Energies 13 05703 v2

energies
Article
Advanced Gas Turbine Control Logic Using Black Box
Models for Enhancing Operational Flexibility
and Stability
Seong Won Moon 1 and Tong Seop Kim 2, *
1 Graduate School, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea; 22161642@inha.edu
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea
* Correspondence: kts@inha.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-32-876-7308

Received: 11 October 2020; Accepted: 28 October 2020; Published: 31 October 2020
Abstract: In recent years, the importance of operational flexibility has increased for gas turbines that
can stably operate under various operation conditions. This study proposes advanced control logic
using black box models based on an artificial neural network. The goals are to enhance the operational
flexibility by increasing the ramp rate and to enhance the operational stability by overcoming the
limitation of conventional schedule-based control. By applying the advanced control logic, the turbine
inlet temperature (TIT) and turbine exhaust temperature (TET) can be maintained at the optimal
values, resulting in efficiency improvement by 0.35%. Furthermore, the maximum deviation of the
rotational speed was reduced from 0.22% to 0.061%, and the maximum variations of TIT and TET
were reduced by 15–20 ◦ C during the fluctuation of the gas turbine’s power output. In conclusion,
high-efficiency operation and a reduction in the degradation of the high-temperature parts can be
expected through optimal operations of gas turbines by applying the proposed advanced control
logic in a harsh operating environment. Moreover, fast load following can be achieved to meet the
recent requirements of the operation environment of gas turbines by improving the ramp rate from
30 to 60 MW/min.
Keywords: gas turbine; flexibility; efficiency; ramp rate; advanced control logic; artificial
neural network
1. Introduction
Power plants are mostly centralized power generation systems and produce power from fossil fuel
or nuclear power. However, with fossil fuel depletion and environmental problems due to greenhouse
gas emissions, the proportion of power generated using renewable energy has gradually increased to
replace other power generation systems [1,2]. The technologies for wind power, solar photovoltaics,
and solar thermal power have already matured. However, the power output of renewable energy
highly varies depending on natural conditions such as the wind speed and solar radiation. Several
studies have been conducted to overcome the intermittency problem of renewable energy [3–5].
To ensure the stability of power grids with variable renewable energy, it is necessary to find a
way to build a backup power system for when less power is generated than predicted and to store
surplus power for when more power is generated than predicted. Using batteries is a well-known
solution to this problem [6,7]. Some of the advantages are rapid response and good energy conversion
efficiency, but the initial investment cost is high, and the energy capacity is low. Thus, batteries are
not promising for storing a large capacity of energy when the ratio of power generated by variable
renewable energy sources increases [8,9]. Thus, much attention has been paid to gas turbines, which are
the fastest-responding systems among conventional power generators, to ensure the stability of
power grids [10,11].
Energies 2020, 13, 5703; doi:10.3390/en13215703 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 5703 2 of 23
A gas turbine has high specific power and emits much less pollutants, such as NOx and CO,
because it employs natural gas as fuel. In addition, it can achieve rapid startup and shutdown compared
to other power generation systems such as coal-fired and nuclear power generation, as well as fast
load-following operation. Recently developed gas turbines employ the combustion of mixtures of
hydrogen and natural gas, which makes more eco-friendly operations possible. They can also be used as
energy storage devices that are linked with power-to-gas (P2G) systems [12,13], which convert surplus
electricity into hydrogen, or they can be combined with compressed-air energy-storage systems [14,15].
Due to the numerous advantages, gas turbines can be used to overcome the drawbacks of renewable
energy, and research is actively being conducted to produce power by linking it with renewable energy.
Similar to all power generation systems, gas turbines are developed for a base load. However,
as gas turbines have been used with renewable energy more frequently in recent years, the operating
environment of a large number of gas turbines has been changed from taking charge of the base load
to following fast load changes, including rapid startup and shutdown. Accordingly, the importance of
the operational flexibility of gas turbines has increased. Thus, there is increased need for studies on
various topics related to operational flexibility, such as enabling fast startup and shutdown, improving
partial load efficiency, and enhancing the life of hot parts in changing operation environments [16–19].
The conventional gas turbine control logic is schedule-based control [20,21]. Schedule-based
control involves adjusting manipulated variables such as the fuel flow rate and variable inlet guide vane
(VIGV) angle using proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control. In this control method, the relation
between the pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature (TIT) or turbine exhaust temperature (TET)
is pre-determined, and the outcome of the relation is used as a control target [22,23]. This method
schedules the control parameter curve initially to enable optimal operations, so it works well as long as
the gas turbine operates in normal clean conditions without any performance degradation. However,
aging results in degradation, such as increase in the inlet pressure loss, fouling in the compressor,
and increase in turbine backpressure. As a result, under- or over-firing occurs, resulting in efficiency
loss and damage to high-temperature parts [24].
Although PID controls are the most widely used, instantly large overshoots and undershoots of
the TIT and TET and large changes in rotational speed are unavoidable if rapid load fluctuations occur.
This happens because a PID control starts working only after an error between the target and measured
values of the control parameter occurs. Thus, when a PID control is adopted, the rate of load per unit
time (i.e., the ramp rate) is generally forced to a certain limit to ensure operational stability and prevent
damage to high-temperature parts caused by fluctuation of the temperature. Kim et al. [25] proposed a
method to improve the flexibility of gas turbines by injecting compressed air. They reported that ramp
rate could be increased sensibly while TIT fluctuation is maintained under a safe level.
In this study, an artificial neural network (ANN) was applied for enhancing the flexibility
of gas turbine operation. Recently, ANNs have begun to be used actively in various areas of
science and technology. Lin et al. [26] proposed a control strategy for a neutral point clamped
converter. They obtained better system performance using the ANN in the control strategy.
Krzywanski et al. [27,28] introduced artificial intelligence approaches for the optimization of designing
thermal engineering systems. They applied genetic algorithms and ANN for optimal design and
found that artificial intelligence approaches are more effective in comparison to the complexity of
conventional analytical and numerical techniques. Additionally, ANN is used for the prediction of
crude oil prices. Lin et al. [29] proposed a hybrid method that is a combination of the empirical model
and ANN to predict the non-linearity and non-stationarity results. They reported that the proposed
approach performs better than other models. Stojcic et al. [30] created a model based on the principles
of the fuzzy logic and ANN. They applied the methodology to an accurate prediction of the maximum
energy of photovoltaic modules.
This study proposes advanced gas turbine control logic by applying black box models based on
ANN to ensure the operational flexibility of gas turbines. A physics-based model called virtual gas
turbine, which takes into account the physical characteristics of gas turbine components, was developed
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 3 of 23
to create various data for gas turbine operation, which were used to train ANN. Two black box models
based on ANN were used to improve the control logic. The first black box model was used to derive
the corrected target value of TET for optimizing the gas turbine efficiency. The second black box model
was used for model predictive control (MPC) to reduce the deviation of the rotational speed and
the fluctuations of TIT and TET during a rapid load increase. The proposed advanced control was
compared with the conventional schedule-based control to demonstrate its advantages. The novel
control logic could replace the existing control logic under harsh operation environments where rapid
startup and load fluctuation are required due to the increased penetration of variable renewable energy
in power grids.
2. Gas Turbine Simulation Model
2.1. Virtual Gas Turbine Modeling Using Physical Model
2.1.1. Overview
An F-class gas turbine was employed in this study, and Table 1 summarizes its design specifications.
The field operation data of gas turbines do not include many important parameters required for a
performance analysis, such as the TIT, turbine efficiency, and coolant properties. Furthermore, data for
various operating conditions, including degraded operation, are not available either. Thus, we built a
virtual gas turbine to simulate the performance of real gas turbines based on the limited operating
data. The virtual gas turbine was used for generating operation data to train the ANN and simulating
the response and performance of the gas turbine according to each control logic.
Table 1. Specifications of the target gas turbine.
7FA Type of the Parameter

Parameters
Field Data Modeling in the Simulation
Ambient temperature (◦ C) 15 15 Input
Ambient pressure (kPa) 101.3 101.3 Input
Fuel flow rate (kg/s) 9.03 9.03 Input
Pressure ratio 15.0 15.0 Input
Compressor polytropic efficiency (%) 0.89 0.89 input
Turbine inlet temperature (◦ C) Unknown 1420 Assumed input
Turbine polytropic efficiency (%) Unknown 0.88 Assumed input
Total coolant flow relative to inlet air (%) Unknown 20 Calculated
Exhaust gas flow rate (kg/s) 420 420 Input
Exhaust gas temperature (◦ C) 603 603 Calculated
Net power (MW) 160 160 Calculated
Gas turbine LHV efficiency (%) 36 36 Calculated
Figure 1 shows the structure of the virtual gas turbine, which was made using the in-house
program coded in MATLAB R2019b, MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA [31]. The program was already
verified in previous studies and used in various performance simulations [32–34]. Figure 2 shows the
configuration of the gas turbine for the simulation, which consists of inlet and outlet ducts, a compressor,
a combustor, a turbine, and a shaft. The equations used in each component are explained in detail in
the next section.
A multi-stage compressor and turbine are used in a real gas turbine, but accurate bleed locations
and flow rates of the coolant flows are not supplied by the gas turbine manufacturer. Thus, we used a
simplified model. The coolant flows were divided into two passages: one for cooling the first stage
nozzle and another for cooling all the other parts. The latter was assumed to be supplied to the outlet of
the entire turbine, as shown in the figure. The simplified model has already been successfully used in
many performance diagnostics [35,36] and simulations [37,38]. The method was proven to enhance the
calculation effectiveness (mostly calculation speed), and the simulation accuracy is sufficiently high.
nozzle
the and another
calculation for cooling
effectiveness all thecalculation
(mostly other parts.speed),
The latter
andwas
the assumed
simulationto be supplied
accuracy to the outlet
is sufficiently
of the
high. entire turbine, as shown in the figure. The simplified model has already been successfully used
in many performance diagnostics [35,36] and simulations [37,38]. The method was proven to enhance
the calculation effectiveness (mostly calculation speed), and the simulation accuracy is sufficiently
high. 2020,
Energies 13,for
Data 5703
design Data for off-design 4 of 23
Virtual gas turbine
calculation calculation
Data for design

Operating data Data for off-design
Operating data
- Ambient temperature Virtual
Inletgas turbine
duct
calculation
- Ambient pressure
calculation
- Ambient temperature
- Ambient pressure
- Relative humidity
- Relative humidity
- Air flow rate
Operating data - VIGV angle
- Components pressure Compressor
- Ambient temperature Inlet duct - RPMOperating data
drop
- -Turbine
Ambientexhaust
temperature
gas
- -Compressor
Ambient pressure
isentropic - Ambient pressure
- Relative humidity temperature
efficiency
Combustor - -Gas
Relative humidity
turbine power
- -Pressure
Air flowratio
rate
- VIGV angle
- -Fuel
Components
flow rate pressure Compressor Tuning map
- RPM
- drop
Turbine exhaust - Turbine exhaust gas
using operating
- Compressor isentropic
temperature data
Turbine temperature
efficiency Compressor map
- -Gas turbine power Combustor - Gas turbine power
Pressure ratio - Generating map using
- Fuel flow rate
Tuning map
Assumed & stage stacking method
- Turbine exhaust using operating
calculated data Exhaust duct data
temperature Turbine map
- Cooling flow rate
Turbine Compressor map
- Gas turbine power
- Turbine inlet
- Generalized tubine
- Generating map using
temperature map
Assumed & Shaft stage stacking method
- Turbine efficiency
calculated data Exhaust duct
Turbine map
- Cooling flow rate
- Turbine inlet
- Generalized tubine
temperature map
Shaft
- Turbine efficiency
Gas turbine power
Gas turbine efficiency
Components properties (m, T, P)
Gas turbine power

Gas turbine efficiency
Components propertiesof(m,
Figure 1. Structure theT,virtual
P) gas turbine.
Figure 1. Structure of the virtual gas turbine.
Figure 1. Structure of the virtual gas turbine.
Figure 2. Configuration of the gas turbine for simulation.

2.1.2. Properties
2.1.2. Properties
The performance of each component (compressor, combustor, and turbine) was analyzed using the
massTheandperformance of each component
energy conservation equations. (compressor,
It was assumed combustor,
that eachand turbine) operates
component was analyzed using
in adiabatic
the mass and
conditions. In energy conservation
addition, a equations.
quasi-steady It was
assumption wasassumed
applied that
to theeach component modeling
thermodynamic operates in
of
2.1.2. Properties
adiabatic conditions. In addition, a quasi-steady assumption was applied to the
each component. The only dynamic modeling was applied to the rotational motion of the shaft. thermodynamic
Thethe
All performance of each
working fluids component
were assumed(compressor, combustor,
to be an ideal and of
gas mixture turbine)
various was analyzed
chemical using
species.
the calculated
We mass andthe energy conservation
specific equations.
heat at constant It was
pressure, assumed
enthalpy, that each
and entropy of component
the working operates in
fluid using
adiabatic conditions. In addition, a quasi-steady assumption was applied to the
polynomial equations from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as presented thermodynamic
in Equations (1)–(3) [39]. In these equations, constants a1 to b2 have different values depending on the
chemical species [40].
cp /R = a1 T−2 + a2 T−1 + a3 + a4 T + a5 T2 + a6 T3 + a7 T4 (1)
h/RT = −a1 T−2 + a2 ln T/T + a3 + a4 T/2 + a5 T2 /3 + a6 T3 /4 + a7 T4 /5 + b1 /T (2)

Energies 2020, 13, 5703 5 of 23
s/R = −a1 T−2 /2 + a2 T−1 + a3 ln T + a4 T + a5 T2 /2 + a6 T3 /3 + a7 T4 /4 + b2 (3)
2.1.3. Duct
For the pressure loss in the duct in the design state analysis, the input values were either from
operation data or provided by the manufacturer. In off-design conditions, the change in the pressure
loss according to changes in inlet flow rate, pressure, and temperature was calculated using the
following equation [41].
. √ 2
(∆p/pin ) (m T/pin )
= . √ (4)
(∆p/pin )d (m T/pin ) 2 d
2.1.4. Compressor
For the compressor, isentropic efficiency and output were calculated using Equations (5) and (6)
hout,s − hin
ηcomp = (5)
hout − hin
. .
W comp = m × (hout − hin ) (6)
The inlet and outlet temperatures and inlet flow rate of the compressor required in the equations
are available from the operation data. The efficiency and power at the design point can be calculated
using operating data in the ISO (international organization for standardization) state (15 ◦ C, 1 atm)
and full load conditions.
In the off-design analysis, the operating point of the compressor was calculated by matching
the flow rate and pressure ratio with those of the turbine. A compressor map based on a
semi-non-dimensional equation was used to calculate the flow rate and pressure ratio of the compressor.
The map was represented by four semi-non-dimensional parameters.
. √ √
m Tin pout T
M= , PRcomp = , Ω= (7)
pin pin ω
It is necessary to use a suitable map for the target gas turbine to improve the accuracy of the
off-design analysis. However, generally, the map is not provided by the gas turbine manufacturer.
Thus, we made a map using a stage-stacking method with the number of stages, efficiency, and pressure
ratio of the compressor. The stage-stacking method is widely known as a suitable method to make a
map of a multi-stage compressor and predict performance [42] and has been applied to predictions
for real gas turbines in previous studies [43]. The map was finally created through a tuning process
using a wide range of real operation data with ambient air temperature and load variation, as shown
in Figure 3.
To simulate the physical phenomena of the flow rate and pressure ratio of the compressor changing
according to an angle of the VIGV, a model described by the following equation was used.
Mcorrected = Minitial × αVIGV , PRcorrected = PRinitial × αVIGV (8)
The equation corrects the map of the compressor according to the angle of the VIGV [44].
The correction factor α changes according to the angle of the VIGV. Each point of all the speed lines
was moved by the same factor while maintaining the shape of the map. The same correction factor
was applied to the flow rate and pressure ratio at any point in the entire map.
Mcorrected  Minitial VIGV , PRcorrected  PRinitial  VIGV (8)
The equation corrects the map of the compressor according to the angle of the VIGV [44]. The
correction factor α changes according to the angle of the VIGV. Each point of all the speed lines was
moved by the same factor while maintaining the shape of the map. The same correction factor was
applied2020,
Energies to the flow rate and pressure ratio at any point in the entire map.
13, 5703 6 of 23
Figure
Figure 3. Compressor performance
3. Compressor performance map.
map.
2.1.5. Combustor
2.1.5. Combustor
Complete combustion was assumed. During the design point analysis, the outlet temperature of
Complete combustion was assumed. During the design point analysis, the outlet temperature of
the combustor was calculated by the following equation considering the inlet air flow rate, fuel flow
the combustor was calculated by the following equation considering the inlet air flow rate, fuel flow
rate, fuel composition ratio, and the combustor.
rate, fuel composition ratio, and the combustor.
. )  ηcomb {m ((hh+LHV
n. o
((mh
mh ) comb ,in + m LHV )})f
hcomb.out  comb,in comb f (9)
hcomb.out = m. comb ,in  m. f (9)
mcomb,in + m f
The fuel was natural gas consisting of 91.33% methane, 5.36% ethane, 2.14% propane, 0.95% n-
Theand
butane, fuel0.22%
was nitrogen
natural gas consisting
by volume, andofits91.33%
lower methane,
heating value 5.36%
was ethane,
49,2992.14%
kJ/kg. propane,
A pressure0.95%
loss
n-butane, and 0.22%
of the combustor wasnitrogen
assigned byatvolume, and point
the design its lower andheating value was
was corrected 49,299 kJ/kg.
in off-design A pressure
conditions by
loss of the the
reflecting combustor
changeswas assigned
in flow rate, at the design
pressure, andpoint and was corrected
temperature using Equationin off-design conditions
(4) as in the case by
of
reflecting
ducts. the changes in flow rate, pressure, and temperature using Equation (4) as in the case of ducts.
2.1.6. Turbine
2.1.6. Turbine
The
The isentropic
isentropic efficiency
efficiency of
of the
the turbine
turbine was
was calculated
calculated using
using Equation
Equation (10)
(10) and
and measured
measureddata.
data.
hhturb,in  hhturb
turb ,in −
ηturb
,out

turb =
turb,out
(10)
(10)
hturb,in  hhturb
turb ,in − turb,s
,s
In the design calculation, the combustor inlet flow rate was determined through a heat balance
considering the fuel flow rate and TIT. The coolant flow rate is the remainder of the inlet air flow rate
excluding the
after excluding theair
airflow
flowrate
rateinto
intothe
thecombustor.
combustor. Then,
Then, thethe division
division of the
of the total
total coolant
coolant flowflow
intointo
the
the nozzle and rotor coolants is calculated through a heat balance considering the TIT,
nozzle and rotor coolants is calculated through a heat balance considering the TIT, TRIT, and coolant TRIT, and
coolant temperature.
temperature. The turbine
The turbine power was power was calculated
calculated by the following
by the following equation.equation.
. Wturb  (. mturb ,in  m
. c ,nozzle  C  m. c ,rotor )  ( hmix ,in  hturb ,out ) (11)
W turb = (mturb,in + mc,nozzle + C · mc,rotor ) × (hmix,in − hturb, out ) (11)
C refers to the rotor coolant charging factor, which is the ratio of the rotor cooling air
C refers to
participating inthe rotorproduction.
output coolant charging
In thisfactor,
study, which
it was is set
theto ratio
0.5 of
[45].the rotor cooling air participating
in output production.
The off-design In this study,
calculation beganit was
withsetthetodetermination
0.5 [45]. of the operating points in terms of the
pressure
The ratio and flow
off-design rate through
calculation beganthe matching
with between theofperformance
the determination the operating maps of the
points turbine
in terms ofand
the
pressure ratio and flow rate through the matching between the performance maps of the turbine and
compressor. The turbine map used in this study is from previous studies [46], which analyzed the
dynamic behavior of similar-sized gas turbines. The turbine map was tuned using the operation data
of the target engine in this study and is shown in Figure 4. The change in the cooling airflow rate
compressor. The turbine map used in this study is from previous studies [46], which analyzed the
dynamic behavior of similar-sized gas turbines. The turbine map was tuned using the operation data
of the target engine in this study and is shown in Figure 4. The change in the cooling airflow rate
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 7 of 23
according to the change in operating point was calculated according to the changes in pressure and
temperature of the cooling air using Equation (12) [47].
according to the change in operating point was calculated according to the changes in pressure and
0.5
 [47].   T
temperature of the cooling air using Equation (12)
p 
mcoolant  mcoolant ,d  coolant!   coolant ,d
 (12)
 ppcoolant Tcoolant,d
T 0.5 
mcoolant = mcoolant,d  
!
. . coolant , d coolant (12)
pcoolant,d Tcoolant
Figure
Figure 4. 4. Compressor performance
Compressor performance map.
map.
2.1.7. Shaft
2.1.7. Shaft The power and efficiency of the gas turbine were defined by the following equations.
The power and efficiency of the gas turbine were defined by .the following equations.
. . . . W GT
W GT = W turb − W comp − W AUXloss , ηGT = . WGT (13)
WGT  Wturb  Wcomp  WAUXloss , GT  m f × LHV CH4
(13)
m f  LHVCH
4
The rotational speed of the shaft changes due to the imbalance between the generator load and
Thethe
rotational speed
gas turbine’s of the
power. shaft changes
The dynamic behaviordue
of theto rotational
the imbalance
shaft wasbetween
modeledthe generator
by Equation (14),load and
which reflects
the gas turbine’s the rotational
power. The dynamic speed behavior
and inertiaofofthe
therotational
shaft. In the equation,
shaft ω and L refer
was modeled to the
by Equation (14),
which reflects the2 rotational speed and inertia of the shaft. In the equation,  and L refer to the
rotational speed and load of the gas turbine and I refers to the rotational inertia, which was set to
42,000 kgm based on the literature on similar-sized gas turbines [48].
rotational speed and load of the gas turbine and I refers to the rotational inertia, which was set to
42,000 kgm2 based on the literature on similar-sized∆t gas
. turbines
[48].
ωt+1 = ωt + ωt W −L (14)
GT,sha f t
I
2.2. Validation of Virtual Gas Turbine

 t 1  t  t
t
I

WGT ,shaft  L  (14)
To verify the configured virtual gas turbine, Figure 5 shows a comparison between the simulation
2.2. Validation of this
results in Virtual
studyGas
andTurbine
field data. The pressure ratio, TET, and exhaust mass flow data were compared.
The average deviation between the simulation and field data, which is defined by the following
To equation,
verify the configured
was only 0.71%. Thisvirtual gas turbine,
result verified Figure
that the virtual 5 shows
gas turbine a comparison
produces between the
sufficiently accurate
simulation results
operating in this study and field data. The pressure ratio, TET, and exhaust mass flow data
data.
n
were compared. The average deviation betweenX thexfield,i − xsimulation,i
simulation and field data, which is defined by
the following equation, was only 0.71%. This result x
verifiedfield,i that the virtual gas turbine produces
i=1
Average deviation (%) = × 100 (15)
sufficiently accurate operating data. n
n xfield,i  xsimulation,i

i 1
xfield,i (15)
Average deviation (%)   100
n
Energies 2020,
Energies 13, 13,
2020, 57035703 8 of8 23
of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 8 of 23
Figure 5. Variation in gas turbine parameters with load: comparison between simulation and field
data.
Figure 5. Variation
Variationiningas
gasturbine parameters
turbine with
parameters load:
with comparison
load: between
comparison simulation
between and field
simulation and data.
field
3. data.
3. GasGas Turbine
Turbine Control
Control Logic
Logic
3. Gas
3.1.
3.1. Turbine Control
Conventional
Conventional Logic
Control
Control Logic
Logic
TheThe conventional
conventional
3.1. Conventional Controlgasgasturbine
Logicturbinecontrol
controllogic
logic is
is illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure6.6.The
Thecontrol
controlparameters
parameters areare
the turbine outlet temperature and rotational speed. The manipulated parameters
the turbine outlet temperature and rotational speed. The manipulated parameters to control the two to control the two
The conventional
control parameters gas turbine control logic is illustrated in fuel
Figure 6.rate.
The The
control parameters
turbineare
control parameters to to
thethe target
target values
values are
are theVIGV
the VIGV angleand
angle and flow
fuel flow rate. The target
target gas turbine
gas is
theisturbine outlet
installed in atemperature and rotational
gas turbine/steam speed. The
turbine combined manipulated
cycle, parameters
and the TIT to control
is maintained the as
as high two
installed in a gas turbine/steam turbine combined cycle, and the TIT is maintained as high as possible
control parameters
possible to improveto the cycle
targetefficiency
values are the VIGV angle and fuel flow rate. The target gas turbine
[49].
to improve the cycle efficiency [49].
is installed in a gas turbine/steam turbine combined cycle, and the TIT is maintained as high as
possible to improve the cycle efficiency [49].
Figure6.6.Conventional
Figure Conventional schedule-based controllogic.
schedule-based control logic.
The airflow
The airflowraterate
introduced
introduced to the compressor
to the compressor is adjusted using
is adjusted the VIGV
using the VIGVto reduce the gas
to reduce theturbine
gas
power while
turbine maintaining
power aFigure
high TIT.
while maintaining aHowever, it schedule-based
is difficult
high TIT. However,
6. Conventional todifficult
it is adjust
controlthe VIGV the
tologic.
adjust withVIGV
the TIT
withasthe
a control
TIT
parameter because
as a control the TIT
parameter is too the
because highTITto is
measure
too highintoreal gas turbines.
measure in real gasAsturbines.
a result, As
theaTIT is controlled
result, the TIT
indirectly
is The by
controlled controlling
airflow indirectly it according
by controlling
rate introduced to the exhaust
to theit compressor gas
according to isthe control curve
exhaust using
adjusted after
gas control measuring
the VIGVcurve to the
after exhaust
the gas
measuring
reduce
the exhaust
temperature.
turbine powerThe gasexhaust
while temperature.
gas control
maintaining The exhaust
curve
a high gas control
TIT.isHowever,
made it is curve
by pre-scheduling
difficultis tomade
the bythe pre-scheduling
relationship
adjust VIGVofwith thethe
the exhaust
TIT
gas relationship
temperature of the
with exhaust
the gas
inlet temperature
temperature with
and the inlet
pressure temperature
ratio, as shown and
as a control parameter because the TIT is too high to measure in real gas turbines. As a result, the TIT pressure
in Figure ratio,
7. Theas shown
rotational
is in Figure
speed of gas7.turbines
controlled The rotational
indirectly forbypowerspeed of gasitturbines
generation
controlling according for power
is controlled
to the togeneration
a constant
exhaust gasisspeed
controlled
by curve
control to a constant
adjusting
afterthe speed
fuel flow
measuring
by adjusting
rate exhaust
the to keep the the fuel
gaselectricalflow rate
frequency.
temperature. to keep the electrical frequency.
The exhaust gas control curve is made by pre-scheduling the
TheThe
relationship control
control process
of theprocess
exhaustof of the gas
gasturbine
turbineusing
thetemperature
gas using
with thisthis
the control
inlet logiclogic
control is as is
temperature follows. The rotational
as pressure
and follows. asspeed
The rotational
ratio, shown
in of
speed
Figurethe shaft
of the changes
shaft
7. The due
changesspeed
rotational to the
due tooftheimbalance
gasimbalance between
turbines for between the
power the generator
generator
generation load and gas
load and gas
is controlled turbine’s
to aturbine’spower.
constant power.
speed
Accordingly,
by adjusting the fuel flow rate is to adjusted
keep thethrough
electricalthe controller to recover the rotational speed to the
frequency.
The control process of the gas turbine using this control logic is as follows. The rotational speed
of the shaft changes due to the imbalance between the generator load and gas turbine’s power.
the target value. Simultaneously, the target TET value is determined from the exhaust gas control
curve using the gas turbine pressure, and the VIGV angle is adjusted to make the gas turbine TET
meet the target value through the controller.
The new manipulated parameter (X) value in the next time step is calculated using the error9 of
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 of 23
the control parameter (Y).
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 9 of 23
Accordingly, the fuel flow rate is adjusted through t de(t ) to recover the rotational speed to
the controller

X(t  dt)  X(t)  KP e(t )  KI e(t )dt  KD
the target value. Simultaneously, the target TET0 value is determined dt
, e(t )  Y  Ytarget
from the exhaust gas control
(16)
target
curve value.
using Simultaneously,
the gas turbine
The proportional theP),target
gainpressure,
(K TET
and
integral value
the
gain VIGV
(K is determined from the
angle is adjusted exhaust
to make thegas
gascontrol
I), and derivative gain (KD) were optimized through
curve
turbine TET
using
meet the gas turbine
target
trial and errorvalue pressure,
throughthe
to minimize and
the the VIGV angle is adjusted
controller.of control variables.
fluctuation to make the gas turbine TET meet the
targetThe
valuenewthrough the controller.
manipulated parameter (X) value in the next time step is calculated using the error of
t de(t )
X(t  dt)  X(t)  KP e(t )  KI  e(t)dt  K
0
D
dt
, e(t )  Y  Ytarget (16)
The proportional gain (KP), integral gain (KI), and derivative gain (KD) were optimized through
trial and error to minimize the fluctuation of control variables.
Figure 7. The
Figure control
7. The curve
control curvefor
forthe
theconventional
conventionalschedule-based control.
schedule-based control.
The
3.2. new manipulated
Advanced Control Logicparameter (X)
Using Black value
Box in the next time step is calculated using the error of
Models
3.2.1. Overview Z t
de(t)
(t + dtthe
Figure 8Xshows ) =new
X(tcontrol
) + KP emodel.
(t) + KTwo (t)dt box
eblack + Kmodels , e(t) = Y − Ytarget (16)
dt were employed in the gas turbine
I D
0
control. The first black box model (black box model 1) is used in determining the target TET value for
the
The gas turbine control,
proportional gain and the
(KP ), secondgain
integral black Ibox model (black gain
box model 2) is optimized
used in thethrough
ANN
Figure 7. The control curve for(Kthe),conventional
and derivative (KD ) were
schedule-based control.
trialmodel predictive
and error controlthe
to minimize (AMPC) to replace
fluctuation the PID
of control control to transmit VIGV angle and fuel flow
variables.
rate signals to the gas turbine.
3.2. Advanced Control Logic Using Black Box Models
3.2. Advanced Control Logic Using Black Box Models
3.2.1. Overview
3.2.1. Overview
Figure 8 shows the new control model. Two black box models were employed in the gas turbine
Figure 8 shows the new control model. Two black box models were employed in the gas turbine
the gas turbine control, and the second black box model (black box model 2) is used in the ANN
the gas turbine control, and the second black box model (black box model 2) is used in the ANN model
model predictive control (AMPC) to replace the PID control to transmit VIGV angle and fuel flow
predictive control (AMPC) to replace the PID control to transmit VIGV angle and fuel flow rate signals
rate signals to the gas turbine.
to the gas turbine.
Figure 8. Advanced control logic using artificial neural network (ANN) black box models.
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 10 of 23
3.2.2. Building Black Box Models Based on ANN

The ANN Toolbox [50] provided by MATLAB was used to develop the black box models of the gas
turbine. In this study, a feed-forward neural network consisting of one hidden layer and one output
layer was employed, which was verified to have high accuracy after being applied to a black box model
for gas turbines in a previous study [51]. The Levenberg–Marquardt optimization algorithm, which is
known to be the fastest training algorithm for a feed-forward neural network, was used in the black
box model training.
Since the performance of a black box model is determined by the size of the hidden layer, multiple
black box models were built while changing the size of the hidden layer. Then, the hidden layer size
with the best performance was determined. The black box model performance was evaluated by
comparing the mean squared errors (MSEs). The definition of the MSE is provided in Equation (17).
n
1X
MSE = ( yi − zi )2 (17)
n
i=1
In this equation, n refers to the number of datasets used in training, y refers to the predicted value
by the black box model, and z refers to the value of datasets used for validation and test.
The database used in the black box model training was built using the virtual gas turbine explained
in Section 2.1, which simulates a real gas turbine. Datasets consisting of the input and output values in
Table 2 were employed to train black box model 1, which was used to correct the target TET. To select
an appropriate number of datasets, ambient temperature, compressor inlet pressure and load of the
gas turbine were divided into 10, 10, and 100 sections, respectively. So, the total number of datasets for
training black box model 1 was 104 . To train black box model 2, which is used in the AMPC, datasets
consisting of the input and output values in Table 3 were employed. Each of the five input parameters
(i.e., ambient temperature, ambient pressure, fuel flow rate, relative VIGV angle, and rotational speed)
was divided into 10 sections. So, the total number of datasets for training black box model 2 was 105 .
Table 2. Variation ranges of parameters for making database for black box model 1.
Input Data Output Data

Parameters Range (Unit) Parameters(unit)
Ambient temperature −15~30 (◦ C)
Compressor inlet pressure 95~105 (kPa) Corrected target TET (◦ C)
Load of gas turbine 50~100 (%)
Table 3. Variation ranges of parameters for making database for black box model 2.
Input Data Output Data

Parameters Range (unit) Parameters (unit)
Ambient temperature −15~30 (◦ C) Inlet flow rate (kg/s)
Ambient Pressure 95~105 (kPa) Pressure ratio
Fuel flow rate 7~9.5 (kg/s) TET (◦ C)
Relative VIGV angle 50~100 TIT (◦ C)
Rotational speed 3500~3700 (RPM) Gas turbine power (kW)
We selected 10% of the entire datasets for training and used them for validation as well. Then, we created
extra 10% datasets and used them for testing, which means that they were not used in the training. The size
of hidden layer affects the performance of the black box model and is determined by the number of hidden
neurons. In order to determine the optimal size of hidden layer, the number of hidden neurons was varied
from 2 to 40. Figure 9 shows the results of the parametric study. Actually, there is no absolute rule of
thumb for selecting the number of hidden neurons. In our case, the principle to select the appropriate
number of hidden neurons was to make the MSE fall below 10−4 , which seemed to be sufficiently low.
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 11 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 11 of 23

Actually, there is no absolute rule of thumb for selecting the number of hidden neurons. In our case,
the principle
Actually, to is
there select the appropriate
no absolute number
rule of thumb forof hidden the
selecting neurons
numberwasofto make neurons.
hidden the MSE In fallour
below
case,
10 −4, which
the principle seemed to be sufficiently low. As a result, the selected numbers of hidden neurons in
Energies 2020, 13, to select the appropriate number of hidden neurons was to make the MSE fall below
5703 11 of 23
black box models 1 and 2 were 6 and 30, respectively. The schematic diagrams of the
10 , which seemed to be sufficiently low. As a result, the selected numbers of hidden neurons in
−4 final structures
of the two
black box black
models box models
1 and are 6illustrated
2 were in Figure 10.The schematic diagrams of the final structures
and 30, respectively.
As a result,
of the the selected
two black numbers
box models areofillustrated
hidden neurons in black
in Figure 10. box models 1 and 2 were 6 and 30, respectively.
The schematic diagrams of the final structures of the two black box models are illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 9. Variation in mean squared error with the number of hidden neurons.
Figure 9.
Figure Variation in
9. Variation in mean
mean squared
squared error
error with
with the
the number
number of
of hidden
hidden neurons.
neurons.
Figure 10. Configuration of black box models based on ANN.

3.2.3. Black Box Model for Correcting Control Target Value (Black Box Model 1)
3.2.3. As
Black Box Model
explained for Correcting
in Section 3.1, in theControl Target Value
schedule-based (Blackthe
control, Box Model
target TET1) value at every given
3.2.3.
load As Black
is Box Model
determined
explained in by for
theCorrecting
Section control Control
curve,
3.1, in the whichTarget
schedule-basedwasValue
prepared (Black
control, to Box
the relate
targetModelthe 1)value
TETTET with the pressure
at every given
ratioisAs
load in advance.
determined This
by thecontrol
control method
curve, has
which no problems
was prepared when to the
relate gas
explained in Section 3.1, in the schedule-based control, the target TET value at every given the turbine
TET is
with in clean
the conditions
pressure ratio
without
in advance.
load degradation.
This control
is determined by theHowever,
method
controlhas it would
no problems
curve, cause
which wasunder-
when theorgas
prepared over-firing
toturbine
relate the isofin the
TETcleanengine
with theifpressure
conditions the without
pressure
ratio
losses at
degradation. the gas turbine
However, itinlet
would and outlet
cause increase
under- or or if compressor
over-firing of the
in advance. This control method has no problems when the gas turbine is in clean conditions without fouling
engine occurs.
if the Such
pressure a problem
losses will
at the
be
gas demonstrated
turbine inlet
degradation. However,in Section
and outlet 4.1.
it would In
increasebrief, the variations
or if compressor
cause under- in
or over-firing the
foulingactual operating
of the occurs.
engine ifSuch conditions
a problem
the pressure of the
will
losses at gas
be
the
turbine,
demonstrated such as
in changes
Section due
4.1. to
In degradation,
brief, the cannot
variations be
in accommodated
the
gas turbine inlet and outlet increase or if compressor fouling occurs. Such a problem will be actual operating in the conventional
conditions of control
the gas
because
turbine,
demonstrated the target
such TET is due
asinchanges
Section determined onlythebyvariations
4.1.toIndegradation,
brief, the pressure
cannot ratioactual
signaloperating
beinaccommodated
the andinthus theisconditions
invariable of
conventional regardless
control
the gas
of
turbine, such as changes due to degradation, cannot be accommodated in the conventional turbine
the
because changes
the in
target the operating
TET is conditions.
determined As
only a result,
by the it is nearly
pressure impossible
ratio signal to operate
and thus the
is gas
invariable
control
at an optimal
regardless
because of the
the condition
target TETinin
changes isterms
the of performance.
operating
determined conditions.
only by the As a result,
pressure it issignal
ratio nearlyand impossible
thus is toinvariable
operate
the gasInturbine
regardless contrast,
of theatthean black box
optimal
changes model
in condition
the was used
in terms
operating for correcting
of performance.
conditions. the control
As a result, target value
it is nearly impossible in theto advanced
operate
control
In proposed
contrast, the in this
black study.
box In
model this
was
the gas turbine at an optimal condition in terms of performance.control,
used the
for target
correcting TET
the was corrected
control target to
valuean optimal
in the value
advanced in
response
control to
proposed the change
in this in the
study. actual
In operating
this control, condition.
the target The
TET optimal
was
In contrast, the black box model was used for correcting the control target value in the advanced target
corrected TET
to an value
optimal was derived
value in
through
response a parametric
to
control proposed the change in thissimulation
in the actual
study. In using the virtual
operating
this control, gas The
condition.
the target turbine. wasAs
TEToptimal shownTET
target
corrected in
to anFigure
value
optimal 8, black
was valuebox
derived in
model
through
response 1aderives
parametric the corrected
to the change simulation target
in the actual TET
usingoperatingvaluecondition.
the virtual once the input
gas turbine. TheAs conditions
showntarget
optimal areTET
in Figure given.8,valueThewas
black purpose
box model
derived of
1the target
derives
through theTET correction
corrected
a parametric target is TET
simulation to maximize
value thethe
using once gas
the
virtual turbine
input efficiency
gas conditions
turbine. Asare in
shown varying
given. in The
Figureoperating
purpose
8, black ofconditions.
the target
box model
As
TET a result,
correction the gas
is to turbine
maximize can be
the controlled
gas turbine flexibly
efficiency andin optimally
varying
1 derives the corrected target TET value once the input conditions are given. The purpose of the target by
operatingconsidering
conditions. the change
As a in its
result,
operating
the
TET gas
correction condition.
turbine can
is tobe controlled
maximize theflexibly
gas turbineand efficiency
optimally in byvarying
consideringoperatingthe change
conditions.in itsAs operating
a result,
condition.
the gas turbine can be controlled flexibly and optimally by considering the change in its operating
3.2.4. Black Box Model for AMPC (Black Box Model 2)
condition.
In the conventional PID controls which are most widely used at present, instantly large overshoots
and undershoots of the TIT and TET and large changes in rotational speed are unavoidable when the
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 12 of 23
load fluctuates rapidly. This is because a PID control starts working only after an error between the
target and measured values of the control parameter occurs.
In contrast, the second black box model in the Figure 8 was used for the AMPC to modulate
the manipulated variables. Model predictive control generally has the advantage of increasing the
response speed of the control through predictive control. However, it takes a long time to derive the
manipulated variables because it uses a non-linear physical model [52]. In contrast, AMPC with a
black box model can calculate at a faster rate [53].
In this study, to verify the usability of AMPC in gas turbines, a database was built, the black box
model was trained according to a real operating environment, and the results of simulations were
compared with actual operating data. The control sequence of the AMPC is as follows. The fuel flow
rate and VIGV angle are controlled to satisfy the required load, target TET, and target shaft speed using
black box model 2, and the objective function (Obj) value is derived as presented in Equation (18) by
calculating 10 upcoming time steps.
l
.
X
Ob j = [Qω (ωi − ωtarget )2 + QT (Texh.,i − Texh.,target )2 + G f (∆m f )2 + Gα (∆α)2 ] (18)
i=1
In the equation, l refers to the number of predicting time steps and was set to 10. Q refers to the
weighting factor of the rotational speed (ω) and TET value, which are control parameters, and G refers
to the weighting factor of the fuel flow rate and VIGV angle (α), which are manipulated parameters.
The Qω , QT , G f , and Gα values required proper tuning, and they were, respectively, found to be 7, 5,
1, and 1 through trial and error to minimize the fluctuation of variables and reduce the calculation
load. The fuel flow rate and VIGV angle values of the next time step were determined to produce the
minimum objective function value using an optimizer, and the values were sent to the gas turbine
as control signals. Since MATLAB was used in the gas turbine modeling in this study, the Simplex
optimization code [54] provided by MATLAB was used for the minimization of the objective function.
As a result, the fluctuation of TET, TIT, and rotational speed was minimized when a rapid load
change occurred.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Effect of Correcting Control Target Value Using a Black Box Model on Partial Load Performance
As mentioned in Section 3.2.3, conventional control logic (i.e., schedule-based control) has no
problems when controlling the engine in clean conditions. However, when the performance is degraded,
under- or over-firing occurs. To demonstrate this problem and present a solution, partial load operation
was simulated while assuming an increase in the pressure loss at the compressor inlet, which is one of
the typical problems that occur in gas turbines.
Figure 11 shows the partial load performance of the gas turbine in degraded conditions, where the
inlet pressure loss was increased by 3%. The results are compared with those in clean conditions.
With the degradation, the TIT is reduced slightly. The reduction is about 9 ◦ C (0.7%) at the full
load condition, where the VIGV of the compressor is fully opened. The compressor pressure ratio
is maintained almost constant but the gas turbine power is reduced due to the decrease in the TIT.
The changes in the operating conditions of the gas turbine can be explained with the aid of the
temperature-entropy diagram illustrated in Figure 12, which compares the two full load operating
points at clean and degraded conditions (A and B in Figure 11). The gas turbine cycle sequence is
1 → 2 → 3 → 4 in the clean condition. However, the cycle sequence changed to 10 → 20 → 30 → 4
when the compressor inlet pressure loss occurs. Therefore, the operating pressure and temperature
also change.
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 13 of 23
Energies 2020,
Energies 2020, 13,
13, 5703
5703 13
13 of
of 23
23
Figure 11. Partial load parameter variations in the schedule-based control: impact of the compressor
Figure 11.
Figure Partial load
11. Partial load parameter
parameter variations
variations in
in the
the schedule-based
schedule-based control: impact of
control: impact of the
the compressor
compressor
inlet pressure loss.
Temperature
Temperature
T3 Allowable TIT 3
T3 Allowable TIT 3 Under firing
T3' 3'
Under firing
T3' 3'
TETtarget
p2 4 TETtarget
p2 4
2 2' p2'
2 2' p
2' p1
T1 1 p1'p1
T1 1 1' p1' loss
Pressure
1' Pressure loss
Entropy
Entropy
Figure
Figure12.
12.Changes thecycle
Changes in the cycle parameters
parameters on temperature-entropy
on the the temperature-entropy diagram
diagram due
due to the to the
compressor
Figure 12.inlet
inlet pressure
compressor Changes
loss. in loss.
pressure the cycle parameters on the temperature-entropy diagram due to the
compressor inlet pressure loss.
The The pressure
pressure ratio
ratio of the
of the gas gas
turbineturbine is determined
is determined by matching
by matching the compressor
the compressor and turbine.
and turbine. The
flow The pressure
Thefunctions
flow of theratio
functions of theof the
compressor gas
compressor
andturbine andisturbine
turbine determined
are nearly by matching
are constant
nearly constant theaccording
according compressor andperformance
to the
to the performance turbine.
maps The
flow
maps functions
(see of
Figuresthe 3 compressor
and 4). and
Thus, turbine
the are
following nearly constant
equations
(see Figures 3 and 4). Thus, the following equations are effective between the clean and degraded areaccording
effective to the
between performance
the clean maps
and
(see Figures
degraded
conditions. 3 and 4). Thus, the following equations are effective between the clean and degraded
conditions.
conditions. √ √ √ √
m m. T T m m. T0 T mm.3 3 TT 33 m
.
m3'30 TT 3'30
M comp
Mcomp  =1m 1 1T 1 '1'm 1 1T, 1 M , Mturb
turb = mp3 T3 ' mp3' 0 T3' (19)(19)
M comp  1 p 1 p1 1 p 1' p10 1
1' , Mturb  3 3 p p 3'3 (19)
p1 p1' p3 p3'
If If
the thecompressor
compressor inlet
inlet pressure
pressureisisreducedreducedfrom from pp11 to to p0p 'due dueto to
thethe inlet
inlet pressure
pressure loss,loss,
thetheinlet
. from p to 1 p ' due to the inlet pressure loss, the
1
If the compressor inlet pressure is .
reduced
air flow rate decreases by
inlet air flow rate decreases by the samethe same rate ( m
rate → m ). Accordingly, the inlet mass
1 ( m 1 → m ). Accordingly, the inlet mass flow rate of
0 1 1 flow rate of the turbine
. . 1 1'
also decreases
inlet air flow rate by decreases
the same rate by the(m3same→ mrate m1 → m1'the
30 ). (Therefore, turbine inletthe
). Accordingly, mass
inletflowmass rate
flowdecreases
rate of
thebyturbine also decreases by the same rate ( m 3 → m 3' ). Therefore,
about 3%. Even though the turbine inlet temperature (T3 → T30 ) decreases, the reduction the turbine inlet mass flow raterate
the turbine also decreases by the same rate ( m3 → m3' ). Therefore, the turbine inlet mass flow rate
decreases
is very small by about
(0.7%).3%.So,Even though the
the reduction in turbine
the inletinlet pressure temperature ( T3 →
of the turbine (p3 T→ )
3' 3p decreases,
0 ) is the
dominated
decreases by about 3%. Even though theThus, turbine inlet temperature → T3' inlet
( T3 turbine ) decreases, the
reduction rate is very small (0.7%). So, the reduction in the inlet pressure of the turbine ( p3 pressure
by the reduction in inlet mass flow rate. the reduction rate of the → p3' ) is
nearly 3%rate
reduction as well. As small
is very a result, the compressor
(0.7%). So, the reduction discharge
in thepressure also decreases
inlet pressure of the turbine by the ( p3same
→ prate)
is dominated by the reduction in inlet mass flow rate. Thus, the reduction rate of the turbine inlet3'
(p2 → p20 ). The net result is an almost constant compressor pressure ratio, even with the compressor
is dominated
pressure is nearly by 3%
theas reduction
well. As in inlet mass
a result, flow rate. Thus,
the compressor the reduction
discharge pressure rate also of the turbine
decreases by theinlet
inlet pressure loss:
pressure is nearly 3% as well. As
same rate ( p2 → p2' ). The net result is an almost a result, the compressor
p20constant
p2 discharge pressure also
compressor pressure ratio, even with thedecreases by the
same rate ( p2 → p2' ). The net result is an almost ' (20)
compressor inlet pressure loss: p10 constant
p1 compressor pressure ratio, even with the
compressor inlet pressure loss:
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 14 of 23
p2' p2
(20)
Energies 2020, 13, 5703
p1' p1 14 of 23
Then, the TET is also maintained constant because the TET is a function of the compressor
pressure
Then,ratio
the according
TET is also tomaintained
the control constant
logic. Given a fixed
because theturbine
TET isexit pressureof( pthe
a function 4 ), compressor
the reduced
pressure ratiopressure
turbine inlet according to the
leads to a control
decreaselogic.
in theGiven a fixed
turbine turbine
expansion exit
ratio ( ppressure
3' / p4 ). The 4net result in the
(p ), the reduced
turbine
turbineinlet pressure
operation leads
is that thetoTET
a decrease
remainsinthethesame
turbine
butexpansion ratioratio
the expansion (p30 /p 4 ). The net
decreases. result in the
Consequently,
turbine operation is that the TET remains the same but the expansion ratio
under-firing (reduction in TIT) takes place as illustrated in Figure 12: the reduction in TIT is decreases. Consequently,
under-firing
exaggerated(reduction in TIT)purpose.
for illustration takes place
Theascombination
illustrated inof Figure 12: the reduction
the reduced in TIT is exaggerated
turbine explanation ratio and
for illustration purpose. The combination of the reduced turbine explanation ratio
reduced TIT causes the turbine power to decrease. Of course, the efficiency also decreases. The impact and reduced TIT
causes the turbine power to decrease. Of course, the efficiency also decreases.
of the under-firing on the partial load efficiency of the gas turbine is demonstrated in Figure 13. The The impact of the
under-firing
decrease in TITon the partial
causes an load efficiency
efficiency of the by
reduction gas0.5%p
turbine is demonstrated
(1.5%) on average.in Figure 13. The decrease
in TIT causes an efficiency reduction by 0.5%p (1.5%) on average.
Figure 13. Variations

Figure 13. Variations in
in the
the partial
partial load
load efficiency
efficiencywith
withthe
theschedule-based
schedule-basedcontrol.
control.
To avoid the occurrence of under-firing, we corrected the TET target value using black box
To avoid the occurrence of under-firing, we corrected the TET target value using black box
model 1. To compare the gas turbine control performance with that using the schedule-based control,
model 1. To compare the gas turbine control performance with that using the schedule-based control,
a daily operation cycle of the gas turbine was set up. Figure 14 shows an example of the real hourly
a daily operation cycle of the gas turbine was set up. Figure 14 shows an example of the real hourly
mean temperature distribution and electrical power demand curve in South Korea to set up the daily
mean temperature distribution and electrical power demand curve in South Korea to set up the daily
operation
Energies 2020,cycle. The simulation results of the one-day running gas turbine performance according
13, 5703 15 of to
23
operation cycle. The simulation results of the one-day running gas turbine performance according to
the demand curve of Figure 14 are displayed in Figures 15 and 16. Because the gas turbine was set to
the demand curve of Figure 14 are displayed in Figures 15 and 16. Because the gas turbine was set to
operate
gas while
turbine followingFrom
efficiency. the electrical
0 to 5 h,power demand
the TIT curve,than
was lower Figure
the 15 verifies that
allowable both control
thelogics
operate while following the electrical power demand curve, Figure 15 verifies limit because
that both control TET
logics
simulated
reached the
the gas turbine
allowable power very accurately. The power curves of both control methods (the upper
value.
simulated the gas turbine power very accurately. The power curves of both control methods (the
curves in Figure 15) are almost the same as the power demand curve of Figure 14.
upper curves in Figure 15) are almost the same as the power demand curve of Figure 14.
On the other hand, the operating temperatures are quite different between the two control
methods. As shown in Figure 16, both the TET and TIT were maintained higher overall when
applying the advanced control logic than when applying the conventional control logic. When the
compressor loss increased by 3%p, the TIT was lower than the allowable limit in the conventional
control logic. However, the TET is determined by the pressure ratio in the conventional control logic
as mentioned above. As a result, although the compressor loss increased, the gas turbine was
controlled following the scheduled TET. So, TIT was reduced by up to 20 °C from the allowable limit.
On the other hand, the advanced control logic could derive the most efficient corrected control
target value of TET by considering the gas turbine conditions (components loss, components
performance, and air conditions) and allowable ranges of the TET and TIT using the black box model.
As a result, when applying the advanced control logic, the TIT and TET were higher, and the
fluctuation of TIT was reduced. It can be found from Figure 16 that the TIT was kept at the allowable
limit from 6 to 23 h because the target TET was determined to maintain a high TIT to maximize the
Example of
Figure 14. Example of the variations
variations in ambient temperature
temperature and electric power demand
demand during
during a
spring day in South Korea.
Figure 14. Example of the variations in ambient temperature and electric power demand during a
spring day
Figure in South Korea.
14. Example of the variations in ambient temperature and electric power demand during a
Energies 2020, 13, 5703
spring day in South Korea. 15 of 23
Figure 15. Variations in power production and efficiency of the gas turbine during a day.
Figure 16.
Figure Simulated variations
16. Simulated variations in
in TET
TET and
and TIT
TIT of
of the
the gas
gas turbine
turbine during
during aa day.
day.
Figure
On the other 16.the
hand, Simulated variations
operating in TET and
temperatures are TIT ofdifferent
quite the gas turbine during
between a day.
the two control methods.
As shown in Figure 16, both the TET and TIT were maintained higher overall when applying the
advanced control logic than when applying the conventional control logic. When the compressor
loss increased by 3%p, the TIT was lower than the allowable limit in the conventional control logic.
However, the TET is determined by the pressure ratio in the conventional control logic as mentioned
above. As a result, although the compressor loss increased, the gas turbine was controlled following
the scheduled TET. So, TIT was reduced by up to 20 ◦ C from the allowable limit.
On the other hand, the advanced control logic could derive the most efficient corrected control target
value of TET by considering the gas turbine conditions (components loss, components performance,
and air conditions) and allowable ranges of the TET and TIT using the black box model. As a result,
when applying the advanced control logic, the TIT and TET were higher, and the fluctuation of TIT
was reduced. It can be found from Figure 16 that the TIT was kept at the allowable limit from 6 to 23 h
because the target TET was determined to maintain a high TIT to maximize the gas turbine efficiency.
From 0 to 5 h, the TIT was lower than the allowable limit because the TET reached the allowable value.
When applying the advanced control logic, as verified in Figure 15 (lower curves), the efficiency of
the gas turbine was also higher by 0.12%p (0.35%) because the gas turbine efficiency increased due to
the increase in the TIT. Furthermore, the increase in the TET would surely be positive in terms of the
power output of a steam turbine driven by the gas turbine exhaust flow, leading to much better partial
load efficiency of the combined cycle power plant.
better than with PID control. Comparing the results at 80 s when the variation in the load ends, it can
be found that the gas turbine power did not overshoot when the AMPC was used. In contrast, when
the PID was used, the gas turbine power increased by 1.8 MW (1.2%) showing a sensible overshoot
before it converged to a steady state value.
The rotational speed changed due to the unbalance of the power and load of the gas turbine.
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 16 of 23
With the PID control, the rotational speed reduced because the load is larger than the power at the
specific moment when the load began to increase. Then, it began to increase when the load variation
4.2. Effect
ended, of Adopting
converging to AMPC on the
the target Gas Turbine’s
rotational speed.Response to Increased
The maximum Ramp of
deviation Rate
the rotational speed was
0.22%.
In addition to applying the black box model using an ANN to correct the control target values,
With the AMPC, however, the rotational speed increased earlier than when the load began to
we also used the black box model for AMPC by replacing the PID control. To compare the performance
increase because the gas turbine power increased in advance owing to the predictive control. Then,
between the PID control and the AMPC, the dynamic behavior of the gas turbine upon a rapid increase
it began to decrease when the load variation ended, converging to the target rotational speed. The
in the load (power demand) was simulated using both controls. By referring to the literature [55],
maximum deviation of the rotational speed was 0.061%, which was only one-fourth of that of the PID
the load increase rate per unit time (ramp rate) was set to 30 MW/min. The time interval of dynamic
control.
behavior analysis was set to 0.1 s.
Figure 18 verifies that when using the PID control, the TIT and TET are higher than in the AMPC
The changes in gas turbine power and rotational speed in Figure 17 verified that when applying
by up to 1.4% and 1.9%, respectively. The reason for this was that the rotational speed was reduced
AMPC, both the undershoot and overshoot were reduced, making the actual power follow the load
due to the unbalance of the gas turbine power and load. Thus, the fuel flow rate was increased to
better than with PID control. Comparing the results at 80 s when the variation in the load ends, it can be
recover the reduced rotational speed back to the target value. Accordingly, the TIT and TET
found that the gas turbine power did not overshoot when the AMPC was used. In contrast, when the
momentarily increased sharply at the moment when the load began to increase showing an overshoot
PID was used, the gas turbine power increased by 1.8 MW (1.2%) showing a sensible overshoot before
and then converged to a steady state value.
it converged to a steady state value.
Figure 17. Simulated variations in gas turbine power and rotational speed with increasing load
Figurerate:
(ramp 17. Simulated variations in gas turbine power and rotational speed with increasing load (ramp
30 MW/min).
rate: 30 MW/min).
The rotational speed changed due to the unbalance of the power and load of the gas turbine.
With the PID control, the rotational speed reduced because the load is larger than the power at the
specific moment when the load began to increase. Then, it began to increase when the load variation
ended, converging to the target rotational speed. The maximum deviation of the rotational speed
was 0.22%.
With the AMPC, however, the rotational speed increased earlier than when the load began
to increase because the gas turbine power increased in advance owing to the predictive control.
Then, it began to decrease when the load variation ended, converging to the target rotational speed.
The maximum deviation of the rotational speed was 0.061%, which was only one-fourth of that of the
PID control.
Figure 18 verifies that when using the PID control, the TIT and TET are higher than in the AMPC by
up to 1.4% and 1.9%, respectively. The reason for this was that the rotational speed was reduced due to
the unbalance of the gas turbine power and load. Thus, the fuel flow rate was increased to recover
the reduced rotational speed back to the target value. Accordingly, the TIT and TET momentarily
increased sharply at the moment when the load began to increase showing an overshoot and then
converged to a steady state value.
In contrast, with the AMPC, the TIT and TET converged to a steady state value smoothly.
This means that there is practically no overshoot. It is clearly shown in Figure 19 that the changes
in both the VIGV angle and fuel flow rate, which are manipulated variables, begin earlier with the
AMPC than the PID control. This is due to the inherent advantage of the AMPC. The AMPC predicts
the 10 upcoming time steps in advance, whereas The PID control is initiated only after a difference
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 17 of 23
between the measured (actual) and target values occurs. With the AMPC, once the difference between
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 17 of 23
measured and target values is predicted, it minimizes the deviation of the rotation speed, TET, and TIT.
Figure 18. Simulated variations in gas TIT and TET with increasing load (ramp rate: 30 MW/min).
In contrast, with the AMPC, the TIT and TET converged to a steady state value smoothly. This
means that there is practically no overshoot. It is clearly shown in Figure 19 that the changes in both
the VIGV angle and fuel flow rate, which are manipulated variables, begin earlier with the AMPC
than the PID control. This is due to the inherent advantage of the AMPC. The AMPC predicts the 10
upcoming time steps in advance, whereas The PID control is initiated only after a difference between
the measured (actual) and target values occurs. With the AMPC, once the difference between
measured and target values is predicted, it minimizes the deviation of the rotation speed, TET, and
TIT. Figure 18. Simulated variations in gas TIT and TET with increasing load (ramp rate: 30 MW/min).
In contrast, with the AMPC, the TIT and TET converged to a steady state value smoothly. This
means that there is practically no overshoot. It is clearly shown in Figure 19 that the changes in both
the VIGV angle and fuel flow rate, which are manipulated variables, begin earlier with the AMPC
than the PID control. This is due to the inherent advantage of the AMPC. The AMPC predicts the 10
upcoming time steps in advance, whereas The PID control is initiated only after a difference between
the measured (actual) and target values occurs. With the AMPC, once the difference between
measured and target values is predicted, it minimizes the deviation of the rotation speed, TET, and
TIT.
Figure 19. Simulated variations in fuel flow rate and VIGV angle with increasing load (ramp rate:
Figure 19. Simulated variations in fuel flow rate and VIGV angle with increasing load (ramp rate: 30
30 MW/min).
MW/min).
To demonstrate the advantage of the AMPC in a harsher control environment, a case where the
whereTothedemonstrate
ramp rate wasthe advantage
doubled (i.e.,of the AMPC in awas
60 MW/min) harsher control
simulated, environment,
and the results are a case where the
illustrated in
where the ramp rate was doubled (i.e., 60 MW/min) was simulated, and
Figures 20–22. When using the PID control, the overshoot of the gas turbine power also increasedthe results are illustrated in
Figures 20–22. When using the PID control, the overshoot of the gas turbine
significantly: it increased by 3 MW (2%) from 150 MW before it converged to a steady state value. power also increased
significantly:
The maximumitdeviation
increasedofbythe3rotational
MW (2%)speed fromincreased
150 MW to before
0.41%. it The
converged
maximum to avariations
steady stateof thevalue.
TIT
and TET also increased to 3% and 4%, respectively. When using the AMPC, the maximum deviationthe
The maximum deviation of the rotational speed increased to 0.41%. The maximum variations of of
TITrotational
the and TET speed
also increased
increased to 3%toand
only 4%,which
0.13%, respectively.
was much When using
smaller thanthethat
AMPC,
when theusingmaximum
the PID
deviation
control, andofthe
themaximum
rotationaldeviations
speed increased
of the onlyand to 0.13%, which was much smaller than that when
Figure 19. Simulated variations in fuel flowTET
rate and TITVIGV were also
angle much
with smaller
increasing in comparison
load (ramp rate: 30to the
using the
case with PID control,
the PID control.and the maximum deviations of the TET and TIT were also much smaller in
MW/min).
comparison to the case with the PID control.
As a result, when the ramp rate was doubled (60 MW/min), the maximum deviation of the
operation variables such
To demonstrate theas the rotational
advantage of thespeed,
AMPC TIT,in and TET was
a harsher almost
control doubled when
environment, using
a case the PID
where the
control.
where the In ramp
contrast,
ratewhen using the
was doubled AMPC,
(i.e., both thewas
60 MW/min) TIT simulated,
and TET were and controlled
the results smoothly
are illustratedalmost
in
without overshoots. No sensible difference was observed in comparison
Figures 20–22. When using the PID control, the overshoot of the gas turbine power also increasedto the lower ramp rate case.
The maximumitdeviation
significantly: increasedofbythe3 rotational
MW (2%)speed from was150 MWalmost doubled
before but is stillto
it converged much smaller
a steady than
state that
value.
of
Thethemaximum
PID control. This result
deviation of theverified that the
rotational speedramp rate cantobe0.41%.
increased increased
The while
maximum significantly
variations reducing
of the
the
TIT fluctuation
and TET also of main parameters
increased to 3%by and using
4%,the advanced control
respectively. logic compared
When using the AMPC, to the
thatmaximum
using the
conventional
deviation of the control logic. speed increased only to 0.13%, which was much smaller than that when
rotational
using the PID control, and the maximum deviations of the TET and TIT were also much smaller in
comparison to the case with the PID control.
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 18 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 18 of 23

Energies 2020, 13, 5703 18 of 23
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 18 of 23
Figure 20. Simulated variations in gas turbine power and rotational speed with increasing load (ramp
rate: 60 MW/min).
Figure Simulated variations in gas turbine power and rotational speed with increasing load
20.MW/min).
rate: 60
(ramp rate: 60 MW/min).
rate: 60 MW/min).
Figure 22. Simulated variations in fuel flow rate and VIGV angle with increasing load (ramp rate:
60 MW/min).
MW/min).
5. Conclusions
MW/min).
As a result, when the ramp rate was doubled (60 MW/min), the maximum deviation of the
MW/min).
This study proposed advanced control logic with two ANN-based blackdoubled
box models
operation variables
As a result, suchthe
when as ramp
the rotational
rate wasspeed, TIT,(60
doubled andMW/min),
TET was almost
the maximum whentousing
deviation
overcome
the
of the
thePID
drawbacks
control. of the conventional
In contrast, when schedule-based
using the speed,
AMPC,TIT, control.
bothand
theTETThe
TITwasmain results
andalmost
TET were and conclusions
controlled smoothlyare
operation variables
As a result, suchthe
when as the rotational
ramp rate was doubled (60 MW/min), doubled
the maximum when using
deviation the
of the
summarized
PID control.asIn
follows:
contrast, when using the speed,
AMPC,TIT,bothand
theTET
TITwas
andalmost
TET were controlled smoothly
operation variables such as the rotational doubled when using the
When applying the conventional control method, under-firing occurs, resulting in a reduction in
PID control. In contrast, when using the AMPC, both the TIT and TET were controlled smoothly
efficiency of the gas turbine if problems arise, such as increases in the inlet and outlet pressure losses.
In contrast, the advanced control is performed by correcting the target value (TET) in the gas turbine
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 19 of 23
using a black box model based on an ANN. Operations can be achieved while maintaining the TIT and
TET of the gas turbine at the optimal values within the allowable range. Moreover, higher TET, TIT,
and efficiency can be achieved compared to those achieved by applying the schedule-based control.
Furthermore, the increase in TET of the gas turbine may lead to an increase in the efficiency of larger
systems when applied to a combined cycle and combined heat and power systems.
When applying the advanced control logic using the AMPC, the maximum deviation of the
rotational speed was reduced by 1/4 compared to the conventional control using the PID because the
AMPC can achieve optimal control by predicting the result in advance. The results of the AMPC also
verified that the maximum fluctuations of the TIT and TET were also significantly reduced. Moreover,
even when the ramp rate was doubled, all deviations of the rotational speed, TET, and TIT were smaller
than those of PID control.
The significance of the new control is high in various aspects. Firstly, the overall fuel economy
in gas turbine operation would increase because of the improved partial load efficiency enabled by
the optimized control. Secondly, the reduction in the deviation of the rotational speed is beneficial
in increasing the quality of the generated electricity from the gas turbine by reducing the frequency
fluctuation. Thirdly, the reduction in the maximum fluctuations of the TIT and TET extend the life of
high-temperature parts. These advantages would be more eminent as the operating environment of
the gas turbines becomes harsher as the penetration of variable renewable energy increases.
This study has focused on performance optimization. However, consideration of the impact of
gas turbine operation on the emission such as NOx and CO would be important as well because the
environmental regulation in the power generation industry is becoming increasingly strict day by day.
Therefore, a study on the influence of the advanced control logic on the gas turbine emissions needs to
be performed as subsequent research.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.W.M. and T.S.K., methodology, S.W.M. and T.S.K., Software, S.W.M.,
validation, S.W.M., formal analysis, S.W.M., investigation, S.W.M., resources, T.S.K., data curation, S.W.M.,
writing—original draft, S.W.M. and T.S.K., writing—review and editing, S.W.M. and T.S.K., supervision, T.S.K.,
project administration, T.S.K., funding acquisition, T.S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP)
and the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No.20193310100050).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
a Constant of chemical species
b Constant of chemical species
C Rotor coolant charging factor
cp Specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg·K)
e error
G Manipulated variables weighting factor
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
I Inertia (kg·m2 )
K Gain value
L Load (MW)
M Flow function (kg·K0.5 /kN·s)
.
m Mass flow rate (kg/s)
n Number of data
p Pressure (kPa)
PR Pressure ratio
Obj Object function
Q Control variables weighting factor
R Gas constant (kJ/kg·K)
Energies 2020, 13, 5703 20 of 23
s Specific entropy (kJ/kg)

t Time (sec)
T Temperature (K)
.
W Power (MW)
X Manipulated variables
x Value of data
Y Control variables
y Value of predicting data
z Value of training and testing data
α Relative inlet guide vane angle
η Efficiency
ω Rotation speed (RPM)
Ω Semi-non-dimensional rotation speed (K0.5 /RPM)
Subscripts
1,2,3,4 Locations in the gas turbine
AUX loss Auxiliary loss
comb Combustor
comp Compressor
coolant Coolant flow
corrected Corrected value
d Design state
D Derivative
exh. Turbine exhaust
f Fuel
field Field data
GT Gas turbine
I Integral
i index
in Inlet
initial Initial value
l Number of predicting time steps
n Number of data
out Outlet
P Proportional
s Isentropic
simulation Simulation data
t Time step
target Control target value
turb Turbine
Abbreviations
ANN Artificial neural network
AMPC ANN model predictive control
MSE Mean squared error
MPC Model predictive control
P2G Power to gas
TIT Turbine inlet temperature
TET Turbine exhaust temperature
VIGV Variable inlet guide vane
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energies

Energies 2020, 13, 5703; doi:10.3390/en13215703 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

2. Gas Turbine Simulation Model

2.1. Virtual Gas Turbine Modeling Using Physical Model

Table 1. Specifications of the target gas turbine.

7FA Type of the Parameter

Data for design

Gas turbine power

Figure 1. Structure of the virtual gas turbine.

Figure 1. Structure of the virtual gas turbine.

Figure 2. Configuration of the gas turbine for simulation.

cp /R = a1 T−2 + a2 T−1 + a3 + a4 T + a5 T2 + a6 T3 + a7 T4 (1)

h/RT = −a1 T−2 + a2 ln T/T + a3 + a4 T/2 + a5 T2 /3 + a6 T3 /4 + a7 T4 /5 + b1 /T (2)

s/R = −a1 T−2 /2 + a2 T−1 + a3 ln T + a4 T + a5 T2 /2 + a6 T3 /3 + a7 T4 /4 + b2 (3)

Mcorrected = Minitial × αVIGV , PRcorrected = PRinitial × αVIGV (8)

2.2. Validation of Virtual Gas Turbine

3.2.2. Building Black Box Models Based on ANN

Input Data Output Data

Input Data Output Data

Energies 2020, 13, 5703 11 of 23

Figure 10. Configuration of black box models based on ANN.

4. Results and Discussion

Figure 13. Variations

Energies 2020, 13, 5703 18 of 23

s Specific entropy (kJ/kg)

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