SUPERCRITICAL RANKINE CYCLE

A synopsis of the cycle, its background, potential applications and engineering challenges.
Shane Hough
04/07/09
(ME-517)
SUPERCRITICAL RANKINE CYCLE
A synopsis of the cycle, its background, potential applications and engineering challenges.
Shane Hough
04/07/09
(ME-517)
Abstract
TeRankinecyclehasbeenusingwatertogenerateusefulworksincethemid1800s.Withtheadvent
ofmodernsuper alloys,theRankinesteamcyclehasprogressedintothesupercriticalregionofthecoolantand
isgeneratingthermalefcienciesintothemid40%range.Asof2001,therewere360supercriticalfossilfuel
plantsoperatingacrosstheglobe
[10]
.Teseplantsareoperatingattemperaturesaround1000
o
Fandpressures
around3500psia.TwoofthecurrentengineeringchallengesaretoadaptthesupercriticalRankinecycleto
coolantsotherthanwater,andtodesignnuclearpowerplantscapableofoperatingatsupercriticaltemperatures
andpressures.Tereismuchworktobedoneintheareaofmaterialdevelopmentbeforenuclearplantswill
becapableofreliableoperationatthetemperaturesandpressuresrequiredtoachievethermalefcienciesover
35%.
TableofContents
Introduction:TheSimpleRankineCycle 1
SimpleCycle 1
Figure1. SimpleRankine/SteamCycleDiagram. 1
Figure2. SimpleRankineCycleT-SDiagram. 1
Superheat 1
Figure3. SimpleRankineCyclewithSuperheatT-SDiagram. 1
Effciency 2
MeasuredParameters 2
Figure4. EffectofTurbineOutletBackpressureforaConstantInputThrottle
Temperature. 2
Figure5. EffectofTurbineInletTemperatureforaConstantOutletBackpressure 3
SupercriticalRankineCycle 3
EfficiEncy 3
figurE6.SupErcriticalrankinEcyclE. 3
DEfinition 3
MatErialconcErnS 4
NuclearLightWaterPowerApplication 4
SuperCriticalWater-cooledReactor(SCWR) 4
Differencebetweenconventionalnuclearplantdesigns 4
Table1:SCWRPressureVesselSpecifcations 4
Materialstresstesting 4
Figure7.SCWRpowerconversioncycleschematic 5
Figure8. SCWR,PWR,&BWRcomparison 5
Figure9.StressCorrosionCracking(SCC)photos 6
NaturalGasProductionwithaSupercriticalGeothermalPowerApplicationBy-product 7
NaturalGasBrine 7
PropaneCycle 7
Design 7
Effciency 7
Viability 7
Figure10. SupercriticalPropaneCycleSchematic 8
SupercriticalCO
2
PowerApplication 8
CO
2
criticalvalues 8
SCWRcomparison 8
Smallercomponents 8
Operationalparameters 8
Materialconcerns 8
Figure11.SupercriticalCO
2
RecompressionCycle 9
Table2: CalculatedSystemParameterscorrespondingtoFigure11 9
Figure12.SizeComparisonbetweenTurbinesofVariousCycles/Coolants 9
Conclusion 10
Effciencyimprovements 10
Materialimprovements 10
Reliability(60yrs) 10
PlantSize 10
Large(1600MW
e
) 10
Mid(20MW
e
) 10
Small(400kW
e
) 10
EconomicConsideration 10
References 11
- 1 -
Introduction:TheSimpleRankineCycle
Te Rankine cycle is synonymous with the steam
cycle and is the oldest functional heat cycle utilized by
man.AbasicdiagramofthecycleisillustratedinFigure1.
Figure 2 represents the Temperature - Entropy (T-S)
diagramforthesimplestversionoftheRankinecyclewhich
corresponds to systems with working pressures up to 400
psia
[1]
.TecycleasitisdepictedinFigure2israrelyused
today.
More commonly, the simple Rankine cycle is
modifed such that the steam is superheated prior to
enteringtheturbine.Tisisindicatedbyline3-4intheT-S
diagramshowninFigure3.Whenproperlydesigned,this
modifcationincreasesW(theworkcapacityofthesystem)
without signifcant increase to Q
r
(the unavailable heat of
the system). Typically, point 4 represents temperatures
up to approximately 900
o
F (755 K). Teoretically, it should be possible to superheat the steam to the
sametemperatureastheheatsource;whichinaboiler,isontheorderof3500
o
F(2200K).However,the
temperaturethatcorrespondstopoint4isphysicallylimitedtoadiferentialtemperatureofabout1000
o
F
(811K),themetallurgicallimit
[2]
.Inotherwords,solongastheheattransferacrossthematerialsintheboiler
andtheturbinesmaintainsatemperaturediferentiallessthantheoperationallimitsofthematerial,itshould
notexperiencecatastrophicfailure.Additionally,superheatingallowsthesteamtostillremainapproximately
90% (or greater) dry as it exhausts from the turbine. Tis feature of the superheated cycle simplifes the
turbinedesignandextendsturbinelifeduetoreducedwearfromwaterimpingementontheblades.
Heat Sink
Heat Source
Qa
Qr
Engine
(Turbine)
Superheater
Pump
Boiler
Condenser
1
5 6
1
2
2
3 4 3
4 5
Figure 1. Simple Rankine/Steam Cycle
Black numbers correspond to Figure 2;
Grey numbers correspond to Figure 3.
T
0 S
1
2 3
4 5
W = Q - Q
Q
r
a r
Figure 2. T-S Diagram, Simple Rankine
Cycle.
T
0 S
1
6
2 3
4
5
W = Q - Q
Q
r
a r
Figure 3. T-S Diagram, Simple Rankine
Cycle with Superheat.
- -
Teefciency()ofthiscyclecanberepresentedbytheratioofworkcapacitydividedbytheheatput
intothesystem(Q
a
):


=
W
Q
a

simple
=
h
3
h
1
h
4
+ h
5
h
3
h
1

superheat
=
h
4
h
1
h
5
+ h
6
h
4
h
1

supercritical
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
+ h
4
h
2
h
1

Equation1.
Intermsofenthalpy(h),theefciencyfortheRankinecyclewithandwithoutsuperheatingcanbedefnedby
thefollowingequationsrespectively:

=
W
Q
a

simple
=
h
3
h
1
h
4
+ h
5
h
3
h
1

superheat
=
h
4
h
1
h
5
+ h
6
h
4
h
1

supercritical
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
+ h
4
h
2
h
1

Equation2.

=
W
Q
a

simple
=
h
3
h
1
h
4
+ h
5
h
3
h
1

superheat
=
h
4
h
1
h
5
+ h
6
h
4
h
1

supercritical
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
+ h
4
h
2
h
1

Equation3.
Typicalefcienciesforthesecyclesrangefromaround20%-35%.
Terearetwomeasurablephysicalandcovariantparametersofthesystemwhichcorrelatetosubstantial
afectsonthethermalefciencyofthecycle.Tefrstparameteristhesystembackpressure.Foragiveninlet
(throttle)temperatureandpressureattheturbine,alowerbackpressureequatestoahighersystemefciency.
Inefect,anincreaseinthebackpressurereducesthecapacityofthesteamtoexpandthroughtheturbine.
TeefectofvariationsinsystembackpressurecanbeseeninFigure4.Tesecondparameteristhethrottle
temperature.Whileholdingboththesystembackpressureandthethrottlepressureconstant,anincreasein
thethrottletemperaturewillincreasethethermalefciencyofthecycle.TisefectisshowninFigure5.An
increaseinthethrottletemperaturesimplyincreasesthepotentialoftheexpandingsteamtotransferenergyto
theturbine.
50
45
40
35
30
30
25
25
20
20 15 10 5 1 0
14.73 12.28 9.82 7.37 4.91 2.46 0.49 0
Throttle Temperature = 810.93 K (1000 F)
R
a
n
k
i
n
e

S
t
e
a
m

C
y
c
l
e

T
h
e
r
m
a
l

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
T
h
r
o
t
t
l
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
Engine Back Pressure, In. Hg abs (psia)
5000
3200
1500
2500
1000
500
2
00
10,000
o
Figure 4. Effect of Turbine Outlet Backpressure for a Constant
Input Throttle Temperature
[1]
.
- -
SupercriticalRankineCycle
TeRankinecyclecanbegreatlyimprovedbyoperatinginthesupercriticalregionofthecoolant.Most
modernfossilfuelplantsemploythesupercriticalRankineSteamCyclewhichpushesthethermalefciencyof
theplant(seeequation4)intothelowtomid40%range.

=
W
Q
a

simple
=
h
3
h
1
h
4
+ h
5
h
3
h
1

superheat
=
h
4
h
1
h
5
+ h
6
h
4
h
1

supercritical
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
+ h
4
h
2
h
1

Equation4.
For water, this cycle corresponds to pressures above 3,206.2

psia and temperatures above 705.4

o
F
(646.3 K)
[1]
. Te T-S diagram for a supercritical cycle can
be seen in Figure 6. With the use of reheat and regeneration
techniques, point 3 in Figure 6, which corresponds to theT-S
vaporstateofthecoolantafterithasexpandedthroughaturbine,
canbepushedtotherightsuchthatthecoolantremainsinthe
gasphase.Tissimplifesthesystembyeliminatingtheneed
forsteamseparators,dryers,andturbinesspeciallydesignedfor
lowqualitysteam.
Traditionally, a Rankine cycle operates across a phase change and a Brayton cycle operates
entirely in the gas phase. However, as improvements in material make higher temperatures
and pressures available, the difference between a supercritical Rankine cycle and a Brayton
cycle blur. For the purpose of this paper, a supercritical Rankine cycle is one which has
evolved from a simple Rankine cycle or one for which it is desirable to run along the
gas/vapor boundary (dimer and trimer formation only) to maximize heat extraction from
the coolant.
T
0 S
1
4
2
3
Q
r
W = Q - Q
a r
Figure 6. Supercritical Rankine Cycle.
R
a
n
k
i
n
e

S
t
e
a
m

C
y
c
l
e

T
h
e
r
m
a
l

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
T
h
r
o
t
t
l
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
Back pressure = 0.5 In. Hg abs (0.0246 psia)
1
4
.7
5
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
2
5
0
0
3
2
0
6
.2
5
0
0
0
1
0
,0
0
0
D
r
y
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d
V
a
p
o
r
a
t
T
h
r
o
t
t
l
e
54
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
Throttle Temperature, K ( F)
o
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
422 533 644 755 866 977 1088
Figure 5. Effect of Turbine Inlet Temperature for a Constant Outlet
Backpressure
[1]
.
- 4 -
Teprimaryconcernwiththiscycle,atleastforwater,isthemateriallimitsoftheprimaryandsupport
equipment.Tematerialsinaboilercanbeexposedtotemperaturesabovetheirlimit,withinreason,solong
astherateofheattransfertothecoolantissufcienttocoolthematerialbelowitsgivenlimit.Tesame
holdstruefortheturbinematerials.Withtheadventofmodernmaterials,i.e.superalloysandceramics,not
onlyarethephysicallimitsofthematerialsbeingpushedtoextremes,butthesystemsarefunctioningmuch
closer to their limits. Te current super alloys and coatings are allowing turbine inlet temperatures of up
to1290
o
F(973K)
[3]
andfourthgenerationsuperalloyswithRutheniummono-crystalstructurespromise
turbineinlettemperaturesupto2010
o
F(1370K)
[4]
inthefuture.
NuclearLightWaterPowerApplication
TeGenerationIVSuperCriticalWater-cooledReactor(SCWR)isa1600MW
e
nuclearpowerplant
design based on the supercritical Rankine cycle. Te system layout is identical to the supercritical system
currentlyusedinfossilfuelsplantsexcepttheboilerisreplacedwithanuclearreactor.Tesystemdiagramcan
beseeninFigure7,page5.ConventionalnuclearplantsoperateonthesimpleRankinecyclewithsuperheating
and exhibit thermal efciencies on the order of 33%. Te SCWR is capable of a thermal efciency of
44.8%
[5]
.Oneoftheattractiveaspectsofasupercriticalcycleforanuclearapplicationisthatiteliminatesthe
needforpressurizers,primarytosecondaryheatexchangers,steamdryers,andsteamgenerators.Whenone
considersthattheprimarycostofelectricityforanuclearplantistheconstructioncost,eliminationofsupport
equipmentiscrucial,especiallyifitofsetsthecostofheavierpressurevesselsandsupportpiping.
Te primary diferences between the SCWR and conventional Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) &
Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) is the reactor outlet temperature is 930
o
F (770 K) instead of 570
o
F
(570 K) and the SCWR operates at approximately 3625 psia
[5]
as compared to 915 psia and 2265 psia
respectively
[6]
.Tisdiferenceisgraphicallyrepresentedin
Figure 8, page 5. In order to handle the higher pressures
and temperatures, the reactor vessel must be designed
to handle the extreme temperatures and pressures. Te
specifcations required to meet this demand are listed in
Table1.Moreimportantthanthepressurevesselhowever,
arethefuelassembliesandcontrolrodcomponents.With
areactorinlettemperatureof535
o
F(550K),thereactor
components are exposed to a temperature diferential of
395
o
F(220K).Unlikethetubesinaboiler,asignifcant
portion of the fuel assembly structure is not directly
transferring heat to the fuid. Tis places much greater
stress on those components and consequently, Phillip E.
MacDonald performed a frst order stress test on many of
the common materials used for these assemblies. Of the
austenetic(304L&316L)andNickle(Alloy600,625,690,
Parameter Value
Material
SA-533orSA-508
Grade3,Class1
Design
Pressure
27.5MPa(3990psig)
110%ofnominalrating
Operating
Temperature
535
o
F
(553K)
InsideShell
Diameter
5.322m
(209.5in)
Shell
Tickness
0.457m
(18in)
Head
Tickness
0.305m
(12in)
Vessel
Weight
1.7millionlbs
Table 1: SCWR Pressure Vessel Specifcations
[5]
- 5 -
Reactor
Figure 7. Schematic of the SCWR power conversion cycle (HPT = high pressure turbine,
LPT = low pressure turbine, FWH = feedwater heater)
[5]
.
- 4 -
2175
3625
T (F)
P (psig)
536 545
SCWR
BWR
1015
Critical
Point
3206
L
S
V
608 705 932
PWR
Figure 8. SCWR, PWR, & BWR operating conditions on the phase diagram of water
[7]
.
- -
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9. Cross sections of the 304L stainless steel SCC sample tested in deaerated supercritical water at
(a) 750 F, (b) 930 F, and (c) 1020 F
[5]
.
- 7 -
&718)basedalloyswhichweretestedinthepressure/temperatureenvironmentpresentinanSCWR,allwere
susceptibletoStressCorrosionCracking(SCC),thoughAlloy316LandAlloy690weresufcientlyresistant
towarrantfurtherstudy
[5]
.ExamplesofSCCin304Lstainlesssteelcanbeseenonpage6inFigure9.Of
theferritic-martensitic(HT-9,T-91,&HCM12A)alloystested,manyexhibitedresistancetoSCCbuthad
oxidationratesoneorderofmagnitudemorethantheausteneticalloys
[5]
.Tismakestheferritic-martensitic
materialsillsuitedforthinassemblycomponents.Teseissuesprovideasubstantialengineeringobstacletobe
overcomebeforetheSCWRcanbeconsideredaviablenuclearpowerplantdesign.Additionally,noneofthe
materialtestingtodatehasbeenperformedineitherahighneutronorhighgammafuxtocharacterizeactual
materialperformanceinanoperatingreactorvessel.
NaturalGasProductionwithaSupercriticalGeothermalPowerApplicationBy-product
Inmanycases,thesourceforNaturalGasproductionisageothermallyheatedbrine.Inthesecases,
thebrinetemperaturesrangefrom240
o
F(390K)upto360
o
F(455K)dependinglinearlyuponwelldepth
[8]
.
Inthistemperaturerange,thebrinepassesthroughaheatexchangertofeedasupercriticalRankinecyclefor
Propane,whichhasacriticaltemperatureof206
o
F(370K)andacriticalpressureof616psia.Teoretically,
the brine may be able to run the cycle directly but there are too many contaminants and compositional
variationsforthistobefeasible.Ifapowercyclelikethiswereemployed,thesitesproducingNaturalGas
couldpotentiallygeneratepowerforGriduseor,ataminimum,generatethemajorityoftheplantselectrical
requirements.IntheUnitedStates,thereareseveralareasalongtheTexasandtheLouisianaGulfCoastwhere
thistypeofpowercycleisfeasible
[8]
.
Te beneft to this cycle is that it is extremely simple in terms of system components. Te system
requires only a single phase heat exchanger, a turbine, an air cooled condenser, and a pump. Figure 10,
page 8, depicts a basic system diagram. Te nominal operating pressure of this system is approximately
1000 psia, which suggests that all of the support piping and equipment is commercially available. Given
a 15 Million BTU/hr brine source, this system could generate approximately 400 kW net power with a
thermal efciency of 9%
[8]
. Additionally, the system can be built to be self regulating by using the power
gridasadynamicbrakefortheturbine-generatorset
[8]
.Inefect,thisactsasaspeedcontrolfortheturbine
during slight variations in system demand under normal operating conditions. Additional controls can be
implementedtoautomatethesystembasedonbrinetemperatureandfowrates,allofwhichminimizethe
needtohaveafull-timeoperator,thusreducingoperationalcosts.
Despite the downside of a poor thermal efciency of only 9%, this system is still a viable source
of energy. Currently, production plants are dumping the available heat to the atmosphere. Te question
becomesoneofeconomics;atacostofapproximately$2,131/KW
[8]
(1982dollars$5,488todayadjusted
for infation), will a 9% return pay itself back over the life of the well. At todays prices with an average
electricitycostof$0.11perkWhr,itwouldtakeapproximately6yearstorecoverthecostofthepowerplant.
Sinceapowerplantofthissizecanbebuiltonamobileplatform,evenifanindividualwelldoesnotlast6
years,thepowerplantcanbemovedtoanewlocationandreused.Basedontheplatformbeingreusable,this
isapotentiallyviablepowerplantdesigndespitethelowthermalefciencyof9%.
- -
SupercriticalCO
2
PowerApplication
TesupercriticalCO
2
cycleisonewhichisarguablyaBraytoncycleratherthanaRankinecycle.CO
2

hasacriticalpressureofapproximately1057psiaandacriticaltemperatureofapproximately88
o
F(305K).
Becausethecriticaltemperatureisachievableduringnormaloperatingconditions,itisfeasibletorunalong
the gas/vapor boundary between the turbine outlet and the compressor inlet; thus allowing the system to
maximizetheworkthatcanbeextractedfromthecoolant.Forthisreason,thesupercriticalCO
2
cyclewill
beconsideredinthispaper.AbasicsystemdiagramisshowninFigure11,page9,andcorrespondingsystem
temperaturesandpressuresintable2,page9.
OneoftheGenerationIVnuclearplantdesignsisasupercriticalCO
2
cycle.Tisdesignoperatesat
similartemperatureandpressureastheSCWR.Teoutlettemperatureisapproximately1020
o
F(820K)and
theexitpressureis2900psia
[9]
.Tethermalefciencyofthiscycleisabout45%butduetotheenhanced
heattransferpropertiesofCO
2
,thecomponentscanbemadesmallerandtherebyreducecomponentcostsby
upto18%comparedtoconventionalBWRandPWRplants
[9]
.Alsoofinterest,thedensityofCO
2
increases
and compressibility decreases substantially as it approaches the critical point. Tis property both reduces
theworkrequiredtobeperformedbythecompressorandreducesthefootprintofthephysicalcomponent,
thusimprovingefciencyandcomponentcost.Anexampleoftheconceptualsizediferencecanbeseenin
Figure12,page9.
Additionally,thissystemhasreactorinlettemperaturesofapproximately745
o
F(670K),whichleads
totemperaturediferentialsofabout275
o
F(410K)
[9]
.WhiletheconditionsinthesupercriticalCO
2
cycle
arenotasextremeasthoseintheSCWR,theyaresufcienttowarrantextensiveSCCtests,especiallywhere
CO
2
ispotentiallymorecorrosivethanwateratthenominaloperatingtemperatures.
Brine
Turbine
Pump
Accumulator
Air Cooled
Condenser
Primary Heat
Exchanger
Figure 10. Supercritical Propane Cycle Fed by Geothermally Heated Natural
Gas Brine.
- 9 -
Steam turbine: 55 stages / 250 MW
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, Japan (with casing)
Helium turbine: 17 stages / 333 MW (167 MW
e
)
X.L.Yan, L.M. Lidsky (MIT) (without casing)
Supercritical CO
2
turbine: 4 stages / 450 MW (300 MW
e
)
(without casing)
5 m
Compressors are of comparable size
Figure 12. Size Comparison between Turbines of Various Cycles/Coolants
[9]
.
LOW
TEMPERATURE
RECUPERATOR
FLOW
MERGE
TURBINE
HIGH
TEMPERATURE
RECUPERATOR
SPLIT
MAIN
PRECOOLER
FLOW
COMPRESSOR
REACTOR
2
4
6
7
8 6
8
RECOMPRESSING
1
8 8
COMPRESSOR
3
3
5
3
Figure 11. Supercritical CO
2
Recompression Cycle
[9]
.
Point Pressure
(psia)
Temperature
o
F
1 1101 89.6
2 2864 142.0
3 2862 316.4
4 2858 745.8
5 2839 1022.0
6 1131 824.5
7 1119 335.0
8 1103 157.3
Table 2: Calculated System Parameters
corresponding to Figure 11
[9]
.
- 10 -
Conclusion
Te supercritical Rankine cycle, in general, ofers an additional 30% relative improvement in the
thermal efciency as compared to the same system operating in the subcritical region. Te cycle has been
successfullyutilizedinfossilfuelplantsbutthecurrentavailablematerialsprohibitreliableapplicationofthe
supercriticalcycletonuclearapplications.Tereismuchworktobedoneinordertoadvancematerialstothe
pointwheretheywillbeabletoreliablywithstandthestressesofasupercriticalenvironmentinsideanuclear
reactorforadesignedlifespanofapproximately60years.
Whilemanyofthematerialadvancesareduetotheadventofspecializedcoatings,itisreasonableto
suspectthatnewadvancescouldalsobemadebyimprovementsintheisotopicqualityofthebasemetals.It
has been known for decades that isotopically pure materials have considerably better thermal conductivity.
Improvementsinisotopicpuritycanafectheattransfercharacteristicsbyuptoafactorofthree
[11]
,possibly
more. It should be noted however, the cost of obtaining sufcient quantities of such materials may be
prohibitiveandthebeneftgainedistemperaturedependant.
OneotherconsiderationforasupercriticalRankinecycleisthesizeoftheplant.Forlargeplantson
theorderofa1600MW
e
thethermalefcienciesareinthe40%region.Bythetimethepowerplantsare
reducedtothe20MW
e
range,thermalefcienciesaredownintothelowtomid20%region
[7]
.Asindicated
bythegeothermalpropaneapplication,whenaplantisinthe400kW
e
region,thethermalefciencyislower
yet.Forthepropanecycle,itwas9%;byextrapolation,asupercriticalsteamcyclewouldbe19%efcient
were it applicable. Te issue for smaller systems is the cost efectiveness. A supercritical cycle is simpler
andreducestheamountofequipmentrequiredtooperatethecyclebutbecauseitoperatesatmuchhigher
pressuresandtemperaturesthecostoftheequipmentwhichisrequired,goesupconsiderably.Smallsystems
mayhaveimprovedthermalefciencybutmaynotbethemostcostefectivesolutions;forthisreasonthey
shouldbeconsideredskepticallybeforebeingimplemented.Justbecauseasystemcanbemademoreefcient
doesnotmeanitisthebestallocationofmoney,ormaterialresources.
- 11 -
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