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Air Quality Improvements Following Implementation of Lisbon's Low Emission Zone
Air Quality Improvements Following Implementation of Lisbon's Low Emission Zone
Atmospheric Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
h i g h l i g h t s
PM10 and NO2 levels in Lisbon have been exceeding the legal limit values since 2001.
An action plan was developed with a set of measures including a LEZ in Lisbon.
We assessed air quality and traffic data before and after LEZ full implementation.
Results show positive evolution between 2011 (before LEZ) and 2013 (after LEZ).
Stricter restrictions and enforcement are fundamental in future stages of the LEZ.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Air pollution levels within Lisbon city limits have been exceeding the limit values established in Euro-
Received 6 February 2015 pean Union and national legislation since 2001, with the most problematic cases related to the levels of
Received in revised form fine particles (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), mainly originated by road traffic. With the objective of
27 July 2015
answering this public health issue, an Air Quality Action Plan was developed in 2006 and the respective
Accepted 24 September 2015
Available online 30 September 2015
Enforcement Plan was published in 2009. From the overall strategy, one of the major measures presented
in this strategy was the creation of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) in Lisbon, which has been operating since
July 2011. Implemented at different stages it has progressively expanded its area, including more vehicle
Keywords:
Low emission zone
types and adopting more stringent requirements in terms of minimum emission standards (currently LEZ
Environmental policy phase 2 with EURO 2 in the city center e zone 1 and EURO 1 in the rest of the LEZ area e zone 2). At the
Air quality same time the road axis comprised of Marque ^s de Pombal square and Avenida da Liberdade was sub-
Emission standards jected to profound changes in its traffic circulation model, reducing road traffic volumes.
NO2 The analysis of the air quality data before and after the LEZ phase 2 has shown positive evolution when
PM10 comparing the period between 2011 (before measures) and 2013 (after measures). In 2013, there was a
reduction in PM10 annual average concentration of 23% and NO2 annual average concentrations of 12%,
compared with the year 2011. Although PM10 reductions were more significant inside the LEZ area, the
same was not valid for NO2, suggesting that the implementation of these measures was not as effective in
reducing NO2 levels as shown by results in other cities like Berlin and London. The results from road
traffic characterization indicate a relevant effect on fleet renewal with an overall decrease in the relative
weight of pre-EURO 2 vehicles in 2012/2013, compared with data from 2011. An important increase in the
share of EURO 4 and EURO 5 vehicles was also observed. Our conclusions show that the level of ambition
is relevant for the observed effects. Therefore, stricter restriction standards should be enforced in the
future stages of the Lisbon LEZ in conjunction with a higher effort and investment on LEZ enforcement.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.09.064
1352-2310/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
374 F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381
national legislation for certain pollutants since 2001. The most inconclusive picture regarding the benefits of LEZ. Moreover,
problematic cases are related with levels of fine particles (PM10) sometimes results are not as successful and clear as originally
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). thought. As an example, studies in Amsterdam show that with the
The highest pollution levels in urban centers have road traffic as exception of one urban street where traffic flows were drastically
its main cause, particularly due to heavy commuting. In the city reduced, no measurable benefit was obtained so far (Boogard et al.,
center, the levels of air pollution threaten public health, surpassing 2012). Also, there were significant decreases in traffic-related air
some of the World Health Organization (WHO) thresholds e pollution concentrations in the vicinity of a roadside monitoring
guideline levels for PM10 are 20 mg/m3 as annual mean, 50 mg/m3 station after the implementation of the LEZ in Amsterdam
24-h average; guideline levels for NO2 are 40 mg/m3 annual mean, (Panteliadis et al., 2014). In Munich, there has been a positive effect
200 mg/m3 hourly average (WHO, 2006). An important and exten- of its LEZ implementation on the reduction of particulate organic
sive review work on this topic was made by Pope and Dockery compounds (POC) concentrations, but not significantly due to the
(2006) summarizing and discussing studies on short and long variation of its sources (Qadir et al., 2013). In Berlin, a study shows
term PM impact on mortality from respiratory and cardiovascular that the turnover of the vehicle fleet towards cleaner vehicles has
diseases due to air pollutant exposure. speeded up considerably only because of the LEZ. The same study
According to EU and Portuguese legislation, action has to be also posts that the LEZ is the most effective single measure in Berlin,
taken to bring exposure concentrations to acceptable levels within provided that ambitious emission criteria are required within a
a reasonable timetable. In this context, an Air Quality Action Plan reasonably short time scale, not watered down by extensive
has to be deployed ensuring the reduction of the exposure related granting of exemptions for residents. However, there was a much
risks. Air quality action plans have a strong emphasis on traffic larger reduction in PM10 emissions than in NO2 (Lutz and
regulation and involve policies such as the stimulation of public Rauterberg-Wulff, 2010). The evaluation of the London LEZ from
transportation usage, ring road utilization, traffic flow improve- Ellison et al. (2013) suggests that the rate of fleet turnover for
ments, speed limit reduction, and the implementation of Low affected vehicle classes increased substantially when the LEZ was
Emission Zones (LEZ) (Panteliadis et al., 2014). first introduced before returning to the national average in subse-
The Greater Lisbon Metropolitan Region also applied this quent years. Also, ambient air quality measurements show a higher
approach, thus in 2006, the Air Quality Action Plan for Lisbon and decrease in PM10 concentrations within the LEZ, when compared
Tagus Valley (AQAP-LTV) was published (CCDR-LVT and DCEA-FCT/ with areas just outside the zone. However, no discernible differ-
UNL, 2006). Its main objective was to ensure compliance with legal ences are found for NOX concentrations (Ellison et al., 2013). Other
limit values set out in Decree-Law no. 102/2010 of September 23, studies show that reductions in airborne particle number concen-
2010 (which transposes to national legislation Directive 2008/50/ tration in London are primarily due to the change in Sulphur fuel
EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of May 21, 2008, content, and not because of the LEZ implementation (Jones et al,
on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. This Directive 2012). A recent meta-analysis from Holman et al. (2015) indicate
results from the revision and merge of the previous Framework e that in German cities (where both passenger cars and HDV are
Directive 1996/62/EC of September 27, and Daughter Directives e restricted) there was a reduction in PM10 and NO2 annual mean
1999/30/EC of April 22, 2000/69/EC of November 16, 2002/3/EC of concentrations of up to 7% and 4% respectively due to the LEZ
February 12 and 2004/107/EC of 15 December 2004). implementation. It was also observed by these authors that in other
From all possible policies and measures (P&M) that were European cities (Denmark, UK, Netherlands and Italy) the effect of
identified in the AQAP-LTV, a smaller group was selected contain- the LEZ in ambient air quality is less clear, due to the influence of
ing the P&M considered most likely to be implemented, taking into several confounding factors like meteorology and the economic
account political, financial and technical constraints, as well as their crisis. However, these authors did find limited evidence that LEZs
cost-effectiveness. In 2009, the Air Quality Action Plan's Enforce- may result in larger reductions in the concentration of carbona-
ment Program (AQAPEP -LTV) was published containing this ceous particles.
selected group of P&M (CCDR-LVT and DCEA-FCT/UNL, 2009). From Lisbon's LEZ has been implemented at different stages, pro-
the overall strategy, one of the major P&M presented in AQAPEP gressively expanding its area, including more vehicle types (for
-LTV was the creation of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) in Lisbon. example, by repealing the exemption for public transport buses),
Low Emission Zones are one of a number of strategies that have and adopting more stringent requirements in terms of minimum
been employed by governments to try to reduce, or limit, the emission standards required to access the LEZ (Ferreira et al., 2012).
emissions of air pollutants from road traffic within a specific spatial Fig. 1 depicts the geographical scope of the LEZ and the different
area (Ellison et al., 2013), hence it is a specific zone that can only be zones associated with the sequential implementation areas. The 1st
accessed by vehicles that respect certain pollutant emission stan- phase began on July 4th, 2011 at the Marque ^s of Pombal/Terreiro do
dards (Browne et al., 2007). More than 200 cities and towns in 10 Paço axis (zone 1). In this area, circulation of pre-EURO vehicles
countries around Europe have already implemented a LEZ, namely (prior to 1992) was banned on weekdays between 8:00 h and
London, Berlin, Amsterdam and Stockholm, or are preparing its 20:00 h. On April 1st 2012 the 2nd phase began, encompassing a
implementation like Budapest, Trondheim and Oslo (Sadler much broader area of about one-third of the whole city of Lisbon
Consultants & EU, 2014). A LEZ can diverge in terms of (zone 2) where circulation of pre-EURO vehicles was banned. In
geographic scope (some extend to the full city, others enclose parallel, in zone 1 the minimum standard was increased to EURO 2.
restricted areas only), period of operation (some operate 24 h per The operative hours of the LEZ were also extended (weekdays from
day, 365 days per year, others only on weekdays only or during 7:00 h to 21:00 h). The restrictions for circulation allow several
working hours), type of vehicles affected (some affect all types, exceptions according to the nature of activity or vehicles owner-
others only heavy duty vehicles), and level of strictness (depending ship: emergency and military vehicles, historical licensed vehicles,
on the minimum EURO standard required). city residents (for zone 2), residents of city center/commerce ve-
Evaluating the success of a LEZ implementation may become a hicles with special parking permit (for zone 1), and taxis.
very complex task since there is a wide multiplicity of indicators At around the same time of the LEZ implementation (on
that could be looked at. At the end, the LEZ effectiveness can be September 16th 2012), the road axis comprised of Marque ^s de
assessed evaluating the expected emission reductions obtained for Pombal square and Avenida da Liberdade was subjected to pro-
air pollutants, like PM10 and NO2, but other results might provide an found changes in its traffic circulation model, with the purpose of
F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381 375
Fig. 3. Comparison of type of vehicle, before and after the LEZ 2nd phase implementation.
economic crisis affecting the country since 2008, a significant fuel around 20% reduction for PM10 and about 8% less NOX (Ferreira
price increase, and traffic changes in the city center which diverted et al., 2013). These results are consistent with the reduction
traffic to other less congested areas or to areas outside the city measured in concentrations for the same pollutants in the Avenida
boundaries. da Liberdade AQMS (Fig. 5). In the case of NO2, annual average has
It should be noted that LEZ's most significant impact is not the been steadily decreasing since 2009, although achieving legal
reduction of traffic volumes, but the change in fleet composition. By compliance is still far off. Regarding PM10, the year 2013 shows air
removing older vehicles, which do not comply with the required quality improvements, both in terms of annual average (with a
LEZ minimum EURO standards, there are resulting benefits in terms declining trend since 2001 and currently within legal compliance),
of pollutant emissions. This is perhaps the most direct and relevant and in terms of daily limit value exceedances (with only 38 ex-
LEZ indicator, crucial to measuring its effect. ceedance days in 2013, very close to the 35 days allowed per year).
The results from road traffic characterization indicate a relevant Discounting the number of days of natural dust events1 (long-range
effect on fleet renewal but no significant change was found in the transported African desert dust particles, as seen in Querol et al.,
relative weight for each vehicle typology. Passenger cars and light 2006; Escudero et al., 2007 and EC, 2011), the number of exceed-
duty vehicles, which make up the majority of vehicles represent ances will come down to less than thirty, ensuring compliance of
roughly 80% of total traffic, present a similar weight both in 2011 the daily limit value. In 2013 there was a reduction in the PM10
and 2013 traffic counts (Fig. 3). annual average concentration of 23% and NO2 annual average
Even taking into account that a non-negligible amount of pre- concentrations of 12%, compared to the year 2011, which is
EURO 2 vehicles continue to circulate within the LEZ boundaries, consistent with the above mentioned reduction on emissions.
there was an overall decrease in their relative weight in 2012/2013, This analysis compared the period between January 1st, 2011
compared with 2011 data (Fig. 4). The most recent dataset highlight and September 16th, 2012 (before the LEZ 2nd phase, and before
the relatively small weight of these older vehicles, with the changes in traffic circulation), and after this day until December
exception of the operating taxi fleet. 31st, 2013 (Fig. 6). The results show a significant decrease in PM10
However, it should be pointed out that some of these older levels in the ex-ante and ex-post periods, both in hourly and daily
vehicles are owned and used by Lisbon's city center residents, averages, but showing similar values during weekends, where the
which are exempted from meeting the LEZ requirements. Also, LEZ is not in operation. There was also a reduction in NO2 levels,
some of the older buses were retrofitted with diesel particle traps, although with much less significance. A possible explanation may
which substantially increased the environmental performance of be related with information suggesting that differences in
these vehicles in terms of PM emissions. Complementarily (Fig. 2),
less polluting vehicles (complying with EURO 4 and EURO 5
emissions standards) increased their relative weight in most fleets 1
The Directive 2008/50/EC provides Member States with the possibility to
(in particular passenger cars, taxis and light duty vehicles). This subtract the contribution of natural sources before comparing the ambient air
overall fleet renewal may already be a positive result of second pollutant concentrations to the PM10 limit values. A method was developed in Spain
phase implementation of the LEZ, with more stringent re- and Portugal (Querol et al., 2006), for application in both countries. This method
(Escudero et al., 2007), applied in Portugal since 2006, allows the quantification of
quirements. It should be emphasized that this is also against the
the contribution of natural sources on a daily basis, and can thus be used for the
current aging trend of the Portuguese fleet, which results from the subtraction of this contribution in respect to both PM10 limit values. The procedure
sharp decline in new vehicle sales due to the economic crisis. is based on identifying African dust outbreak episodes (recurring to back trajec-
tories of daily air masses model as Hysplit, daily aerosol forecast models such as
SKIRON and BSC-DREAM, and information on the levels of PM measured at air
3.2. Emissions and air quality quality monitoring stations) and then on quantifying Saharan dust outbreak epi-
sodes (based on the subtraction of the non-African dust fraction to daily PM10
levels, in the African dust episode days) (EC, 2011). The indicators provided for
The reduction of road traffic associated with less polluting ve- Directive compliance purposes for PM10, represented in Fig. 5, include the PM10
hicles has significantly decreased emissions in the city center: concentration subtraction due to natural dust episodes occurred from 2006 to 2013.
F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381 377
Fig. 4. Comparison of the relative weight for each EURO standard by type of vehicle, before and after the LEZ 2nd phase implementation.
Fig. 5. Annual evolution of NO2 (top) and PM10 (bottom) at Avenida da Liberdade AQMS for 2001e2013 and its comparison with limit values.
378 F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381
Fig. 6. Variation in NO2 (top) and PM10 (bottom) concentrations in Avenida da Liberdade AQMS, before and after the implementation of LEZ 2nd phase and changes in traffic
circulation.
emissions, especially NOx, between the most recent EURO stan- (rejection of the null hypothesis at 5% significance level), ranksum,
dards and the older ones are much smaller than anticipated when that is the value of the test statistics and zval which is the obtained
the policy was formulated (Boogaard et al., 2012). The variations in value of the Z statistics for approximate calculations (http://www.
monthly data may have their origin in meteorological factors (like mathworks.com/help/stats/ranksum.html).
wind regimes, precipitation and number of days of atmospheric The first alternative hypothesis analyzed was if the median
stability) which have no direct connection to the LEZ impacts, values were higher during the period before the implementation of
rather than be explained by changes in traffic emissions. the pollution/traffic control measures (Table 1, Pre > Pos). Results
A Wilcoxon test to the medians was performed between the two show that there is statistical evidence that the PM10 median values
periods (before-Pre and after-Pos 16/9/2012) in the measured PM10 of the air pollutants after LEZ and traffic changes are lower than
and NO2 concentrations at the studied locations. The test was before the implementation of those control measures at the three
performed with matlab2013, resorting to the ranksum test function locations, i.e. inside and outside the LEZ. A double check was done
with a ¼ 0,05. The obtained statistical parameter values (presented for the alternative hypothesis that the median values of the con-
in Table 1 and Table 2) are the p value, h which takes the values centrations measured during the two periods were different (Pre s
0 (acceptance of the null hypothesis at 5% significance level) or 1 Pos in Table 2).
F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381 379
Table 1
Statistical parameter values obtained with the one tail side non parametric Wilcoxon test to the median concentrations (H1 is the alternative hypothesis considered). H1:
Pre > Pos (Pre < Pos).
p value 2.3182 1027 7.2453 10141 0.0548 (0.9452) 3.3838 1095 1.0 (6.00251014) 3.0947 10127
h 1 1 0 (0) 1 0 (1) 1
z val 10.7726 25.2403 1.5996 20.6677 7.4167 23.9667
ranksum 1.815110þ08 2.012410þ08 1.767410þ08 1.841810þ08 1.863210þ08 1.887010þ08
Note: Parenthesis show results on testing if median NO2 concentrations values area higher after the implementation of air pollution values (please see text for detailed
description).
Table 2
Statistical parameter values obtain with the two tail sides non parametric Wilcoxon test to the median concentrations (H1 is the alternative hypothesis considered). H1: Pre s
Pos.
p value 4.6364 1027 1.4491 10140 0.1097 6.7675 1095 1.2005 1013 6.1893 10127
h 1 1 0 1 1 1
z val 10.7726 25.2403 1.5996 20.6677 7.4167 23.9667
ranksum 1.815110þ08 2.012410þ08 1.767410þ08 1.841810þ08 1.863210þ08 1887010þ08
Regarding NO2 concentrations results did not show a straight- between parentheses). It can be stated that in Avenida da Liberdade
forward conclusion, and the third alternative hypothesis (Pre < Pos) results for NO2 show statistical evidence that there is a diminishing
was tested for Olivais and Entrecampos (Table 1, results shown trend in the median concentrations after the traffic control
Fig. 7. Trends of NO2 (top) and PM10 (bottom) levels in Avenida da Liberdade between 2011 and 2013, without seasonality.
380 F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381
Fig. 8. Trends of NO2 and PM10 levels in Entrecampos (top) and Olivais (bottom) levels between 2011 and 2013, without seasonality.
measures; at Entrecampos the trend increases. In Olivais (the the city center traffic changes were not as effective in reducing NO2
background urban AQMS), the Wilcoxon test points to a similar levels as they were regarding PM10 levels, as shown by results in
distribution of the measured NO2 concentrations before and after other cities like Berlin and London. This effect may be related with a
September 16th 2012, i.e no significant changes in the medians fleet that has a large percentage of diesel vehicles, part of it with the
were found (Tables 1 and 2). newer Euro 5 and Euro 6 passenger car emission standards, where
Looking at data in detail from the last 3 years, with and without NOx emissions have not been as successfully reduced as expected.
seasonality (Fig. 7), a clear reduction trend in Avenida da Lib- Further monitoring of these effects will be carried on in order to
erdade PM10 levels between January 2011 and December 2013 can validate these conclusions.
be observed, with an overall reduction of about 34%, as seen in The results from road traffic characterization indicate a relevant
other cities where LEZ were applied. However, the same level of effect on fleet renewal, but no significant change was found in the
reduction was not observed for NO2, presenting a 10% reduction, relative weight for each vehicle typology. Passenger cars and light
and even a small increase between December 2012 and December duty vehicles, which make up the majority of vehicles represent
2013. roughly 80% of total traffic, present a similar weight both in 2011
The same trend was detected in two other AQMS analyzed. In and 2013 traffic counts. Even taking into account that a non-
Entrecampos, a reduction of 23% in PM10 levels and 7% in NO2 levels negligible amount of pre-EURO 2 vehicles continue to circulate
was observed between January 2011 and December 2013. In Olivais within the LEZ boundaries (most of them being taxis), there was an
there was a reduction of 26% and 16% in PM10 and NO2 levels, overall decrease in their relative weight in 2012/2013, compared
respectively (Fig. 8). Since similar reductions in traffic flows were with data from 2011. An increase in the share of EURO 4 and EURO 5
observed inside and outside of the LEZ, these results indicate that vehicles was also observed between 2011 and 2013.
its implementation plus the traffic changes in Marque ^s de Pombal A conclusion one can draw is that the level of ambition is rele-
square, were slightly more effective in reducing PM10 concentra- vant for the observed effects. It was only after implementing LEZ
tions inside the LEZ when compared with the area outside of the 2nd phase that restrictions started to have a real impact on fleet
LEZ, although there seems to be no positive effect in NO2 composition and emissions standards, and air quality improve-
reductions. ments were measured, despite the results suggesting that the effect
might not yet be significant, particularly for NO2. Therefore, stricter
4. Conclusions restriction standards should be enforced in the future stages of the
Lisbon LEZ, (for example, EURO 3 or even EURO 4 in zone 1, and at
The air quality results obtained from the implementation of least EURO 2 in zone 2), in conjunction with a higher effort and
measures assessed in this paper have been positive when investment on LEZ enforcement (turning the present manual
comparing the period between 2011 (before the 2nd phase of the enforcement into the already planned automatic enforcement
LEZ and traffic changes in Marque ^s de Pombal and Avenida da system).
Liberdade) and 2013 (post LEZ 2nd phase and traffic changes). In
2013, there was a reduction in the annual average concentration of Acknowledgments
PM10 of 23% and NO2 annual average concentrations of 12%,
compared with the year 2011. The authors would like to thank the Regional Development and
Although PM10 reductions between January 2011 and December Coordination Commission of Lisbon and Tagus Valley (CCDR-LVT,
2013 were more significant inside the LEZ area, the same was not responsible for the Air Quality Monitoring network) for the air
valid for NO2, suggesting that the implementation of the LEZ plus quality dataset provided, and the Municipality of Lisbon (C^
amara
F. Ferreira et al. / Atmospheric Environment 122 (2015) 373e381 381
Municipal de Lisboa, CML, responsible for the GERTRUDE system J. Environ. Prot. 3 (No. 9A, 2012), 1188e1205. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/
jep.2012.329137.
and for the LEZ implementation) for the traffic dataset provided.
Ferreira, F., Gomes, P., Tente, H., Carvalho, A.C., Rodrigues, A., Pereira, P., 2013. Zona
The team likes to acknowledge the project UID/AMB/04085/2013 de Emisso ~es Reduzidas na cidade de Lisboa. In: Actas da 10ª Confere ^ncia
^mara Municipal de Lisboa) for sup-
and to Lisbon Municipality (Ca Nacional do Ambiente/XII Congresso Nacional de Engenharia do Ambiente.
porting this work. Universidade de Aveiro, 6e8 november 2013, ISBN 978-989-98673-0-7.
Gois, V., Maciel, H., Torres, P., Mesquita, S., Ferreira, F., Almeida, C., Nogueira, L.,
2007. - a Detailed Urban Road Traffic Emissions Inventory Model Using Aerial
Photography and GPS Survey - 16th Annual International Emission Inventory
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