeling refer to basic emotions (e.g. joy, love, anger) and social emotions (e.g.
shame, guilt, jealousy, envy), as well as to related constructs as affect,
sentiments and moods (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) argued that there is a set of three
conceptually related mental processes – appraising and expressing emotions
in the self and others, regulating emotion in the self and others, and using
emotions in adaptive ways – involving emotional information. The followings
are brief descriptions of the content and importance of these mental processes:
(1) Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others. Individuals
differ in the degree to which they are aware of their emotions (appraisal)
and the degree to which the latter are verbally and non-verbally being
expressed (George, 2000). Individuals who accurately appraise and Emotional
express (perceive and respond to) their emotions are likely to be better intelligence
understood by the people they work with, and they also have the
potential to better lead and manage people when they are able to
perceive the emotions of the people around them and to develop
empathy – the ability to comprehend another’s feelings and to
re-experience them oneself (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). 791
(2) Regulating emotion in the self and others. People differ in their ability to
manage (monitor, evaluate, and adjust to changing moods) their
emotions as well as in their ability to regulate and alter the affective
reactions of others (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). Regulation of one’s
own emotions and moods results in positive and negative affective
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interest groups within and outside the organization. This can be done
effectively only when they are able to place themselves in a positive state of
mind. In addition, emotionally intelligent individuals would know how to avoid
dysfunctional emotions and use them in adaptive ways to alleviate feelings of
frustration. Furthermore, on the fundamental level, people are motivated not
only by the rational exchange approach (Vroom, 1964), but also by the extent to
which they are connected emotionally to their work and by the extent to which
its contents provide them with such experiences as joy, excitement, surprise
and frustration (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Thus, emotional intelligence is
expected to augment a higher level of affective commitment to the organization,
and diminish the level of continuance commitment. The following hypotheses
are suggested:
H2a. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
affective organizational commitment of senior managers.
This, however, is not to say that emotionally intelligent individuals do not face
difficulties when encountering job stress and changes in their job and career;
rather they have more and better capabilities than low emotionally individuals
to cope with it, and thus are likely develop lower withdrawal intentions. The
following hypothesis is suggested:
H7. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
withdrawal intentions of senior managers from the organization.
Emotional intelligence and job performance. Evidence supports a positive effect
of emotional intelligence on the success of the individual at work (for a review,
see Goleman, 2001). This is of particularly importance if we believe that
“management skills lie at the heart of leadership” (Whetten and Cameron, 2001,
p. 15), and specifically recognize the need to develop and acquire skills for
managing people and that emotional intelligence may have a critical role in the
creation of effective leadership. A notable study conducted by George (2000)
showed how the aspects of emotional intelligence – appraisal and expression
of emotions, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processing and decision
making, knowledge about emotions and management of emotions – contribute
to effective leadership. For the purpose of this study, it is important to note that
although it is theoretically significant to show how each aspect affects
performance, it is more accurate to recognize that skills come in groups and
clusters, and that they support one another (Goleman, 2001). The concept of
emotional intelligence seems to encompass this “critical mass” of skills
(Boyatzis et al., 2000; Goleman, 2001). The following hypothesis is suggested:
H8. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
performance of senior managers.
Methodology
Respondents and data collection
The population of this study was senior managers employed as chief financial
officers in the local government authorities in Israel. A direct-mail
questionnaire was sent to 262 senior managers. The questionnaire was
mailed from and returned to a university address, using a self-addressed reply
envelope. Ninety-eight usable questionnaires were returned. The respondents’
average age was 46.6 years (S.D. 9.24); 11 were women, and 79.4 percent held at
least bachelor’s degree. Their average tenure in their present organization was
11.47 (S.D. 9.13). The average income of the respondents was 2.56 (S.D. 0.54)
(1 ¼ up to 10,000 New Israeli Shekel (NIS), 2 ¼ 10,001 to 20,000, and 3 ¼ 20,001
and above). Note that annual average value of US$ 1 and 1 Euro in 2001 was
4.205 NIS and 3.7644 NIS, respectively. The average size of the organizations
(measured by the number of permanent residents for which the organization is
responsible to provide services, see Carmeli, 2002) was 24,729 (S.D. 54,259.37).
Dependent variables
Work outcomes. Job performance and withdrawal intentions from the
organization were used to assess employee’s work outcomes:
(1) Job performance. This measure was evaluated by a scale developed by Emotional
Pearce and Porter (1986), and used by Black and Porter (1991), and intelligence
Hochwarter et al. (1999). This measure contains five items (overall
performance, ability to get along with others, completing tasks on time,
quality of performance, and achievement of work goals) that were
assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree, to
799
7 ¼ strongly agree). Although such difficulties as self-enhancement and
objectivity and reliability may be encountered, Mabe and West (1982)
showed that self-evaluation measures were more valid than pointed out
in prior research (Hochwarter et al. (1999). The Cronbach’s alpha for this
scale was 0.87.
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(2) Withdrawal intentions from the organization. This measure was drawn
from the measure examined by Mobley et al. (1978) and widely used in
the literature (Michaels and Spector, 1982; Miller et al., 1979). It assesses
withdrawal intentions of an employee from his/her organization and
consists of three items:
.
I think a lot about leaving the organization;
.
I am actively searching for an alternative to the organization; and
.
As soon as it is possible, I will leave the organization.
This measure was assessed on a 5-point scale from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to
5 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.90.
Work behavior:
(1) Altruistic behavior. This variable was drawn from the multi-dimensional
scale of organizational citizenship behavior developed by Podsakoff and
MacKenzie (1989) and modified and validated by Podsakoff et al. (1990).
Altruistic behavior was measured using three items that were assessed
on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly
agree. Sample items are “I help others who have heavy workloads” “I
help others who have been absent”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale
was 0.82.
Work attitudes. Four work commitment forms (career commitment, job
involvement, affective commitment and continuance commitment) and job
satisfaction were used to assess employee’s work attitudes. In addition,
work-family conflict was examined, as follows:
(1) Career commitment. This measure was assessed by a scale developed by
Blau (1985). Sample items are: “I like this profession too much to give it
up”, and “I am disappointed with being a CEO” (reverse scored). The
measure was assessed on a five-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly
disagree, to 5 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale
was 0.74.
JMP (2) Job involvement. This measure is based on a 10-item scale developed by
18,8 Kanungo (1982). Sample items are: “The most important things that
happen to me involve my present job”, and “Most of my personal life
goals are job-oriented”. The measure was assessed on a seven-point
scale, ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 7 ¼ strongly agree. The
Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.82.
800
(3) Affective organizational commitment.This measure is based on the scale
developed and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items are: “I
really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own”, and “I do not feel
like “part of the family” at my organization” (reversed item). The measure
was assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree,
to 7 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.73.
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Independent/moderator variable
Emotional intelligence. Over the years, considerable research effort resulted in
various instruments for measuring emotional intelligence (EQi of Bar-On, 1996;
Executive EQ of Cooper and Sawaf, 1997; EIQ Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999; Emotional
MSCEIT of Mayer et al., 2000; ECI of Boyatzis and Goleman, 1998). intelligence
In this study, emotional intelligence was measured with the self-report
measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. (1998) for several
reasons: First, this measure is based on the framework of emotional intelligence
developed by Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990 and later formulated (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997)[1]. Second, previous study found some limitations in early 801
self-report measures of emotional intelligence such as insufficient reliability
and connections with personality factors (Davies et al., 1998). Third, studies
that evaluated the measure of Schutte and her colleagues (1998) in both adult
and adolescents population indicate that this measure seems to overcome the
observed difficulties in other measures of emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi et al.,
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2000; Ciarrochi et al., 2001). Finally, in macro level studies, self report measure
of emotional intelligence which is brief, validated and based on a cohesive and
comprehensive model of emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990;
Mayer and Salovey, 1997) is very useful.
The measure used in this study consists of 33 items. Sample items are “I
know when to speak about my personal problems to others”, and “I am aware
of my emotions as I experience them” (appraisal and expression of emotion); “I
present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others”, and I have
control over my emotions” (regulation of emotion); “when I feel a change in
emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas”, and I use good moods to help
myself keep trying in the face of obstacles” (utilization). All items were ranged
from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for
this scale was 0.90.
Control variables
We control for:
(1) Organizational size. Measured by the number of permanent residents for
which the organization is responsible for provision of services (Carmeli,
2002);
(2) Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years the
respondent is employed in the current organization;
(3) Gross income. (1 ¼ up to 10,000 NIS, New Israeli Shekel; 2 ¼ 10,001 to
20,000 NIS; 3 ¼ 20,001 to 30,000 NIS; 4 ¼ 30,001 to 40,000 NIS; and
4 ¼ above 40,000 NIS);
(4) Respondents’ age.
Because the vast majority of the respondents were male, differences between
male and female respondents could not be established.
Data analysis
To assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes,
behavior, and outcomes, we performed a series of separate hierarchical
JMP regression analyses. Each model had two steps. The first step involved
18,8 entering the control variables and the second step involved entering the
independent variable.
To examine the interaction hypotheses, the variables were entered into the
regression equations in three steps. The control variables were entered in the
first step. In the second step, we entered the “main effects” (work-family
802 conflict and emotional intelligence). Finally, the work-family conflict X
emotional intelligence product term variable was entered in the third step. Both
variables were mean-centered as is suggested for variables that are to be
constituents of product terms (Aiken and West, 1991).
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Results
Table I reports the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients of
variables used in the analysis. Though several variables are related, Table I
indicates no severe problems of multicolinearity as none of the related variables
exceeded the value of 0.60. Furthermore, we performed separate hierarchical
regressions for the effect of emotional intelligence on each one of the dependent
variables. Table I also provides a preliminary support for the significant
relationships between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, work
behavior and work outcomes.
Table II presents the results of hierarchical regression. Emotional
intelligence was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction
(b ¼ 0.32, p , 0.01), supporting H1. This finding is consistent with the
argument according to which emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to
display higher overall satisfaction in the workplace.
Supporting H2a, we provide evidence that when senior managers have high
emotional intelligence they tend to develop high affective commitment
(emotional attachment) to the organization for which they work (b ¼ 0.23,
p , 0.05). H2b, on the other hand, was not supported as the relationship
between emotional intelligence and continuance commitment was not
significant (b ¼ 20.12, p ¼ ns). The beta coefficient, though not statistically
significant, was in the expected direction.
We found support for H3. Emotionally intelligent senior managers develop
high commitment toward their career (b ¼ 0.34, p , 0.001). However, contrary
to H4, emotional intelligence was statistically unrelated to job involvement. It
may be that the involvement of senior managers is more complex than we
assumed, and is affected by other important factors not examined here. Though
no prediction was made, we found that job involvement was significantly
related to tenure in the organization (b ¼ 0.20, p , 0.10) as well as to gross
income (b ¼ 0.25, p , 0.05).
The results support H5, stating that senior managers who have high
emotional intelligence are more likely to effectively control work-family conflict
(b ¼ 20.31, p , 0.01). Compared to low and middle-level position employees,
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Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
correlationsa
deviations, and
Means, standard
Table I.
803
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18,8
JMP
804
outcomes
Table II.
intelligence on work
influence of emotional
Results of hierarchical
Step 1
Organiza-
tional size 0.00 (0.01) 2 0.01 (0.93) 0.01 (0.07) 0.07 (0.73) 0.15 (1.47) 0.09 (0.83) 0.05 (0.43) 0.06 (0.56) 0.19 (1.93*)
Tenure in
organiza-
tional 2 0.09 (2 0.75) 2 0.10 (2 0.87) 2 0.09 (2 0.87) 2 0.03 (2 0.23) 0.20 (1.76*) 0.15 (1.24) 0.19 (1.58) 0.12 (1.06) 0.18 (1.62)
Income 0.16 (1.54) 0.03 (0.31) 0.18 (1.91*) 0.05 (0.45) 0.25 (2.43**) 0.11 (1.08) 2 0.16 (2 1.48) 0.13 (1.21) 2 0.16 (2 1.59)
Age 0.06 (0.58) 2 0.22 (2 1.94*) 0.08 (0.87) 0.27 (2.53**) 0.06 (0.57) 0.00 (2 0.04) 0.00 (0.00) 2 0.04 (2 0.36) 2 0.03 (2 0.29)
R2 0.038 0.068 0.055 0.082 0.193 0.064 0.051 0.058 0.093
Step 2
Emotional
intelligence 0.32 (3.08***) 2 0.20 (2 1.93*) 0.54 (6.03****) 0.34 (3.44****) 0.04 (0.45) 0.23 (2.21**) 2 0.12 (2 1.11) 0.32 (3.12***) 2 0.31 (23.20***)
DR2 0.09 0.039 0.286 0.113 0.002 0.050 0.014 0.098 0.096
F for DR2 9.49*** 3.71* 36.41**** 11.83**** 0.19 4.87** 1.23 9.70*** 9.91***
R2 for total
equation 0.135 0.107 0.341 0.195 0.195 0.114 0.065 0.155 0.189
** *** ****
Notes: * p # 0.10 p # 0.05, p # 0.01, p # 0.001
senior managers may encounter a higher level of job demands that result in Emotional
work-family conflict. The results indicate that senior managers who have high intelligence
emotional intelligence may better and more carefully handle the inherent
work-family conflict than those who have low emotional intelligence.
H6, which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will display
higher levels of altruistic behavior, was strongly supported (b ¼ 0.54, 805
p , 0.001). In addition, H7, which states that emotional intelligence will be
negatively related to withdrawal intentions from the organization, and H8,
which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will perform the job
better than senior managers with low emotional intelligence, were supported
(b ¼ 20.20, p , 0.10; b ¼ 0.32, p , 0.01, respectively). These results indicate
that emotional intelligence is an important predictor of both contextual
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performance and task performance. Note, however, that H9, which states that
the higher a senior manager is on emotional intelligence, the weaker will be the
negative effect of work-family conflict on job satisfaction was not supported
(see Table III). The interactive effect of work-family conflict and emotional
intelligence on job satisfaction was not significant (b = 0.03, p ¼ n.s.).
H10 postulated that the higher a senior manager is on emotional
intelligence, the weaker will be the negative effect of work-family conflict on
career commitment. The interactive effect of work-family conflict and
emotional intelligence on career commitment was significant at the 0.05 level
(see Table III) and explained an additional 3.4 percent of explained variance in
the career commitment.
In accordance with convention for plotting interactions (Aiken and West,
1991; Cohen and Cohen, 1983), the cut values for the high and low states on the
moderator variable (emotional intelligence) were plus and minus one standard
deviation from the mean. Figure 1 presents the interaction of work-family
conflict and emotional intelligence in predicting career commitment. As shown
Step 1
Organizational size 0.03 0.04
Tenure in organization 0.14 0.02
Income 0.16 0.02
Age 2 0.05 0.058 0.058 0.20* 0.048 0.048
Step 2
Work-family conflict (WF) 2 0.05 20.09
Emotional intelligence (EI) 0.30*** 0.157 0.097*** 0.37**** 0.205 0.156**** Table III.
Results of the
Step 3 moderating role of
EI £ WF 0.03 0.158 0.001 0.21** 0.239 0.034** emotional intelligence
Notes: *p # 0.10 **p # 0.05, ***p # 0.01, ****p # 0.001 (EI)
JMP in Figure 1, the interaction of emotional intelligence with work-family conflict
18,8 affects both the strength and direction of this relationship. For senior managers
who are low on emotional intelligence there is a strong positive relationship
and for those who are high on emotional intelligence there is a moderate
negative relationship. That is, when senior managers with low emotional
intelligence experience high work-family conflict, they manage to maintain
806 high career commitment. When highly emotionally intelligent senior managers
experience high work-conflict, they reduce their career commitment to a more
reasonable level to deal with work-family conflict.
Discussion
The major goal of this study was to examine the extent to which a critical
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Figure 1.
Interaction between
emotional intelligence
(EI) and work-family
conflict (WF) predicting
career commitment (CC)
organizations and are also more committed to their career. In addition, findings Emotional
also indicate that emotionally intelligent senior managers tend to be more intelligence
satisfied with their work. Retaining talented and knowledgeable senior
managers becomes a major concern for many organizations. Selecting senior
managers who have high emotional intelligence may have a positive impact on
the extent to which an organization succeeds in retaining its most critical 807
workforce. Research findings revealed that occupational commitment (Lee et al.,
2000) and organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) are
significantly related to withdrawal intentions, and that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment are by far the main predictors of turnover (Griffeth
et al., 2000). Interestingly, however, emotional intelligence was not significantly
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associated with job involvement. It may be that senior managers exhibit high
involvement in their jobs because of the role itself, which demands much time
and effort. Another possible explanation is manifested by the relationship
between income and job involvement (b ¼ 0.25, p , 0.05), suggesting that
economic factors influence the subjective felt of job involvement. Emotional
intelligence may help an individual to better handle demanding managerial
work. Nevertheless, we are still in need of further investigation regarding the
factors that foster an individual’s high level of involvement in her job (Brown,
1996).
Another important relationship examined in this study is the relationship
between emotional intelligence and work-family conflict. Work-family policies
adopted and implemented by an organization may not provide the whole
solution, especially with respect to family interference with work, simply
because employees have some responsibility in determining their own family
balance. The results of this study advance the literature by indicating that
emotionally intelligent employees may better handle this conflict. An
integration of work-family programs and an emotionally intelligent
workforce can better attain the desired balance. This study indicates that
compared to emotionally intelligent senior managers, low-emotionally
intelligent senior managers are not less able to be sensitive enough to
acknowledge how work is affected by family matters, and, thus, feel no need to
reduce their career commitment. Senior managers who are high on emotional
intelligence recognize having important responsibilities at work, and at the
same time realize that they may neglect their family and their needs. In other
words, they are equally sensitive to what they feel when they are consumed
with my work all the time. This recognition help them balance their career
commitment to a healthy mid point (not very high but not very low either).
Further examination of the interactive effect of work-family conflict and
emotional intelligence on career commitment and job satisfaction revealed that
emotional intelligence moderated only the negative influence of work-family on
career commitment. Clearly, this finding should receive further investigation
JMP but it illuminate the kind of role emotional intelligence may play in the
18,8 relationship of “work stress” and work attitudes.
We found a direct and significant relationship between emotional
intelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization. This intensifies
the important role that emotional intelligence may have in retaining valuable
organization members. The results of this study also indicate that emotional
808 intelligence augments both contextual (altruistic citizenship behavior) and task
performance. Contextual performance of senior managers is valued, because
the latter oftentimes serves as a “role model” and “character” for the
organization’s members to follow. This process may have a positive effect on
the organization since organizational citizenship behavior has the potential, for
example, to enhance co-worker and managerial productivity, freeing the
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Note
809
1. When this study was conducted, the MSCEIT instrument was not available to the author.
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