PHARMACOGNOSY AND PLANT CHEMISTRY

Introduction to Pharmacognosy: General History

1st Semester | A.Y. 2023-2024
Prof. Teresa May Bandiola

PRIMITIVE PROBINGS Ceylon Now: Sri Lanka

Cavemen’s Methods of Healing
➢ A Neanderthal man found in the CLAY TABLETS
Shanidar cave in Northern Iraq with ➢ Earliest known medical text
clusters of flowers and herbs. ➢ It contains lists of herbal medicines
 In the cave in Northern Iraq, flowers ➢ Due to clay tablets, ancient Babylonians are the earliest
and herbs are found with the bones. known record
It could be an evidence that early Note: Cuneiform - a system of writing by ancient Mesopotamia
humans used what is naturally Hieroglyphics – system of writing by Egypt in Papyrus
available for them Baybayin – Filipino system of writing that survived

Animism ASSYRIAN KING ASHURBANIPAL

That everything has a spirit: trees, birds, rocks, natural phenomena ➢ Collected 800 clay tablets or parts of
(lightning, earthquakes), sun, etc. tablets containing medical material
 A religion or practice that has something to with healing ➢ 250 drugs of vegetable origins, 120
 Everything has a spirit, so they worship it of mineral origin (minerals that can
 Sagada – it is located in high lands, wherein the Spaniards be found in the periodic table: salt,
did not reach it to spread Christianity copper, iron, zinc) and 180 from
o Igorots were never invaded, and defended their other sources
lands
o Hanging coffins “LIBRARY OF ASHURBANIPAL”
▪ It is only recent around 1960’s or 1980’s ➢ Discovered in the ruins of Nineveh (now northern Irag), once
▪ Before Christianity came to Sagada, capital of Assyrian empire Now in the British Museum
their religion is animism  The clay tablets King Ashurbanipal collected can be
▪ Cave were also their burial sites. found in the British Museum
▪ The burial of people who are best
hunters or with achievements regarding EGYPTIANS
defending their land and who believes
The Ebers Papyrus
in animism only will be on hanging
➢ Also known as Papyrus Ebers
coffins.
➢ A scroll contaning herbal knowledge
▪ The corpse may be eaten by wild animal
➢ A collection of recipes that contains 811 prescriptions and
when buried under the ground
mentions some 700 drugs.
o Lands in Sagada is cheap, but can only be owned
➢ Now preserved in the University of Leipzig
by people that belongs in their tribe to preserve
o Leipzig is in Germany
their culture and tribe.
 Ebers Papyrus was discovered by Georg Ebers
 It is linked to healing of primitive people
 Egypt still uses papyrus but it is slowly fading away.
ANCIENT BABYLONIANS
➢ Babylon (jewel of ancient Mesopotamia; often called the
cradle of civilization) provides the earliest known record of
practice of the art of the apothecary.
➢ Apothecary pertains to pharmacy or pharmacist

CHINA
Emperor Shen Nung (about 2000 B.C.)
➢ Father of Chinese Medicine
 Chinese Medicine is the use of herbs
➢ Noted for tasting 365 herbs and dying from toxic
overdose
Additional Information ➢ Father of pharmaceutics
Babylonians The people ➢ Written the first Pen Ts'ao (or Native herbal or "The Herbal")
Babylonia The place recording 365 drugs including cannabis (marijuana)
Babylon The capital of Babylonia
Mesopotamia Now: Iraq Note: Shen Nung was traditionally cloth in a garment of
Persia Now: Iran herbal leaves.
Formosa Now: Taiwan
Gaul Now: France
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 Digitoxin – it is long lasting Digitalis purpurea

Castor oil – it is a cathartic Ricinus communis

drug

Atropine Atropa belladona

The era of european exploration overseas Sambong Blumea balsamifera

(16th and 17th century)
➢ Ferdinand Magellan explored the world to discover spices Lagundi Vitex negundo
(plants)
 Before, water is not clean. So, alcohol (ale) is common. Morphine Scientifically known: Papaver
 During these centuries, European started to explore somniferum
Plant: Opium

Insulin (Animal) Pancreas of hog/domestic pig

Pregnant mare/ female horses

Due to the improvements of

technology, insulin is being
made in the laboratory. To
preserve the animals, and for
their animal welfare they used
The era of pure compounds recombinant DNA.
In 1803, a new era in the history of medicine
Recombinant DNA –
 In this year, specific compound is isolated from the
technology that produces drugs
plant having a pure compound
using the aid of bacteria.
1. Isolation of morphine from opium (~1804)
 Morphine is an analgesic, used to relieve pain
Urokinase (thrombolytic Kidney (human, tissue culture)
2. Strychnine (1817)
agent) (Animal)
3. Quinine and caffeine (1820)
Human – in vivo
4. Nicotine (1828)
Tissue Culture – in vitro
5. Atropine (1833)
Thrombolytic – not clotting,
6. Cocaine (1855)
therefore there is no clogging of
blood vessel
Trivia: Friedrich Serturner named the substance morphium after
 Thrombocytes –
Greek god of dreams, Morpheus
platelets
 Lytic - destroy
Pharmacognosy definition
➢ Greek words:
○ "Pharmakon" = drug
○ "Gnosis or gignosco"= knowledge/to acquire Drugs obtained from microorganisms
the knowledge of
Penicillin - antibiotics Penicillium notatum, now known
○ "Pharmacognosy" and "Pharmacodynamics"
as P. chrysogenum (fungus,
were probably first coined by Johann Adam
mold)
Schmidt (1759-1809).
 Pharmacodynamics – what drug does to the
It was discovered by Alexander
body
Fleming. Penicillin was
 Pharmacokinetics – what the body does to
discovered accidentally when
the drug
he found a mold that prevented
➢ The oldest of all pharmacy sciences
the growth of the bacteria.
➢ Has risen from voodoo tribe incantations
 Practices of early tribes
Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis
 It was passed through songs and poems (named after Margaret Tracy. Bacillus
➢ Has survived the unwritten secret recipes of medicine men subtilis a girl whose injury led to
Baci – Bacillus subtilis
➢ Pharmacognosy covers all information on medicines from discovery of the drug)
Tracin – Tracy (Margaret)
natural sources: Plants, Animals, Microorganism
(antibiotics), Inorganic source
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythraeus, now
Sample sources of drugs (PLANTS and Animals) (by Filipino Abelardo Aguilar) known as Saccharopolyspora
(formerly known as Ilotycin) erythraea
Digoxin – has hydroxyl group; Digitalis lanata (foxglove) (Popular brand: Ilosone, after Iloilo,
it is easier to be eliminated Philippines) Dr. Aguilar sent a soil sample

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  Traditional Medicine: practice that is not “western”
from IloIlo to Eli Lilly. Eli Lilly is
▪ Western medicine – everything has a
the company that manufactured
scientific background, studies. It has
and marketed Erythromycin.
gone through different tests and trials.
Doses and dosing are being studied.
 Some antibiotics come from bacteria, some come from • A mainstream medical
fungus practice
 Types of Fungus: mold, yeast ▪ Ethnomedicine – herbal medicines that
 Balto – a dog that delivered diphtheria vaccine in Nome, has not usually gone any studies, but it
Alaska is accepted due to the respect of
folkloric use
Drugs obtained from inorganic source
DRUGS obtained from INORGANIC SOURCE Person involved
➢ Aluminum salts 1. Pedanius Dioscorides
➢ Magnesium salts ➢ Greek physician
➢ Iron salts ➢ (40-90 AD)
➢ Calcium salts ➢ De materia medica ("On Medical Material"):
 Used for bones Contains more than 600 plants, 35 animal
 Calcium carbonate is also used for ulcer and products, and 90 minerals
hyperacidity ● Divided into 5 volumes
➢ Bentonite ○ It is in a book form
 A suspending agent
2. Pliny the Elder
 Aluminum and Magnesium salts (i.e., Aluminum Hydroxide, ● Roman naturalist
Magnesium Hydroxide) are used for ulcer or hyperacidity. ● aka Gaius Plinius Secundus (24-79 AD)
 Kremil – S: Aluminum Hydroxide, Magnesium ● Compiled 37 volumes of natural history (book title
Hydroxide, Simethicone Naturalis Historia that encompasses botany,
 Aluminum Hydroxide: causes constipation zoology, astronomy, geology, and mineralogy)
 Magnesium Hydroxide: causes diarrhea
▪ Mag (Magnesium); Tae (diarrhea) 3. Cosmas and Damian
 Simethicone: Anti-flatulent (prevent build-up of ● twin brothers of Arabian descent
gas) ● Damian the apothecary and Cosmas the
physician
Pharmacognosy definition
➢ An applied science that deals with the: 4. Hippocrates
o biologic ● Father of Medicine
o biochemical ● (460-377 BC); from Kos, Ancient Greece
o economic features of natural drugs and their ● aka Hippocrates II or Hippocrates of Kos
constituents.
➢ It is a study of drugs that originate in the plant and animal 5. Aristotle
kingdoms. ● Renowned Greek philosopher and polymath
➢ Literally means knowledge of drugs or pharmaceuticals ● Well known for his studies on animal kingdom
➢ Embraces the knowledge of: ● (384-322 BC)
○ History
○ Distribution 6. Theoprastus
○ Cultivation ● Plant kingdom
○ Collection ● Greek native, successor to Aristotle
○ Selection ● (371-287 BC)
○ Preparation ➢ De Historia Plantarum
○ Commerce ➢ De Causis Plantarum
○ Identification
○ Evaluation 7. Claudius Galen (129 - 216 AD)
○ Preservation ● A Greek pharmacist-physician who lived in Rome
○ Use of drugs and economic substances that affect ● aka Aelius Galenus or Galen of Pergamon
the health of humans and other animals ○ Born in the Ancient Greek city of
Pergamon (now Bergama: Turkey)
Ethnobotany: It is a broad term referring to the study of ● Described the method of preparing formulas
plants by humans. containing pl and animal drugs
● The first to recognize distinct differences between
Ethnomedicine: It refers to the use of plants by humans as medicine. venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood
● Compilations: "Antidotaria" and "Receptaria"
Traditional medicine: It is the sum total of all non-mainstream ● GALENICAL PHARMACY
medical practices, usually excluding so-called "western" medicine. ○ galenicals (class of pharmaceuticals
 The difference of Ethnomedicine and Traditional Medicine: compounded by mechanical means)
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 19. Hoffman
8. Johann Adam Schmidt ● Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
● Austrian physician ○ It is an addicting substance
● First coined pharmacognosy (and ○ Street name: Acid
pharmacodynamics) in his hand-written ○ It is paper-like that is taken through
manuscript Lehrbuch der Materia Medica (a work mouth
on medicinal plants and their properties)
● Book posthumously published in Vienna in 181  There are drugs that can cause release of
○ Posthumously – work is published after neurotransmitters, so the brain is really working
death
● Interestingly, he was also Beethoven's physician. REFERENCES
Bandiola, T.M. (2024). Pharmacognosy Introduction Part I.
9. C.A. Seydler (Chr. Aenotheus Seydler) Powerpoint Presentation and Handout. FEU-NRMF.
● A medical student in Germany
● Used the term pharmacognosy in 1815 in his © ALL PHOTOS USED ARE FROM THE RECORDED
work titled Analecta Pharmacognostica LECTURE AND THE HANDOUT. DISSEMINATION OF
TRANSES WITHOUT THE OWNER’S PERMISSION IS
10. F.A. Fluckiger (Friedrich August Fluckiger)
PROHIBITED.
● Swiss pharmacist, chemist, botanist
● Developed the most comprehensive scope and
idea of pharmacognosy
● Applied the scientific disciplines, pioneer
investigations in pharmaceutical history
● Credited for providing input to the 2nd edition of
● Pharmacopoeia Helvetica (1872)
○ The book he authored

11. Treese and Evans

● Applied in Biotechnology in pharmacognosy
 Usage of oven – in earlier years, a plant is dried
through sun or air
 Extraction – early people extract through
decoction, but in modern times there are other
methods like Soxhlet method.

Person involved: german pharmacists

12. Rudolph Brandes
● Hyoscyamine and Noscapine

13. Rudolph Brandes and Philipp Geiger

● Atropine

14. Friedrich Serturner

● Morphine

15. Johann Buchner

● Salicin

Person incolved: french pharmacists

16. Pierre Pelletier and Joseph Caventou
● Quinine and Caffeine
 Quinine is anti-malarial

17. Pierre Robiquet

● Codeine
 It is antitussive or anti-cough

18. Koller
● Cocaine
 It is an addicting substance
 As a drug, it has a local anesthetic effect
 It can be found before in Coca-Cola, until it was
replaced by caffeine

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 PHARMACOGNOSY AND PLANT CHEMISTRY
Introduction Part II

1st Semester | A.Y. 2023-2024

Prof. Teresa May bandiola
o Storage in the seeds of some plants, including
hemp or marijuana
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS ANIMALS
Active Constituents - responsible for therapeutic effect/value, or 1. Keratin
pharmacologic effect o Structural protein making up hair, nails,
 The opposite of Inert Constituents feathers, horns, claws, calluses (kalyo), and the
 Examples of therapeutic effect: antioxidant, anticancer, anti- outer layer of skin among vertebrates
inflammatory, anti-cholinergic, analgesic properties 2. Chitin
 They can be converted to drugs o A fibrous substance consisting of
o Examples: alkaloids polysaccharides and forming the major
▪ Caffeine – a vasoconstrictor constituent in the exoskeleton of arthropods
▪ Atropine – an anticholinergic drug (insects; beetle’s shell) and the cell walls of fungi.
▪ Digoxin and Digitoxin – glycosides 3. Muscle Fiber
➢ Either single chemical substances (glycosides, o Cylindrical and have more than one nucleus
terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, peptides) 4. Connective Tissue
➢ or mixtures of principles (gums, fixed oils, fats, volatile o One of the four basic types of animal tissue,
oils, resins, and resin combinations) along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and
○ Ex: Agar = a marine gum made up of Proteins + nervous tissue.
Galactose + Galacturonic acid + Sulphate ions,
etc. SECONDARY PLANT SUBSTANCES
“Secondary” Plant Substances
INERT CONSTITUENTS ➢ Constituents that are extracted, crystallized and purified
Inert Constituents - have no definite pharmacologic activity for therapeutic use
 Inert also means inactive  Extract – getting the constituents from the plants
 The main purpose why they are found in plants and animals with the help of solvents. The constituents or
is for supporting or structural, and storage purposes chemicals from the plants will transfer in the
o They do not have pharmacologic value solvent
➢ Examples: o Example: In extracting bayabas, water
a. Plants- Cellulose, lignin, suberin, cutin, starch, is used as a solvent. So, water is the
albumin one that is consumed
b. Animals- keratin, chitin, muscle fiber, connective  Purified – isolating or separating wanted
tissue constituent
o Example: In extracting Atropa
PLANTS belladonna, you can have various
1. Cellulose chemical constituents. Atropine can be
o Polysaccharides that makes up most of a plant’s isolated when it is purified.
cell walls Note: Crystallization – solidification process to form highly structured
 Polysaccharides will fall under carbohydrates crystals
 Carbohydrates have other classifications:  Crystals are classified as solids
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides,  Amorphous is more easily soluble than crystal solids
Oligosaccharides  Crystals have definite shape (monoclinic, triclinic, etc.)
2. Lignin
o Polysaccharides that form key structural 3 PRINCIPAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
materials in the support tissues of vascular plants. THE SECONDARY PLANT SUBSTANCES
3. Suberin
1. Heredity (genetic composition) – induce both qualitative
o An inert impermeable waxy substance present in
and quantitative changes
the cell walls of corky tissues
 Example: the color of a flower is caused by
4. Cutin
genetics
o A waxy, water-repellent substance occurring
 The contents or constituents of the plant is due to
the cuticle of plants (protective covering of leaves)
its genetic composition
and consisting of highly polymerized esters of
2. Ontogeny (Stage of development)
fatty acids
3. Environment - produce variations in secondary plant
 Waxy – it is oily
constituents; includes soil, climate (environment),
5. Starch
associated flora, and methods of cultivation
o Polysaccharide produced by most green plants
TRIVIA: Flora is all the plant life in a certain region or time; Fauna is
as energy storage
animal life
6. Albumin

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 Definition of terms cont. 3. DRYING
“Drug Biosynthesis” 4. CURING
➢ Study of biochemical pathways leading to the formation 5. GARBLING
of secondary constituents used as drugs 6. PACKAGING
 Example: Glucose (monosaccharide) is converted to
Alkaloid You can modify or alter the process, as long as you can find good
results.
The following terms are important in Extraction:
MARC 1. COLLECTION
➢ Undissolved portion of the drug that remains after the ➢ Collection of drugs from cultivated plants always ensures a
extraction process true natural source and a reliable product
 Solid material  Collecting and arranging plants but you did not remove any
MENSTRUUM parts of the plant
➢ Solvent (liquid)  Example: Botanical garden

Methods in Extraction:
➢ Maceration
➢ Percolation
➢ Decoction (pagpapakulo)
o Decoction of Bayabas: the bayabas leaves is the
marc, the water is the menstruum
➢ Infusion
GEOGRAPHIC SOURCE AND HABITAT
The region in which the plant or animal yielding the drug grows.
1. INDIGENOUS - Plants growing in their native countries
2. NATURALIZED - Plants grown in a foreign land or in a
locality other than their native countries
○ Eg. Datura stramonium (Jamestown weed)
■ Introduced into US from Europe
■ Solanaceae family
■ source of anti-cholinergic drugs
(atropine and scopolamine) drug grows.
CRUDE DRUGS
➢ Are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural
substances that have undergone only the processes of
collection and drying.
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
1. Acc. to their morphology
 Morphology – the study of external structure
 Anatomy – the study of internal structure
2. Acc. to the taxonomy (science of classification)
 Scientific name is binomial (genus and species)
 Genus – plural: Genera
3. Acc to their therapeutic application
4. Acc. to their chemical constituents
2. HARVESTING
➢ Proper time of harvesting or collecting is particularly
important because the nature and quantity of constituents
vary greatly in some species according to the season
➢ Could be hand labor or mechanical means (better)
o Mechanical means is better because it is more
precise
o Hand labor can destroy the plant
 Removing some parts of the plant (leaves, flowers, etc.)
Does the time of the day could affect harvesting?
 Yes, because the phytochemicals will be released through
the dew. Dew is the liquid that is being released in any part
of the plant (stem or leaves).
 Dew is released at 4:00 in the morning, according to studies.
In the dew, there are phytochemical included so, it will be
reduced the chemicals it contains.
Trivia
➢ Socrates (Greek philosopher)
 He was executed using hemlock poisoning
o Symptoms of hemlock poisoning:
▪ Nervous system stimulation and later
depression, vomiting, trembling,
difficulty in movement, an initially slow
and weak and later a rapid pulse, rapid
respiration, salivation, urination,
nausea, convulsions, coma, and death.
▪ The stems, leaves, and mature fruits
are toxic. It can affect the efficacy of a
certain plant
• Leaves are more dangerous
in spring
• Fruit = most dangerous in fall

PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

These are the traditional method in preparing crude drugs:
1. COLLECTION
2. HARVESTING
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  Salt will draw the water out of the plant
1. Reduce irritation
2. Inactive to active phytochemical constituents

5. GARBLING
➢ Is the final step in the preparation of a crude drug
➢ It consists of the removal of extraneous matter, such as dirt
Additional Information: (others: insects, weeds).
➢ The drug used in lethal injection is concentrated potassium o Extraneous matter refers to the part of the plant
chloride. It can stop the heart. that does not belong to the plant
➢ Diluted potassium chloride is safe ▪ Examples: spider web, remnants of
pollution, dust, weeds, insects
3. DRYING
 You can do garbling first when you modify the steps of
➢ One removes the sufficient preparation
moisture to ensure good keeping  It is applicable when the plant is from a dirty environment
qualities and to prevent molding (polluted, dusty)
➢ It facilitates grinding and milling,
and converts the drug into a more
convenient form for commercial
handling

Two types of Drying: 6. PACKAGING

 Natural Drying ➢ The packaging of drugs depends on their final disposition.
o Sun Drying – dried in direct sunlight ➢ For Marketability
▪ Example: Palay ➢ Protection against environmental condition
▪ Advantages: Fast drying ○ Heat, moisture, humidity
▪ Disadvantages: Phytochemicals can be ○ Physical and mechanical damage during shipping
destroyed, especially when they are and handling
sensitive to sunlight or heat
o Air Drying – dried through air, covered Methods of evaluating drugs
▪ Advantages: Retain phytochemicals
1. Organoleptic
even the sensitive ones
2. Microscopic
▪ Disadvantages: Longer drying
3. Biologic
 Artificial Drying
4. Chemical
o Oven Drying – fastest way to dry, it only takes hours
5. Physical
 Combination Drying can be done to ensure that there is no 1. ORGANOLEPTIC
moisture left ➢ aka sensory evaluation
 Moisture analyzer – an instrument to know moisture content ➢ Refers to evaluation by means of the organs of sense
expressed in percent (%) a. Sound of fracture – hearing
 If there is moisture, there is a possibility that a mold (fungus, b. Color (sight), odor, taste
amag) and bacteria can form or grow c. Feel of the drug to the touch
 Drying facilitates grinding and milling ➢ includes the macroscopic appearance of the drug.
o No microscope needed
Difference between Grinding and Milling
 Grinding – using an osterizer or blender
 Milling – it is super or very fine (pino); using a mortar and
pestle

Objective of Drying 2. MICROSCOPIC

1. To cause microbial damage (since water is removed) ➢ To study the adulterants in powdered plant and animal
 Water is a good medium for bacterial growth drugs.
2. For inactivation of enzymes (enzymes may have metabolic ➢ Also, in the identification of the pure powdered drug.
reactions that can destroy the plant)

4. curing
➢ aka Modified drying method
 Adding salt (where there
is salt, there is water)
➢ To enhance the property of active 3. BIOLOGIC
plant constituent
➢ Assays on living animals as well as on intact or excised
○ Ex: addition of salt = organs.
draw moisture out
 The crude drug will be injected to the target animal
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 ➢ Give the strength of the preparation biologic assay aka  Deterioration has something to do with time
bioassay.
4. Admixture
➢ Addition of one article to another through
ignorance, carelessness or an accident
5. Sophistication
➢ intentional (sinadya) or deliberate (the individual
is aware) kind of adulteration
6. Substitution
4. CHEMICAL ➢ when an entirely different article is sold or used in
➢ Best method in determining the official potency placed of one required
 HPLC and FITR – different instruments to identify presence  Replacing the original
of a chemical in a plant
Definition of terms cont.
Pharmacopeia
➢ A book containing directions for the identification of
samples and the preparation of compound medicines and
publishing by the authority of a government or medical or
pharmaceutical society
 Examples: USP – NF, British Pharmacopeia, Philippine
Pharmacopeia
 It is published by an authority of a government (DOH) or
5. PHYSICAL
society (organization)
● Application of physical constants
○ Solubility Extractives (derivatives)
○ Moisture
➢ Refer the principle constituents that are found in natural
○ Ash Content
substances by various methods (e.g Extraction , distillation,
○ Boiling Point
etc.)
○ Melting Point
 It is also the phytochemical constituents that undergoes
various methods such as extraction
Note: Ash - the inorganic residue remaining after either ignition or
complete oxidation of organic matter in a sample
Natural product
➢ A chemical compound or substance produced by a living
organism found in nature that usually has a
Analysis of vegetables and animal drugs
pharmacological or biological activity for use in
➢ Analytical Pharmacognosy pharmaceutical drug discovery & drug design
○ detection of purity of crude drugs  It is not laboratory made
 Analytical has something to do with purity
➢ Purity Natural products can be:
○ depends on the absence of foreign matter a. Entire organism (plant, animal, organism)
➢ Quality b. Part of an organism (a leaf or flower of a plant, an isolated
○ sum total of the characteristics that would make gland or other organ of an animal)
up a product c. An extract or an exudate of an organism
○ Both external and internal characteristics  Exudate – a fluid that leaks out
▪ Example: sap (plant), venom
Adulteration  Extract – is more on a powder form
➢ Debasement of an article d. Isolated pure compounds
 The quality is reduced  Extract is simpler
 Isolation has undergone more specific procedure
Adulterant o When you extract a carbohydrate, you
● Resembles the genuine drug in respect to morphological only extracted a carbohydrate. When
appearance you isolate a glucose, it is a more
● compromises the safety or effectiveness of a substance specific compound and pure
 The one that causes adulteration
Natural products in the market
Different conditions of adulteration ➢ Examples of natural products in the market:
1. Inferiority o Food supplements: Taheebo, Liveraide, etc.
o substandard
o lower in status or quality
2. Spoilage
o due to attack of microorganisms
3. Deterioration
o Impairment in quality of drug
o becoming progressively worse
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Types of drugs derived from plants
1. Herbal drugs, derived from specific parts of a medicinal
plant
2. Compounds isolated from nature
 Lutein – it is good for the eyes
3. Nutraceuticals, or “functional foods”
 Food that are fortified
 “Added with iron or magnesium”
Value of natural products
➢ Compounds from natural sources play four significant
roles in modern medicine:
 They can be precursor to further discovery
1. They provide a number of extremely useful drugs that
are difficult, if not impossible, to produce commercially
by synthetic means (laboratory made)
 These are natural products, they are
alternatives
2. Natural sources also supply basic compounds that may
be modified slightly to render them more effective or
less toxic.
3. Their utility as prototypes or models for synthetic drugs
possessing physiologic activities similar to the original
 Ibuprofen and Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid)
are synthetic or laboratory made.
 Salicylic Acid is a natural drug from the bark
of willow tree
o It served as prototype or model for
the discovery of synthetic drugs
4. Some natural products contain compounds that
demonstrate little or no activity themselves but which
can be modified by chemical or biological methods to
produce potent drugs not easily obtained by other
methods.
 They are more potent when modified
 Taxol is more potent than Baccatin III
 Potent – less dose to create an effect
o Focused on dose
o Small dose but has an effect
 Effective – as long as there is result,
o Walang pakialam sa dose
 Taxol is for cancer, so a small dose is needed.
 Baccatin III is natural product. Taxol is modified so that it will
not target healthy cells
Taxonomy
● It is the science of naming organisms and their correct
integration into the existing system of nomenclature
● The names of species are given in binomial form:
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a. the first part of the name indicates the wider
taxonomic group, the genus;
b. the second part of the name is the species.
 The name of species is italicized or underlined. If
underlined, the underline should not be continuous.
 L. or Linnaeus is not italicized or underlined
 Adding the family name is optional
 Example: Papaver somniferum L. or Papaver somniferum
L.
E.g. papaver somniferum l.
Papaver somniferum L.
● Species: somniferum, here meaning ‘sleep-producing’
● Genus: Papaver (a group of species, in this case poppies,
which are closely related)
● Family: Papaveraceae (a group of genera sharing certain
traits)
● L.: indicates the botanist who provided the first scientific
description of the species and who assigned the botanical
name
○ Carl Linnaeus - a Swedish botanist, zoologist,
and physician who formalized binomial
nomenclature; "father of modern taxonomy";
Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name
is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus.
The plant that is included in both Bahay Kubo and Top 10 Herbal
Plants of DOH
➢ Bawang or Garlic
REFERENCES
Bandiola, T.M. (2024). Pharmacognosy Introduction Part II. Lecture
and Handout. FEU-NRMF.
© ALL PHOTOS USED ARE FROM THE RECORDED
LECTURE AND THE HANDOUT. DISSEMINATION OF
TRANSES WITHOUT THE OWNER’S PERMISSION IS
PROHIBITED.
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