Celestial Bodies - 1

CELESTIAL BODIES
The glorious night sky opens up countless possibilities of other worlds apart from ours.
However, these might not be visible to naked eyes. With an invention of the telescope in 1608,
these worlds were finally uncovered and were called heavenly bodies or celestial bodies. A
celestial body is nothing but a natural body outside the Earth’s atmosphere. Our night sky is
studded with billions of these, populating the mostly cold, dark and empty universe. Celestial
bodies vary from being common to bizarre and unique. Easy examples of celestial bodies are
Stars, planets, satellites, asteroids, etc.

With the development of the telescope in

the early 17th century, astronomical
observations became more detailed and
accurate. The light from a star that one
can see is the light emitted years ago.
The light travels very fast at the speed of
3x108 m/s, but the distances in space are
so great that it takes many years to reach
Earth, sometimes tens of thousands of
years. The light and other energy leaving
the star's surface are forms of radiation
transmitted through electromagnetic Fig. 1: Ancient Astronomers observing the sky. (Credits: Alamy)
waves.

Did you know:

Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic properties, and it can carry
energy through both empty space and matter.

A major interest in astronomy was created in 1958 (the year USA launched its first satellite),
when an astronomer at the University of Wisconsin–Madison named Arthur Code proposed an
idea to launch a small telescope equipped with a photoelectric photometer that was designed
to measure the ultraviolet (UV) energy output of stars - a task which is impossible from Earth's
surface to Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences. Later on December 7,
1968, that idea culminated in NASA's launch of the first successful space-based observatory:
the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, or OAO-2. This initiated a whole new way of
observing the celestial bodies. Hubble Space Telescopes, Chandra X-ray observatory,
SpitzerSpace Telescope, Astrosat and recently launched James Webb telescope joined the fleet
of Space-based Telescopes and Observatories. So far, they have provided a huge amount of
data about the Universe and discovered many celestial bodies that would have never been
possible with ground-based telescopes.

Celestial Bodies - 2
Types of Celestial Bodies:
Here we will be discussing about some celestial bodies of popular interest.

1. Stars:

The twinkling dots present in the night sky are massive self-luminous bodies of gas that
produce energy and light by fusing atoms at its core. Stars can occur in pairs as binary star
systems; multiple star systems are also a frequent occurrence. Stars can form clusters bound by
mutual gravitational attraction and having a common origin. A loosely bound star cluster is
called a stellar association. Some of the bright stars in the sky are Betelgeuse, Vega, Sirius and
our own Sun, the brightest star by proximity.

Formation of the Star

Stars are born when a giant, slowly rotating cloud made up of Hydrogen and Helium collapses
under its own gravitational pull. This giant cloud slowly collapses inward, becoming denser,
and starts to spin rapidly. The outer parts of the cloud form a disk and the innermost parts
become a spherical chunk. This collapse of the giant cloud continues causing the spherical
chunk to become hotter and denser, forming a protostar. When the heat and pressure in the
protostar exceeds a million Kelvin*, the atomic nuclei that generally repel each start to fuse,
converting enormous amounts of mass into energy at the core of the star. Thus, the protostar
ignites and comes to life as a star.

Classification of Stars
Various types of stars are present in the universe, and they vary from small protostars to
supergiant. These stars can be classified based on their mass, luminosity and temperature.
Furthermore, stars can also be classified based on their spectral type and brightness.
There are seven main types of stars, namely O, B, A, F, G, K and M, in the order of decreasing
temperature. O and B are massive giant stars with very high temperatures. They are rare
because they burn their fuel faster and die early. M-type stars are the common, cooler red dwarf
stars. Our Sun is a yellow star with a surface temperature of around 5000 – 6000 K. Therefore,
it falls under the class G.

Fig. 2: Change in Star colour with respect to Temperature.

(Credits: Roen Kelly)

Celestial Bodies - 3
 Activity:
Many of us have observed the twinkling stars in the night sky and would have tried to connect
them to form patterns or figures. A group of stars that take a particular shape in the sky is
known as a constellation. Constellations are long present in the history of humankind and
helped in navigation. Some of the well-known constellations in the night include Ursa Major,
Ursa Minor, Orion, Gemini, and Cassiopeia.
Activity: Identify Ursa Major and Orion constellations in the night sky.

2. Planets:

Other than stars, some of the brightest objects in the night sky are the planets. Planets are nearly
spherical objects that condensed from the same disk of material as their stars. Unlike stars,
planets do not radiate energy. The stars dominate the gravitational field of their solar system.
For example, the Sun contains about 99.85% of the total mass of our solar system, hence
exerting greater gravitational force on the bodies around it. Planets revolve around the star and
are usually present in fixed orbits around them. Planets that revolve around stars in other solar
systems in the universe are known as exoplanets.

Planets in our solar system:

Our solar system consists of 8 planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune. They are classified based on their composition into Terrestrial and Jovian planets.

Difference between Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Terrestrial planets Jovian planets

Solid crust Gaseous bodies
Smaller in size Larger in size
The atmosphere is mainly composed of The atmosphere is mainly composed of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. hydrogen and helium.
Closer to the sun Far away from the sun
Spin slowly and hence less flattened at poles. Spin comparatively faster
Less or no moons More number of moons
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mass come Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune come
under Terrestrial planets. under Jovian planets.

Fig. 3: Planet in our solar system

Celestial Bodies - 4
Characteristics of the 8 planets:

1 AU, approximately 150 million km, is the distance between the Sun and the Earth.

Planets Radius Size Distance Gravity Orbital period

from the Sun

Mercury 2,440km ⅓ Earth size 0.4 AU 3.7 m/s² 88 days

Venus 6,052km Earth size 0.72 AU 8.87 m/s² 225 days

Earth 6,371km Earth size 1 AU 9.807 m/s² 365 days

Mars 3,390km ½ Earth size 1.5 AU 3.721 m/s² 687 days

Jupiter 69,911km 11x Earth’s size 5.2 AU 24.79 m/s² 12 years

Saturn 58,232km 9 x Earth’s size 9.5 AU 10.44 m/s² 29 years

Uranus 25,362km 4 x Earth’s size 19.8 AU 8.87 m/s² 84 years

Neptune 24,622km 4 x Earth’s size 30 AU 11.15 m/s² 165 years

(Slightly less)

The criteria to be a planet

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has drafted three criteria to define a full-sized
planet. If a revolving object does not meet all the three criteria, it will not be considered a
planet.

1. It is in orbit around the Sun.

2. It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape).
3. It has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.

Dwarf planets
Other than the 8 planets, a whole class of celestial bodies revolve around the Sun, known as
dwarf planets. These are planet-like bodies that did not satisfy one or more of the IAU criteria
to be a planet. Some famous examples of dwarf planets are Pluto, Ceres, Makemake and Eris.
Fact: Ceres is present in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and other dwarf planets
are present in the Kuiper belt beyond Neptune.

Why was Pluto demoted to a dwarf planet?

Pluto was considered the ninth planet in our solar system until 2006, but was demoted as Pluto
meets only two criteria given by IAC to define a full-sized planet. Pluto loses in the third criteria
of “cleared the neighbourhood” around its orbit i.e., it is not gravitationally dominant and still
has other objects in its path whose total mass exceeds the mass of the planet. Now, it is the
largest body in the Kuiper belt but less massive than Eris.

Celestial Bodies - 5
3. Satellites:

A satellite is an object that orbits around a much larger entity. Celestial No. of
They are of two types: natural and artificial satellites. A body Moon
natural satellite is any celestial body that orbits around a
larger body; we call it a moon. In contrast, humans built Mercury 0
artificial satellites and launched them into space to orbit
around planets. Venus 0

Galileo was the first person to discover that other planets also Earth 1
have moons. In 1610 he observed four moons of Jupiter using
Mars 2
his telescope. Later, Simon Marius, a German astronomer,
named them Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Calisto. Today, there Jupiter 79
are about 214 known moons in our solar system, out of which
205 are orbiting planets and 9 are orbiting dwarf planets. Saturn 82

Terrestrial planets have a smaller number of natural satellites Uranus 27

or none, while Jovian planets possess a very extensive system Neptune 14
of natural satellites due to their size and mass. Among the
Terrestrial planets of our Solar system, only Earth and Mars Pluto 5
have natural satellites. Earth has one large moon – the Moon,
while Mars has two moons – Phobos and Deimos. Jovian Eris 1
moons are exotic and attract popular science fiction writers
Haumea 2
and planetary scientists alike. Some moons are large water
worlds, like Europa and Enceladus, and some icy, like Triton. Makemake 1
Some Jovian moons have extreme environments like Io,
which has over 400 volcanoes! Ceres 0

How are Moons formed?

There are two possibilities.

One, the Moon orbiting the planets could have formed together from the collapsing region of
the protoplanetary disk. For example, the Galilean moons of Jupiter formed along with Jupiter.

The second possibility is that the moon was captured by the massive body. Moons that orbit
the planet at a distance in inclined, retrograde or highly elongated orbits are considered to be
asteroids captured by the planet's gravitational pull. For example, the two moons of Mars are
asteroid-like and could have been captured by Mars from the nearby asteroid belt.

There is a third possibility. Earth's Moon was neither created nor was it captured. The Moon
formed when two proto-planetary objects collided, where the second object got destroyed in
the collision, and the collision debris turned into the Moon we see.

From Earth, we always see the same side of the Moon

because the Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth.
This is called a tidal lock.

Celestial Bodies - 6
4. Asteroids:

Asteroids, sometimes known as planetoids or minor planets, are rocky remnants from the early
solar system formation about 4.6 billion years ago. There are millions of asteroids present in
the solar system. These come in different shapes and sizes, ranging from Vesta, which is 530
km across, to asteroids that are only very few metres across. However, the total mass of all
asteroids is still less than that of Earth’s Moon. More than 75% of these ancient rocky objects
are present in the main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. But it is not as
closely packed as it seems. The volume of the belt is enormous, with spacing between each
object ranging from 1 km to several million km. The asteroids revolve about the Sun in the
same plane and direction as the planets. of asteroids in the solar system are present in the
asteroid belt;

Asteroids that make a close visit to the orbit of Earth are called Near-Earth Objects (NEO).
These asteroids, despite their size, pose a threat to the Earth and the life forms it hosts. Asteroids
have collided with Earth, and there are high chances of asteroids hitting the Earth in the future.
For this reason, scientists study asteroids and keep track of their orbits, numbers, and physical
characteristics.

Classification of asteroids
Based on their composition, asteroids are broadly classified into chondrites or C-type, stony or
S-type and metallic or M-type asteroids.

i. C-type asteroids are dark in appearance.

Spectral studies show that these bodies are
made of carbon in the form of clay and
silicate rocks. C-type asteroids are the most
common and the most ancient objects in the
solar system.
Example: Pallas, 10 Hygiea, Ceres.

ii. S-type asteroids are lighter due to the

absence of dark carbon components. This
absence causes the asteroid to have higher
reflectivity. These asteroids are composed of
silicate materials and nickel-iron.
Example: Eros.

iii. M-type asteroids are composed primarily

of metals and appear more lustrous than S-
type asteroids. However, these are present
sparsely compared to the C-type and S-type.
Example: Psyche.

Celestial Bodies - 7
 5. Meteor and Meteorites:
When objects from space, essentially space rocks, enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
due to the gravitational pull, the space rocks heat and burn and appear as streaks or fireballs in
the sky as if a star is falling. These are commonly called shooting stars or meteors and are a
visual treat. If a meteor is large enough, it does not burn down entirely in the atmosphere and
can reach the ground creating an impact crater. Such objects are called meteorites.

Table showing the Meteor shower of 2022 -23

Meteor Period of activity Parent Radiant Interesting fact

shower object direction
Lyrids April 15 to 29 Comet C/1861 Lyra It is one of the earliest
Peak: April 21–22 G1 Thatcher recorded meteor showers.

Eta Aquarids April 15 to May 27 Peak: May Comet Aquarius The meteors in the shower are
4–5 1P/Halley among the fastest.

Southern July 18 to August 21 Comet Aquarius It has faint meteors and lacks
delta Peak: July 29–30 96P/Machholz both persistent trains and
Aquarids fireballs.

Alpha July 7 to August 15 Peak: July Comet Capricorn Its radiant point moves across
Capricornids 30–31 169P/NEAT us the sky.

Perseids July 14 to September 1 Comet Perseus It is one of the best-known

Peak: August 11–12 109P/Swift - meteor showers and is widely
Tuttle observed.

Orionids September 26 to November 22 Comet Orion It is the sister stream of Eta

Peak: October 20–21 1P/Halley Aquarids.

Southern September 28 to December 2 Comet Taurus It is a long-lasting meteor

Taurids Peak: November 4–5 2P/Encke shower, occurring for more
than two months.

Northern October 13 to December 2 Comet Taurus Similar to Southern Taurids

Taurids Peak: November 11–12 2P/Encke but it is active a little later in
the year.

Leonids November 3 to December 2 Comet Leo The 1966 Leonids meteor

Peak: November 17–18 55P/Tempel - shower is one of the most
Tuttle incredible meteor showers.

Geminids November 19 to December 24 3200 Phaethon Gemini It is one of the strongest

Peak: December 13–14 (Asteroid) meteor showers of the year.

Ursids December 13 to December 24 Comet Ursa It has narrow streams and

Peak: December 21–22 8P/Tuttle Minor needs veteran eyes to observe.

Quadrantis December 26 to January 16 2003 EH Boötes It lacks persistent trains but

Peak: January 2–3 (Asteroid) produces bright fire balls.

Celestial Bodies - 8
What is a meteor shower?

Spotting a single shooting star is rare and hence it is believed

to be a sign of fortune or disaster, depending on your local
mythology. But there is a higher chance of spotting a group
of shooting stars on occasions known as meteor showers.
These meteors appear to radiate from one point in the sky.
Most meteor showers are known to be associated with comets.
When Earth passes through the orbits of comets, the stream
of debris left over from a comet can cause meteor showers on
Earth. However, the intensity of meteor showers varies each
year. Example: Geminids meteor shower.

Fig. 4: Geminids Meteor shower

Did you know:

The largest impact crater on Earth is present in South Africa, known as the Vredefort Dome.
The crater is around 180–300 kilometres across. It is estimated to be approximately 2 billion
years old, one of the oldest craters on Earth. The crater was formed by the Vredefort asteroid,
which is estimated to be 5–10 kilometres in diameter. The impact was massive as it came with
very high velocity.

6. Comets:

Comets are cosmic snowballs made up of ice, rock and dust. They are the frozen leftovers of
the solar system from the time of its formation. There are about 3000 comets present in our
solar system. Example: Halley's Comet, Swift - Tuttle Comet.

Comets like planets and asteroids also orbit the Sun. But the orbits are highly eccentric or
elongated. During its orbit, when the comet gets closer to the Sun, the ice, dust, and frozen
particles present in the comet starts to melt and boil off. These dust particles are further pushed
away by the radiation pressure* from the Sun. The dust particles and gases form a cloudy region
around the nucleus called a coma. The coma further stretches as the comet gets close to the
Sun, resulting in its characteristic bright-lit tail.

History's most famous comet is Halley's Comet.

The comet named after Edmond Halley became
history's most famous comet. Edmond Halley
looked through the comet reports in 1531, 1607 and
1682, and concluded that all three comets were the
same comet making repeated visits in the night sky.
He predicted that the comet has an orbital period of
roughly 75 years and would return in 1758 and it
did. This discovery was helpful for astronomers to Fig. 5: Comet Halley in 1986
confirm that comets orbit around the Sun.

Celestial Bodies - 9
 7. Nebula:

A nebula is a gas cloud floating in space, containing dust and matter – about 90% Hydrogen,
10% Helium, and about 0.1% heavy elements such as Carbon, Nitrogen, Iron, etc. Nebulae
form the building blocks of the Universe, as they contain the elements from which stars and
solar systems form. Hence, they are also known as stellar nurseries. A nebula is formed when
a dying star explodes, resulting in a supernova.

Types of Nebula:
Nebulae are one of the beautiful phenomena present in our Universe. They glow with rich
colour due to the different elements present in it. Nebulae are divided into the following five
major categories:

Nebula Characteristics Example

Category
An emission nebula is a cloud of high temperature gas, and emits Orion Nebula (M42)
Emission light at optical wavelengths. It generally appears red due to the
Nebula abundant presence of Hydrogen.
As the name suggests, it reflects the light coming from nearby Trifid Nebula (M20)
Reflection stars. They appear blue as blue light, coming from young stars, is
Nebula scattered more efficiently.
Dark nebulae are so dark that they block light from the objects Horsehead Nebula
Dark Nebula behind them. They are usually seen together with emission and
reflection nebulae.

A red giant star produces a planetary nebula at the end of its Ring Nebula (M57)
Planetary lifetime. It consists of glowing shells of ionised gas from the
Nebula parent star and often look like planets because of their somewhat
spherical shape.
It is formed when a star dies, resulting in a massive explosion Crab Nebula (M1)
Supernova known as a supernova. This explosion blows away a significant
Remnant part of the star's matter into space that glows along with the
stellar remnant.

Identify the nebula given in the picture

Celestial Bodies - 10
8. Galaxies:

Galaxies are like vast islands in the Universe consisting of gas, dust, stars, planets, black holes,
and dark matter*, all held together by gravity.

Formation of galaxy:

The early Universe was mostly energy, dark matter and baryonic matter* was present as simple
elements like Hydrogen and Helium. However, their distribution was not even. There existed
regions of higher density than others. These regions of higher density accumulated into small
clouds of gas that collapsed to form the first generation of stars. Fusion at the cores of these
first-generation stars produced heavy elements like Carbon that is needed to form planets like
Earth and life like us. When the stars died, they exploded in a supernova and enriched the
universe with heavy elements. The gas from these explosions again collapsed forming new
stars. Thus, the cycle of death and birth of stars began. Regions with higher density of star and
gas clouds became gravitationally bound to constitute the first galaxies.

Classification of galaxies:

Astronomers classify galaxies into four main categories: spiral, elliptical, peculiar and irregular
based on their morphological* features.

i) Spiral galaxies: Spirals are marked by

their yellowish central bulge containing
old stars and flat blue-white arms of
young stars in the disk. Spiral galaxies
are actively forming stars and comprise
around 77% of observed galaxies.

Fig. 6: Milky Way

ii) Elliptical galaxies: These galaxies

appear in nearly circular or elongated
shapes and usually comprise old stars or
stars with very low mass. Hence, they
appear dim compared to spiral galaxies.
Elliptical galaxies range from a few
thousand light-years wide dwarf
ellipticals to about 300,000 light-years
wide giant ellipticals. The giant
ellipticals are theorised to be formed due Fig. 7: Cygnus A
to multiple mergers of galaxies. These
galaxies account for about one-third of all known galaxies.

Celestial Bodies - 11
 iii) Lenticular galaxies: Lenticular galaxies
appear in a location between elliptical and
spiral galaxies in the Hubble sequence.
They have a bulge similar to spirals, but
the disk does not show any trace of spiral
arms It is estimated that 20% of the
known galaxies are lenticular galaxies.
Fig. 8: ESO 162-17

iv) Irregular galaxies: These galaxies lack

any distinct shape. They contain very
little dust and are often present as dwarf
galaxies orbiting giant galaxies.

Fig. 9: Small and Large Magellanic Cloud.

9. Black Holes

These are some of the most exciting and mysterious

objects in the Universe. Black holes are regions of
intense gravity fields that not even light can escape
its gravitational pull. For that reason, black holes are
invisible. Black holes are detected by the behaviour
of stars that are very close to them. The Event
horizon telescope (EHT) identified the black hole at
the centre of galaxy M87, where it detected a sudden
loss of photons beyond a specific region. It finally
released the recorded image of the black hole in Fig. 10: Black hole captured by EHT
2019.

Formation of the Blackhole

When a massive star (greater than three solar masses) reaches the end of its lifetime, the core
becomes unstable and gravitationally collapses, while its outer layers are blown away. Since
the gravity of a massive star is strong, the stellar material keeps getting crushed into denser and
denser states to the point of zero volume and infinity density, known as the singularity. The
singularity is the centre of the black hole hidden and the event horizon or the point of no return
forms the surface of the black hole. The radius of the event horizon is known as the
Schwarzschild radius. Inside the event horizon, the escape velocity for the matter to escape
exceeds the speed of light, making it difficult for even light to escape.

Types of Blackhole
Astronomers have identified three types of black holes based on their formation, and size.
These are stellar black holes, intermediate black holes, and supermassive black holes.

Celestial Bodies - 12
 Black hole type Birth Size Example

Stellar black It is formed from the collapse of Mass between about 3 IGR J17091-3624
hole an individual star that is more to 10 solar masses.
than 3 times the mass of the Sun.

Intermediate It is formed when clusters of Mass between 100 and HLX-1

black hole stars collide in a chain reaction. 1000 solar masses.

Supermassive It is formed as a result of the Mass between millions Sagittarius A

blackhole merging of multiple black holes. to billions of solar
masses.

The centre of the Milky Way galaxy has a giant

supermassive black hole known as Sagittarius A
(pronounced Sagittarius A star) at a distance of 26,000
light-years from Earth.

Fig. 11: Blackhole – Sagittarius A

Northern Lights
Another spectacular phenomenon for night sky viewers to watch is the Aurora Borealis or
Northern lights. These beautiful dancing waves of light visible in the night sky are frequently
observed at higher altitudes closer to the Earth’s poles like Alaska, Canada, Norway, and
Antarctica.

Auroras are formed when energised particles from the Sun

enter the Earth’s magnetosphere* at speeds of 72 million
kph. As these particles collide with the magnetic field, it
generates currents of charged particles that flow along
with the magnetic force into the polar regions. When
oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere collide with
these particles, they are energised and emit light that
creates the recognisable waves of lights. Fig. 12: Northern Lights

Star Spectrum:
Stars are very hot and dense celestial bodies. There are many elements formed inside the star
from a process called 'thermonuclear fusion reactions.' Due to this fusion, atoms from
Hydrogen to Iron are formed inside the star.

How do we know these atoms are being formed inside the stars?
Spectrum is one way through which the atoms can be identified inside a star. These atoms
inside the star absorb a part of the energy from the star and emit the rest of the energy, So there
is a missing part of the star's total energy, which is accounted for by the atom which absorbs it.

Celestial Bodies - 13
The amount of energy absorbed in unique for each atom. Thus, each missing part of the star's
energy becomes a fingerprint of the atom.

This can be seen as dark lines in the spectrum of a star. The dark lines correspond to the energy
absorbed by the atoms. This is known as absorption spectra, and every star has an absorption
spectra. This absorption can happen at different wavelengths.

Star's spectrum has emission lines that arise due to reasons like stellar winds, mass loss, dust
around the stars, etc. A normal star can have emissions in the wavelengths IR to UV.
If we observe only in the visible wavelength, the stars which emit IR and UV rays will not be
visible. That is why it becomes
important to observe our night sky at all
possible wavelengths. Hubble Space
Telescope was a milestone project by
NASA, and the new James Webb Space
Telescope also is a key component for
observing the sky in IR to UV. Lower
wavelength radiations like X-rays and
Gamma rays cannot be significantly
observed in normal stars. They are
usually emitted by objects like Neutron
stars and Black holes.
Fig. 13: Spectrum of Sun

Among all these stars, our Sun is an ordinary yet exciting star in our universe to have Earth
that hosts life. However, the solar system is not the only planetary system found in the universe.
There are many stars that host planetary systems. These plants are called exoplanets or
extrasolar planets.

How many such planets do we know of? Is there any life in those planets?
We have a chapter on Exoplanets where we will learn more about it.

Glossary:

• Kelvin: It is one of the standard units used for Thermodynamic temperature. The
equation to convert the temperature from Celsius to Kelvin is K = C + 273.15
• Radiation Pressure: It is a type of mechanical pressure exerted by electromagnetic
field on a surface.
• Baryonic matter: It is part of dark matter composed of baryons. Baryons are heavy
subatomic particles made up of quarks.
• Morphological: In this context it is relating to the form or structure of things.
• Magnetosphere: It is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which
charged particles are affected by that object's magnetic field. A celestial body creates it
with an active interior dynamo.

All the images used in this content are completely for educational purpose and not intended for any commercial
usage. We respect and thank all the copyright owners.

Celestial Bodies - 14