Module 1
Transportation engineering is the application of scientific
principles to the planning, design, operation and
management of transportation system.
The Transportation System
• A system is something that may be thought of as a whole
consisting of parts or components.
• The transportation system is a functional system that
provides a service (the movement of goods and people
from place to place.
• Transportation is one of the major functional systems of
modern society.
As a major functional system..
• It is an essential feature in the economy and the
personal lives of people everywhere, most especially in the
developed nations.
• A highly developed transportation system makes possible
the abundance and variety of goods and the high levels of
personal mobility that are the hallmarks of a wealthy
society.
• At the same time, the transportation system is a major
source of resource consumption and environmental
impact.
Components of Transportation System
• Physical Facilities | including streets, roads, and
highways, railroads, airports, sea and river ports, pipelines
and canals.
• Fleets | of vehicles, vessels, and aircraft.
• Operating bases and facilities | including vehicle
maintenance facilities and office space.
• Organizations | (Facility-oriented organizations or
Operating organizations)
• Operating Strategies | including vehicle routing,
scheduling, and traffic control.
Effectiveness of Transportation System
• Effectiveness is described in terms of the accessibility of
the mode, the level of mobility it provides, and its
productivity.
• Accessibility refers to the cost of getting to and from a
place to another and depends primarily on geographical
extensiveness.
• Mobility is described in terms of speed or travel time.
• Productivity refers to some measure of the total amount
of transportation provided per unit time. The amount of
transportation is usually thought of as the product of the
volume of goods or passengers carried and distance.
Modes of Transportation - The modes are distinguished in
terms of their physical characteristics, for instance, as
highway, rail, air, and water transportation.
Highways
• The highway system is the most dominant transportation
mode.
• Very high accessibility to almost all potential
destinations; direct service with very low door-to-door
travel time; moderate line-haul speeds and; moderate
capacities.
• Environmental impacts of the system are high,
particularly in the case of air pollution.
Urban Transit
• It includes traditional mass transit modes such as buses,
streetcars, and light rail and rail rapid transit, as well as
paratransit modes such as jitneys and dial-a-ride services.
• Commuters | making work trips into dense central
business districts.
• Captive riders | those without access to automobiles.
• Line-haul speeds and door-to-door travel time vary.
• Environmental impacts are less than those of private
automobiles.
Air
• The air transportation system includes commercial
airlines, airfreight carriers, and general aviation (private
aircraft).
• High line-haul speed; accessibility is limited; capacities of
individual aircraft are moderate; capital and operating
costs are both high but high productivity results in
moderate costs per passenger carried.
• Environmental impacts are significant, especially the
noise impacts of commercial aviation.
Rail
• The rail system provides moderate speeds and levels of
accessibility, but traditional operating practices, which
involve relatively short hauls between rail yards, where
trains are broken up and reassembled, lead to high and
unreliable door-to-door travel time.
• Capital costs of locomotives and railcars, and
maintenance costs for track are also relatively high.
• Environmental impacts are comparatively low.
Water
• The domestic water transportation system consists of
coastwise ocean shipping and barge lines operating on
inland waterways.
• Provides low speed and relatively low accessibility, but
extremely high capacities.
• Capital cost of vessels is high.
• Environmental impacts are relatively low but water
pollution from routine discharges of oil and other
pollutants, as well as from major oil spills involving tankers,
is a significant problem.
Scope Of Highway Engineering
• Development, planning, and location
• Highway design, geometric, and structure
• Traffic performance and its control
• Materials, construction, and maintenance
• Economic, finance, and administration
Characteristics of Road Transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like
passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle, and animal
drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the
government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicle from one lane to another and from one road to
another according to need and convenience.
• Speed and movement are directly related with the
severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of transport that offers
itself to the whole community alike.
Transportation Issues and Challenges
• Traffic congestion exists wherever demand exceeds the
capacity of the transportation system.
• Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks
that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower
speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing.
Challenges
Performance of the transportation system
• Managing congestion
• Improving safety
• Providing equal access
• Protecting the environment
Performance of the transportation engineering
profession, economic and political system
• Incorporating new technology
• Securing financial resources
• Developing adequate institutional arrangements
• Traffic safety is continuing challenge for the
transportation
engineering profession because of public expectations that
safety will continue to improve.
• The focus of agencies involved with transportation safety
are improvement of safety of vehicles, traffic safety, safety
research and development, and collection of accident data.
• These agencies investigate selected accidents involving
all transportation modes, identifies safety problems, an
serves as an advocate for transportation safety concerns.
Highway and Traffic Safety
• The Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals was
created on November 8, 1968 during the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (UNESCO) Conference on
Road Traffic at Vienna, Austria. A total of 52 contracting
countries including the Philippines agreed to accept the
system as described in the convention.
• Informative sign | is a very legibly printed and very
noticeable placard that informs people of the purpose of
an object, or gives them instruction on the use of
something.
Examples

Managing Congestion
• The usual response to congestion was to build more
capacity.
• This approach was always limited by the availability of
funding.
• Political support for major expansions of the urban
highway system is now lacking due to the potential
environmental impacts.
• Recently, it has been popular to seek solutions involving
more sophisticated traffic control.
• Since 1960s, there have been repeated calls to shift from
private automobiles to urban passenger transportation
because of the environmental consequences and the cost • Regulatory signs | are traffic signs intended to instruct
of expanding the system. road users on what they must or should do (or not do)
• In addition, there have been suggestions that traffic under a given set of circumstances. Other types may be
congestion can be reduced through better urban land-use signs located on streets and in parking lots having to do
planning, or through congestion pricing. with parking, signs in public parks and on beaches or on or
• Congestion pricing | is a system of surcharging users of in architectural facilities prohibiting specific types of
public goods that are subject to congestion through excess activities.
demand such as higher peak charges for use of bus
services, metros, railways, and road pricing to reduce Examples
traffic congestion.

Traffic Safety
• A second major challenge is the continued improvement
of traffic safety.
• Traffic accidents are of concern for all modes of
transportation, but are perhaps most visible in highways
and commercial air.
 • Air pollution is commonly perceived as being the most
serious environmental problem resulting from the
• Warning sign | is a type of traffic sign that indicates a transportation.
hazard ahead on the road that may not be readily apparent • Most transportation-related air pollution is the result of
to a driver. In most countries, they usually take the shape the use of highway vehicles in densely populated
of an equilateral triangle with a white background and a metropolitan areas.
thick red border.
New Technology
Examples • The major technological development of the past 20
years has been a concerted effort to take advantage of
rapid advances in electronic technology.
• These technologies include information processing,
communications, and control systems and are collectively
known as intelligent transportation system (ITS).
• These ITS technologies are the subject of a major
technological initiative involving government, business,
academic, and research organizations.
• The goals of the ITS program are to:
• Improve safety
• Reduce congestion
• Improve mobility and accessibility
• Reduce the environmental impact and increase
energy efficiency
• Improve economic productivity
• Create a domestic ITS industry
• These goals are to be achieved through:
Equality of Access • Improved traffic control systems
• Another continuing challenge has been to provide • Improvements in the provision of information
adequate access about the transportation system to its users
to the transportation system for all sorts of people. • Automation of administrative and regulatory
• Three groups in particular that are seen as generally functions
undeserved. • New or improved systems for warning users of
• Physically handicapped hazards
• Elderly • New vehicle control systems
• Poor • And other applications of electronic technology
Environmental Protection
• One of the most important challenges to the Funding
transportation system is that of dealing with its • Securing adequate financial resources is another
environmental impacts. perennial challenge, both for
• These include impacts on air quality, energy • public agencies, providing transportation
consumption, and land use. facilities
• Site-specific impacts include those related to the: • private-sector firms, providing transportation
• Displacement of resident and businesses services.
• Noise • The most common forms of user charges:
• Impacts on wildlife • Fuel taxes, which have been applied as fixed
• Impacts on water quality charger per gallon/liter of fuel sold.
• Visual impacts • Direct fares or tolls
• Temporary impacts during construction (noise,
dust, reduced water quality due to erosion of Institutional Arrangements
unprotected slopes) • New arrangements have come about as a response to
• Impacts in environmentally sensitive areas perceived deficiencies in the existing system. Often, they
• Examples of such areas are: have been imposed by outside agencies and in many cases
• Habitats of threatened or endangered species they have been resisted by established institutions.
• Flood plains • In the recent past, the most conspicuous and enduring
• Wetlands areas of institutional change have been (1) adjustments to
• Coastal zones the relationship between the public and private sectors
• Prime agricultural lands and (2) attempts to overcome modal and jurisdictional
• Historical or archaeological sites fragmentation.
• Wild or scenic rivers
Module 2
Historical Development of Road Construction
• Oldest mode are foot paths, animal ways, and cart path
• As civilization evolved, the need for transportation
increased.
• Roman Roads (500 BC)
– They were built straight regardless of gradient
– They were built after the soft soil was removed and a
hard
stratum was reached
– Thickness varies from 0.75 m to 1.2 m
Trésaguet Road Construction
• After the Romans, the next major development in the
road
construction occurred during the regime of Napoleon.
• The significant contributions were given by a French
engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet in 1764.
• He developed a cheaper method of construction than
the locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice.
• The pavement used 200 mm pieces of stone of a more
compact form and shaped such that they had at least one
at a side which was placed on a compact formation.
• Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted
into the spaces between larger stones to provide a level
surface.
• Finally, the running layer was made with a layer of 25
mm-sized broken stone.
Telford Road Construction
• The next development was done by Scottish engineer
Thomas Telford (1757-1834).
• The foundation was prepared for a road with width of 9
m and it was leveled.
• Larger size stones of width equal to 40 mm and a depth
170 to 220 mm were then laid.
• After filling the spaces between foundation stones, two
layers of stones having compacted thickness of 100 and 50
mm respectively laid in the center of 5.4 m of width.
• The top layer of road was made of 40 mm thick binding
layer of gravel.
McAdam Road Construction
• The British engineer John McAdam introduced what can
be considered as the first scientific road construction
method.
• Stone size was an important element of McAdam road.
• By empirical observation of many roads, he came to
realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken
angular stone would provide the same strength and
stiffness and a better running surface than an expensive
pavement founded on large stone blocks.
Highway Development in the Philippines
• The list of roads in Metro Manila (MM) summarizes the
major thoroughfares and the numbering system currently
being implemented in MM, Philippines.
• MM’s arterial road network consists of national roads,
the
circumferential roads and the radial roads, as well as the
other major roads connecting the cities of Manila, Quezon,
Caloocan, Valenzuela, Malabon, Navotas, Pasay,
Parañaque, Las Piñas, Taguig, Marikina, Pasig,
Mandaluyong, Makati, Pateros and San Juan as well as the
surrounding provinces.
• The first road numbering system in the Philippines was
adopted in 1930 by the administration of President Manuel
Quezon and was very much similar to U.S. Highway
numbering system.
• In 1945, the Metropolitan Thoroughfare Plan was
submitted by Quezon City planners Louis Croft and Antonio
Kayanan which proposed the laying of 10 radial roads,
which purposes in conveying traffic in and out of the city of
Manila to the surrounding cities and provinces, and the
completion of circumferential roads, that will act as
beltways of the city, forming altogether a web-like arterial
road system.
Classification of Highways
• Based on weather
– All weather roads
– Fair weather roads
• Based on type of carriageway
– Paved roads (water bound macadam roads)
– Unpaved roads (earth road or gravel road)
• Based on pavement surface
– Surfaced roads (bituminous or cement concrete road)
– Un-surfaced road
• Based on traffic volume
– Heavy
– Medium
– Light
• Based on load or tonnage
– Class 1, Class 2, etc.
– Class A, Class B, etc.
• Based on location and function
– Expressway
– Arterial road
– Collector road
– Local road
Urban Road Classification
• Expressway
– At the top of the hierarchy are limited access roads
freeways or expressways, including most toll roads. These
roads provide largely uninterrupted travel and are
designed for high speeds.
– No slow moving traffic allowed, no loading, unloading,
parking.
• Arterial road
– Arterial are major through roads that are expected to
carry large volumes of traffic. They are often divided into
major or minor and rural or urban.
– Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection
• Collector road
– Also known as distributor road is a low to moderate
capacity road which serves to move traffic from local
streets to arterial roads.
– Located in residential, business and industrial areas, full
access allowed, parking is permitted.
• Local road
– This road has the lowest speed limit and carry low
volumes of traffic. In some areas, this road may be
unpaved.
– Primary access to residence, business or other abutting
property, parking and pedestrian movements are not
restricted, no waiting restrictions.
Highway Alignment - The position or lay out of center line
of the highway on the ground is called the alignment.
• It includes straight path, horizontal deviation, and curves.
• If improper alignment was executed, disadvantages could
be:
– Increase in construction cost
– Increase in maintenance cost
– Increase in vehicle operation cost
– Increase in accident
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to
change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining
land and construction of costly structure.
Requirements of Highway Alignment
• Short | It should be desirable to have a short alignment
between two terminal stations.
• Easy | It should be easy to construct and maintain with
minimum problem and easy for the operation of vehicles.
• Safe | It should be safe enough for the construction and
maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill
slope, embankment, and cut slope. It should also be safe
for traffic operation.
• Economical | Total cost including initial cost,
maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost should be
minimum.
Factors Controlling Alignment
• Obligatory points
– Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
(bridge site, intermediate town, mountain pass, etc.)
– Obligatory points through which alignment should not
pass (religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land,
etc.)
• Traffic
– Origin and destination survey should be carried out in
the area and the desire line be drawn showing the trend of
traffic flow.
– New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
• Geometric design
– Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight
distance also govern the final alignment of the highway.
– Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient
or design gradient.
– Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near
crossings
– Avoid sharp horizontal curves
– Avoid road intersection near bend
• Economy
– Alignment finalized based on total cost including initial
cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost.
• Other considerations
– Surface water and flood level, drainage, environmental,
and political
Additional Care in Hill Roads
• Topographical control points
– The alignment, if possible, should avoid passing through
marshy and low lying land with poor drainage, flood prone
areas, unstable hilly features
• Materials and constructional features
– Deep cutting should be avoided
– Earthwork is to be balanced (quantities for filling and
excavation)
– Alignment should preferably be through better soil area
to
minimize pavement thickness
– Location may be near sources of embankment and
pavement materials
• Stability
– A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
– The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads
on hilly sides causes steepening of existing slope and affect
its stability
• Drainage
– Avoid the cross drainage structure
– The number of cross drainage structure should be
minimum
• Geometric standard of hilly road
– Gradient, curve, and speed
– Sight distance, radius of curve
• Geometric standard of hilly road
– Total work to be done to move loads along the route
taking horizontal length, actual difference in level between
two stations, and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in
excess of floating gradient should kept as low as possible.
Highway Surveys - Before a highway alignment is finalized
in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. The various stages of engineering surveys are:
– Map study (provisional alignment identification)
– Reconnaissance survey
– Preliminary survey
– Final location and detailed surveys
Map Study
• From the map alternative route that can be suggested in
the office, if the topographic map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from
the following details available on the map
– Avoiding valleys, ponds, or lake
– Avoiding bend of river
– If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing
through mountain pass
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be
further surveyed in the field.
Reconnaissance Survey
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• To examine the general character of the area in field for
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field with very simple
instrument like abney level, tanget clinometer, barometer,
etc.
• To collect additional details. Details to be collected from
alternative routes during this survey are:
– Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent
structure, and other obstruction
– Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this
survey are
(cont.):
– Number and type of cross drainage structures
– High flood level (HFL)
– Soil characteristics
– Geological features
– Source of construction materials (stone quarries, water
sources, etc.)
• Prepare a report on pros and cons of different alternative
routes.
• As a result, few alternative alignments may be chosen for
further study based on practical considerations observed
at the site.
Preliminary Survey
• Objectives of preliminary survey are:
– To survey the various alternative alignments proposed
after the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary
physical information and detail of topography, drainage,
and soil.
– To compare the different proposals in view of the
requirements of the good alignment.
– To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspect and to work out the cost of the
alternate proposals.
• Methods of preliminary survey are:
– Conventional approach | survey party carries out surveys
using the required field equipment, taking measurement,
collecting topographical and other data and carrying out
soil survey.
– Modern rapid approach | by aerial survey taking the
required aerial photographs for obtaining the necessary
topographic and other maps including details of soil and
geology.
– Finalize the best alignment from all considerations by
comparative analysis of alternative routes.
Final Location and Detailed Survey
• The alignment finalized at the design office after the
preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the center line.
• Location survey
– Transferring the alignment on to the ground.
– This is done by transit theodolite.
– Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and center pegs are driven, checking the geometric
design requirements.
– Center line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50
m
interval in plane and rolling terrains and 20 m in hilly
terrain.
• Detailed survey
– Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about
250 m and at all drainage and under pass structure.
– Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be
workout from the level books.
– Cross-sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100 m
in plane terrain, 50-75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up
area, and 20 m in hill terrain.
– Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
– CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be
determined for design of pavement.
– The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and
complete for preparing detailed plans, design, and
estimates of project.
Drawings and Reports for a Highway Project
• Key map
• Index map
• Preliminary survey plans
• Detailed plan and longitudinal section
• Detailed cross-section
• Land acquisition plans
• Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
• Drawings of road intersections
• Land plans showing quarries, etc.
• Map study
• Reconnaissance survey
• Location of final alignment
• Detailed survey
• Material survey
• Geometric and structural design
• Earthwork
• Pavement construction
• Construction controls
• Key map | should show the proposed and existing roads,
and important places to be connected. The size of the plan
in general should not exceed 22 x 20 cm. Scale of the map
is chosen suitably according to the length of road/highway.
• Index map | should show the general topography of the
area or site. Details are represented using symbols. Index
map should also be of suitable scale with size 32 x 20 cm.
• Preliminary survey plans | are plans showing details of
various alternate alignments and all information collected
should be drawn to a suitable scale of 10 cm = 1 km to 25
cm = 1 km.
• Detailed plan | shows the ground plan with alignment
and the boundaries. It shows contours at intervals of 1 to 2
meter in plain terrain and 3 to 6 meters in hilly terrain
showing all details including existing structures. Scale of
1/2400 or 1/1200 is suitable for detailed plans. Size of
drawing may be 60 x 42 cm approximately.
• Longitudinal sections | should be drawn to the same
horizontal scale of the ground as in detailed plan. Vertical
scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale.
The longitudinal section should show details such as datum
line, existing ground surface, and vertical profile of the
proposed road and position of drainage crossings.
• Detailed cross-section | are generally drawn to natural
scale of 1 cm = 2.0 to 2.5 meter. It should be drawn every
100 meter or where there are abrupt changes in level. In
hill roads, the cross-section should be drawn at closer
intervals. The cross-section drawing should extend at least
up to the proposed right of way. The cross-section number,
the reduced distances, and the area of filling or cutting (or
both) should be shown on cross-section drawing.
• Land acquisition plans | are usually prepared from the
survey drawings for land acquisition details. These plans
show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of
gradients, and other details required for assessing the
values. The scale may be 1 cm = 40 meters or less.
• Drawings of cross-drainage | are usually drawn to scale
of 1 cm = 1 meter. For details of any complicated portion of
the structure, enlarged scales up to 8 cm = 1 meter or up
to half full size may be employed. However, the size of
drawing should not exceed the standard size. Cross-section
of streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm = 10
meters.
• Drawing of road intersections | should be prepared
showing all details of pavement, shoulders, islands, etc. to
proper scale.
• Land plans showing quarries | where quarries for
construction materials are to be acquired for new projects,
separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these
maps and scales may be similar to those proposed under
land acquisition.
Module 3
Design Speed
• The choice of an appropriate design speed for a road
project is important to ensure a safe design.
• When choosing a design speed, the following factors
need to be considered:
• Function of the road | An arterial road such as a national
highway would generally have a higher design speed than a
local road.
• Anticipated operating speed | For example, a national
highway in an area with steep terrain would generally have
a lower design speed (i.e., smaller radius curve) than a
national highway in flat terrain where higher speeds would
generally be anticipated and hence large radius curves
adopted.
• When choosing a design speed, the following factors
need to be considered (cont.):
• Anticipated operating speed (cont.) | In these examples,
the anticipated operating speed of the new facility (that
may include improved alignment and road surface), should
form the basis for determining an appropriate design
speed, rather than the operating speed of the existing
road.
• Anticipated speed limit | When considering the speed
design along a route, it may also be necessary to adopt a
different design speed for different sections of the road as
circumstances change. For example, within a town or on
the road section between towns.
• Economics | The implications relating cost of
construction.
Speed Implications
• Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer and less
serious crashes. There are two reasons for this:
– At higher speeds a rider or driver has less time to react to
a situation and therefore there is a greater likelihood that
an error will result in a crash; and
– The momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle increases
rapidly with speed. The sudden dissipation of this energy in
a crash means that the injury to occupants is more severe.
• Therefore, a carefully planned speed limit regime can
make a significant contribution to road safety.
Current Speed Limits
• The current speed restrictions are set out in Republic Act
No. 4136 ‘Land Transportation and Traffic Code.’
• The rules indicate that a motorist shall drive at a safe
speed determined by the driver based on the road
environment and conditions. There are however maximum
allowable speeds for different road environments.
• On open country roads with no “blind corners” not
closely
bordered by habitation, the maximum speed for passenger
cars and motorcycles is 80 kph and for motor trucks and
buses, 50 kph.
• On “through streets” or boulevards clear of traffic, with
no “blind corners”, when so designated, the maximum
speed for passenger cars and motorcycles is 40 kph and for
motor trucks and buses, 30 kph.
• On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not
designated “through streets”, the maximum speed for
passenger cars, motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 30
kph.
• Through crowded streets, approaching intersections at
“blind corners”, passing school zones, passing other
vehicles which are stationary, or for similar dangerous
circumstances, the maximum speed for passenger cars,
motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 20 kph.
• Where it is determined that a road should have a
different speed restriction to that indicated above, then
specific speed restriction signs should be installed to
inform motorists. The following sections describe where
certain speed restrictions could be appropriate.
• High risk pedestrian areas – 40 kph
– Vulnerable road users, especially pedestrians, are
particularly vulnerable at higher speeds. The graph below
based on international research shows the risk of a
pedestrian fatality if hit by a vehicle at different speeds.
• High risk pedestrian areas – 40 kph (cont.)
– For instance, 25% of people struck by a vehicle traveling
at 40 kph would suffer fatal injuries. At 50 kph this risk
increases to 85%. Therefore, a speed limit of 40 kph or
lower would be appropriate in areas where there is high
pedestrian activity such as in city center areas.
– A 40 kph speed limit would also be appropriate on roads
where there are no footpaths and pedestrians are required
to walk on the road.
• Low risk pedestrian areas – 60 kph
– On roads through built-up areas where there are not so
many pedestrians, it is appropriate to allow motorized
traffic to travel more quickly.
– The picture below shows the type of environment where
60 kph may be appropriate. Although this road is carrying
vulnerable road users, they have a separate lane to travel
in.
• 80 kph
– An 80 kph speed limit would be appropriate on a high
standard duplicated carriageway road where there is only
occasional access from adjoining properties.
• 100 kph
– A 100 kph speed limit would only be appropriate on very
high standard expressways, which have a low crash rate.
These expressways should have a high standard geometry
and should be free of roadside hazards. If hazards exist and
they cannot be removed or modified, they should be
shielded with a safety barrier.
Speed Restriction Signs
• Good speed management practice depends on speed
limit signs being placed in visible locations and repeated
frequently enough for motorists to be certain of which
speed zone they are in.
• At the start of a new speed zone, a speed limit sign
should be erected on the left and right sides of the road.
Then within the first kilometer, there should be two (2)
farther pairs of repeater speed limit signs. After that,
repeater signs should be placed at one kilometer spacing.
• Repeater signs should also be placed before and after all
major intersections to confirm the speed limit to all traffic
turning into the road being considered.
Poor Road Standards
• If the standard of the road geometry or its surface is
poor, then it may be appropriate to adopt a lower speed
limit than would normally apply until such time that the
road improvements can be made. The lower speeds
compensate for the hazardous conditions of the road.
• An 80 kph or 90 kph speed limit may also be appropriate
on lower standard expressways. For instance, the concrete
plant cylinders on the side of the expressways as shown in
the figure are a serious road hazard within the clear zone
which could cause injury to the occupants of an out-of-
control vehicle. If this roadside hazard cannot be removed
or protection for vehicles provided, the speed limit should
be restricted to reduce the risk to motorists and riders.
Road Capacity
• Road capacity, as defined in the U.S. Highway Capacity
Manual (HCM), is the maximum number of vehicles, which
have a reasonable expectation of passing over a given
section of a lane or a roadway ion one direction or in both
directions during one hour under prevailing road and
traffic conditions.
• Generally, road capacity with respect to road sections is
measured in terms of level-of-service. This is designated
with letters ‘A’ to ‘F’ with ‘A’ the most ideal condition and
‘F’ the saturated condition where volume is equal to the
road capacity.
• In regard to intersections, capacity is generally measured
in terms of ’degree of saturation.’
• The capacity of a route can be affected by the following
factors:
– Number of lanes;
– Lane and shoulder width;
– Terrain and road gradient;
– Traffic composition;
– Side friction such as the presence of road furniture and
pedestrians; and
– Intersection capacity (priority of movements, traffic
signal
phasing number of lanes etc.).
• Ideal capacity of a road is 2000 vehicles/hour (vph).
However, based on several surveys conducted in Metro
Manila for various infrastructure projects, it was found that
the maximum volume is achieved only at a level of 1400
vph on expressways and 1100 for urban arterials.
• In the design stage of a road project, appropriate
capacity should be established to ensure satisfactory
operation. In establishing the capacity of the road, actual
traffic surveys as well as investigation of future use is
required to ensure that safety is not compromised once
the facility is in operation.
Traffic Forecasts
• Experiences in the Philippines indicated that traffic
forecasts for expressways (tolled facilities) are usually
optimistic. This may be seen as a factor to boost revenue
forecasts to make the road appear more interesting to
investors. The opposite can be true in planning urban
arterials as forecasts are often below actual traffic counts
once the facility is in operation. The latter has more impact
on traffic safety since it could mean more traffic is using
the road than the volume for which it was originally
designed. Further, road maintenance is often compromised
when traffic exceeds the forecasts (e.g., thickness of
pavement, lane width, maintenance budget, etc.).
Safety Design
• This section describes how the road network can be
made to be safer through the awareness of safety
principles during the design stages.
• The first aim of safe road design is to ensure that road
users remain safely on the road. This depends on the
following factors:
– a sound road surface;
– an adequate width or cross-section;
– horizontal and vertical alignment;
– good visibility/sight distance;
– delineation and signing;
• This depends on the following factors (cont.):
– provision for pedestrians, pedal cyclists and people with
disabilities;
– management of traffic conflicts at intersections; and
– speed management.
• However, drivers and riders will sometimes make
mistakes and lose control and leave the road. At the stage
it is important to provide a forgiving roadside.
Module 4
Importance of Geometric Design
• The geometric design of a highway deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway
such as alignment, sight distance, and intersection.
• The main objective of highway design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum
safety at reasonable cost.
• Geometric design of highway deals with following
elements:
– Cross-section elements
– Sight distance considerations
– Horizontal alignment details
– Vertical alignment details
– Intersection elements
Design Controls and Criteria
• Design speed
– In the Philippines, different speed standards have been
assigned for different class of road.
– Design speed may be modified depending upon the
terrain conditions.
• Topography
– This is classified based on the general slope of the
country
– Plane terrain < 10%
– Rolling terrain 10-25%
– Mountainous terrain 25-60%
– Steep terrain > 60%
• Traffic Factor
– Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of
road users.
– Different vehicle classes have different speed and
acceleration characteristics, different dimensions, and
weight.
– Human factor includes the physical, mental, and
psychological characteristics of driver and pedestrian.
• Design hourly volume and capacity
– Traffic flow fluctuating with time
– Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value
during the peak hour
– It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic
flow.
• Environmental and other factors
– Aesthetics
– Landscaping
– Air pollution
– Noise pollution
Pavement Surface Characteristics
• Pavement surface depend on the type of pavement
which is decided based on the following:
– Availability of material
– Volume and composition of traffic
– Soil subgrade
– Construction facility
– Cost consideration
• The important surface characteristics are:
– Friction
– Pavement unevenness
– Light reflecting characteristics
– Drainage of surface water
Friction
• Friction | When the path travelled along the road surface
is more than the circumferential movement of the wheels
due to their rotation.
• Slipping | When a wheel revolves more than the
corresponding longitudinal movement along the road
• Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance:
– Types of pavement surface
– Roughness of pavement
– Condition of the pavement (wet or dry)
– Type and condition of tire
– Speed of vehicle
– Brake efficiency
– Load and tire pressure
– Temperature of tire and pavement
• Smooth and worn-out tires offer higher friction factor on
dry pavement but new tire with good threads gives higher
friction factor on wet pavement.
• Hydroplaning | or aquaplaning by tires of a road vehicle
occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of
the vehicle and the road surface.
Pavement Unevenness
• Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than
uneven surface.
• It affects:
– Vehicle operation cost
– Comfort and safety
– Fuel consumption
– Wear and tear of tires and other moving parts
• It is commonly measured by an equipment called bump
integrator.
• Bump integrator | also known as automatic road
unevenness recorder gives quantitative integrated
evaluation of surface irregularities. It gives cumulative
measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface
recorded per unit horizontal length.
• Bump integrator | 250 cm/km for a speed of 100 kph and
more than 350 cm/km considered very unsatisfactory even
at speed of 50 kph.
• Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by:
– Inadequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and
pavement
layers
– Un-engineered construction practices including the use
of
boulder stones and bricks as soiling course over loose
subgrade soil
– Use of inferior pavement material
– Improper surface and subsurface drainage
– Improper construction machinery
– Poor maintenance
Light Reflecting Characteristics
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light
reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface.
• The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on
wet pavement surface than on dry pavement particularly
in case of black top pavement (flexible pavement).
• Light colored or white pavement (rigid pavement) surface
give good visibility at night particularly during the rain, but
produces glare or eye strain during bright sunlight.
Highway Cross-Section Elements
Carriageway
• It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle
and it takes the vehicular loading.
• It may be cement concrete (rigid pavement) road or
bituminous pavement (flexible pavement).
• Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the
width of the vehicle and the minimum side clearance for
safety.
• As indicated in the table (Design Standards), the basic
lane width appropriate for national road is 3.35 m.
• On lower trafficked roads, the lane width can be reduced.
This is justified on the basis of economics.
• For a single lane road traffic, the lane width is 4.0 m.
• For two lane national road, the minimum width is 2 x
3.35 m lanes (total of 6.7 m).
• As the traffic volume increases, so the need for extra
width is justified. This width can increase up to a maximum
of 3.65 m.
Shoulder
• It is provided along the road edge to serve as an
emergency lane for vehicles. It acts as a service lane for
vehicles that have broken down.
• Shoulder width is generally selected according to the
traffic volume and standards that are detailed in the table
(Design Standards).
• Shoulder widths on low volume roads may be increased
if there are significant number of pedestrians or other
needs requiring use of the shoulder to improve safety.
• The surface should be rougher than the traffic lanes so
that vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder for
regular traffic.
• On curved alignments, it is advisable to consider the
paving of the outside curve shoulder width. This will
minimize the possibility of a vehicle that strays off the
traffic lane from losing control due to poor traction on a
graveled shoulder.
• Roadway width
– It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement
including separators if any, and the shoulders.
• Right of way
– It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its
alignment.
– It depends on the importance of the road and possible
future development.
– It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of
adjoining land invariably increases very much, soon after
the new highway is constructed.
Building Line| Control Line
• Building line
– In order to reserve sufficient space for future
development of roads, it is desirable to control the building
activities on either side of the road boundary, beyond the
land width acquired for the land.
• Control line
– In addition to building line, it is desirable to control the
nature of building up to further set-back distance.
Median (Traffic Separators)
• The section of a divided highway that separates traffic
moving in opposite directions is the median.
• Its width is measured from the edge of the inside lane in
one direction to the edge of the inside lane in the opposite
direction.
• The main functions of medians include:
– Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
– Separating opposing traffic
– Providing stopping areas during emergencies
– Providing storage areas for left-turning and u-turning
vehicles
– Providing refuge for pedestrians
– Reducing the effect of headlight glare
– Providing temporary lanes and crossovers during
maintenance operations
• Medians can be raised, flush or depressed.
• Raised median | In urban areas where it is necessary to
control left-turn traffic at intersections of arterial streets,
raised medians are often deployed so that part of the
median width can be used as a left-turn lane.
• Flush median | Flush medians are commonly used on
urban arterial streets but are also used on freeways if a
median barrier is provided.
• Depressed median | Depressed medians are mainly
deployed on freeways where they are often used as a
means to facilitate drainage of surfaced water from travel
lanes. AASHTO recommends a slope of 6:1 for depressed
medians, although a slope of 4:1 is adequate.
• Median width generally range from 2 ft to 80 ft or more.
• AASHTO recommends that a divided arterial should have
a minimum median width of 4 ft.
• A minimum of 10 ft for four-lane urban freeways is
recommended. This includes two 4 ft shoulders and a 2 ft
median barrier.
• For freeways of six or more lanes, a minimum of 22 ft is
recommended but 26 ft is preferable.
• The widths of medians on urban collector streets vary
from 2 to 40 ft depending on the median treatment. The
narrowest widths (2 to 4 ft) are usually for medians that
are separated by paint stripes and the widest (16 to 40 ft)
are for medians in curbed areas. Intermediate widths (2 to
6 ft)
are usually for narrow raised curbed areas.
• Cross slope (camber)
– It is the slope provided to the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the
road surface.
– AASHTO recommends that rates of cross slopes for high-
type pavements should be 1.5 to 2 % and for intermediate-
type pavements 1.5 to 3 %.
– High-type pavements | those that have wearing surfaces
that can adequately support the expected traffic load
without visible distress due to fatigue and are not
susceptible to weather conditions.
– Intermediate-type pavements | those that have surfaces
that vary from qualities just below that of high-type
pavements.
• Crown
– The curved cross-section usually takes the shape of a
parabola, with the highest point (crown) is slightly
rounded.
Curb
• Curbs are used mainly to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways in urban areas, but they can also be
used to control drainage.
• They are classified as either barrier or mountable curbs.
• Barrier curbs | are designed to prevent vehicles from
leaving the highway and are therefore higher (6 to 8
inches).
• Mountable curbs | are designed to permit vehicles to
cross over them if necessary and have heights varying from
4 to 6 inches.
Gutter
• Gutters or ditches provide the principal drainage facility
for the roadway.
• They are usually located at the pavement side of the curb
and in conjunction with storm sewer systems.
• They are used mainly in urban areas to control street
runoff.
• They are usually 1 to 6 ft wide.
• In order to prevent any hazard to traffic, gutters are
usually constructed with cross slopes of 5 to 8 % on a
width of 2 to 3 ft adjacent to the curb.
Guardrail
• Guardrails are used to prevent errant vehicles from
leaving the roadbed at sharp horizontal curves and at high
embankments.
• They are normally placed at embankments with heights
greater than 8 ft and when side slopes are greater than
4:1.
• Guardrails should be properly designed to avoid creating
a hazardous situation when they are placed at a location.
Road Margins
• Parking lane
– These are provided on urban roads to allow curb parking.
– As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed
as it is safer for moving vehicles.
– It should have a sufficient width of 3 m.
• Lay bay
– These are provided near the public conveniences with
guide map to
enable driver to stop clear off the carriageway.
– It has 3 m width, 30 m length with 15 m end tapers on
both sides.
• Bus bay
– These may be provided by recessing the curb to avoid
conflict with moving traffic.
– It is located at least 75 m away from the intersection.
• Frontage road
– These are provided to give access to properties along an
important highway with control access to expressway or
freeway.
– It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by
separator.
• Driveway
– It connects the highway with commercial establishment
like fuel stations, service stations, etc. It should be located
away from the intersection.
• Cycle track
– It is provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle
traffic on the road is very high. A minimum of 2 m is
provided for cycle track.
• Footpath
– These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as
well as pedestrian traffic are heavy. Minimum width of 1.5
m is provided.
Module 5
Overview
• The structural design of the travel way of any
transportation mode is carried out to ensure that it is
structurally sound and can withstand the loads imposed
upon it by vehicles of that mode over its design life.
• The methods presented are based on American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) for highway pavements and American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
(AREMA) for railroad tracks.
• Only a brief description is presented on the soil
characteristics that are required for the soil that supports
the travelway, as a detailed discussion of soil
characteristics is beyond the scope of this course.
Structural Components of Travelways
• The travelway of highway or rail mode consists of two or
more structural components, through which the load
applied by the traveling vehicle is transferred to the
ground.
• The performance of the travelway depends on the
satisfactory performance of each component.
• This requires that each of these be properly designed to
ensure that the load applied by the traveling vehicle does
not over-stress any of these structural components.
• The structural components of highway pavement consist
of the subgrade or prepared roadway, the subbase, the
base, and the wearing surface, while those for the rail track
are the subgrade, the subballast, the ballast, the cross ties,
and the rail.
Subgrade
• It is usually the natural material located along the
horizontal alignment of the pavement or track and serves
as the foundation of the pavement or track structure.
• The subgrade may also consist of a layer of selected
material that is obtained from somewhere else and
properly compacted to meet certain specifications.
• The load imposed by the vehicle using the travelway is
eventually transmitted to the subgrade through the
different structural components of the travelway, such that
the load is spread over a greater area than that of the
vehicle’s contact area.
• Therefore, the lower the strength of the subgrade, the
greater the required area of load distribution and therefore
the greater the required depth.
Subbase Course
• This is located immediately above the subgrade of the
highway pavement, and consist of a higher-quality soil
material than that for the subgrade.
• Materials used for subbase construction should meet
certain particle size distributions (gradation), strength, and
plasticity requirements.
• When the subbase material satisfies these requirements,
the subbase course is usually omitted.
• Materials not meeting these requirements can be treated
with other materials (stabilization) to achieve the
necessary properties.
Subballast Course
• This is located immediately above the roadbed
(subgrade) of the rail track.
• It occupies a similar location within the track structure as
the subbase of the highway pavement.
• The subballast is a graded aggregate material that must
also meet specified requirements for gradation, plasticity,
and strength.
• Its purpose is to augment the ballast course in the
provision of adequate drainage, stability, flexibility, and
uniform support for the rail and ties.
Base Course
• This lies immediately above the subballast course.
• It occupies a similar location within the track structure as
the base course of the highway pavement.
• It provides drainage, stability, flexibility, uniform support
for the rail ties, and distribution of the track loadings to the
subgrade through the subballast.
• Common materials used in constructing ballast courses
include granites, traprocks, quartzites, limestones,
dolomites, and slags.
Surface Course
• This is the upper course of highway pavement and is
constructed immediately above the base course.
• While the base and subbase courses of the highway
pavement are comparable to the subballast and ballast
courses of the rail track, the surface course has no
comparable course on the rail track.
• It can be either of Portland Cement Concrete or Asphalt
Concrete.
• Portland cement surfaces are known as rigid pavements,
and asphalt concrete pavements are known as flexible
pavements.
Cross Ties
• These are used only on rail tracks and are made of
treated timber, concrete, or steel.
• They are transversely placed at regular intervals along
the length of the rail track, immediately above the ballast
course.
• Their main purpose is to evenly distribute the load from
the rails to the ballast.
• There is no structural component of the highway
pavement that is directly comparable to the ties, as the
loads from an automobile are transmitted directly from the
wheels of the vehicle to the pavement.
Rails
• These are usually constructed of high-quality steel and
are
sometimes referred to as the guideway.
• Their main purpose is to guide the train and ensure that
it travels along the required path.
• They also transfer the loads from the train wheels to the
ties.
• There is also no structural component of the highway
pavement that is directly related to the rails, as the travel
paths of automobile are not restricted as that of the rail.
Module 6
Purpose and Need of Condition Surveys
• Highway pavement condition deteriorates with time due
to one or more of the following factors: design
inadequacies, traffic loading, material ageing, construction
deficiencies, environmental forces, etc.
• A typical deterioration trend of pavement condition with
time is
illustrated below. It is important for an engineer to know
the
condition of its pavements at various stages of their lives to
plan for maintenance and rehabilitation strategies.
• Pavement condition surveys, also known as distress
surveys, are conducted as a part of Pavement
Management Systems (PMS) in order to assess current
pavement condition and the need for maintenance and
rehabilitation treatments.
• The focus of these surveys is to determine pavement
surface condition at a given point of time. These surveys
usually help to address the causes of the distresses
present.
• A distress survey generally provides detailed distress
information including:
– Distress type
– Severity
– Extend and location
• It is desirable that a distress survey must also identify,
classify, and quantify the causes of all distresses and
factors that may influence pavement performance.
• Traditionally, these surveys are conducted through visual
inspection by traveling along the pavement, and
identification and classification of the distress present.
• Many authorities and organizations have devised
methods and equipment to objectively measure pavement
surface conditions. The latest developments in this area
include the use of laser sensors and video imaging
technology to classify and quantify pavement distresses
objectively.
Concept of Rideability and Serviceability
• Pavement serviceability refers to the ability of a
pavement to provide the desired level of service to the
user.
• The ability of pavement to perform at its desired level of
service is affected by pavement condition.
• The graph below illustrates a general trend of loss of
serviceability due to pavement condition affected by time
or traffic loading.
• The Present Serviceability Index (PSI) is the subjective
assessment of “service-ability” by a panel of evaluators
and is related to objective measures of surface condition
by response-type road roughness
measuring systems (RTRRMS).
• PSI is expressed on a scale of zero to five where scale five
refers to an excellent ride conditions and scale zero
indicates a very poor ride quality.
• The serviceability of a pavement section is obtained from
a group of evaluators who drive on the pavement and
assign ratings based on their subjective judgement of the
ride condition.
Types of Pavement Distresses
• Pavement distresses are generally related to the
deficiencies in construction, materials, and maintenance
strategies, but not directly to pavement design.
• Identification of pavement distresses and their causes are
important in establishing pavement distress survey
procedures.
Types of Pavement Distresses
• Distresses in flexible pavements and causes:
– Deformation
– Cracking
– Surface defects
– Edge defects
• Distresses in rigid pavements and causes:
– Deformation
– Cracking
– Joint sea and spalling
– Surface defects
– Edge defects
Flexible | Deformation
• Deformation in pavement is defined as the change in the
pavement surface profile and it can affect roughness
condition and skid resistance when water ponding occurs.
Deformation may also accelerate crack initiation. The
common pavement deformations are corrugations,
depressions, rutting, and shoving.
• Corrugations | Corrugations in flexible pavements are
identified as closely and regularly spaced transverse
undulations. These are plastic movements of the pavement
surface and usually occur where acceleration and
deceleration take place such as, bus stop, bends, and
intersections. Lack of stability in the surface or base course
is the possible cause for corrugations.
• Depressions | Depressions are localized bowl-shaped
settlement in the pavement caused by one or combination
of the following: (1) settlement of service trenches, (2)
consolidation in the poorly compacted subgrade, and (3)
change of moisture in the subgrade. Water ponding in the
depressions causes cracking and other pavement damages
such as roughness and skidding problem.
• Rutting | Rutting is the longitudinal depression that
occurs in the wheel path due to inadequate surface
thickness, and lack of compaction or stability in the surface
or base course. Rutting in early pavement life may be due
to poor compaction, high moisture content, or lack of
lateral
resistant. On the other hand, under-strength material and
over loading are among the causes for rutting in the later
part of pavement life. Untreated significant rutting may
lead to further damage such as cracking and hydroplaning
especially when water ponding occurs.
• Shoving | Shoving or creep is the horizontal
displacement of surfacing materials occurring mainly in the
direction of traffic where breaking or acceleration action
take place. Permanent displacements can cause single
ridges or depressions similar to corrugations. Possible
causes for shoving are weak bond between pavement
layers, lack of edge support, and insufficient pavement
thickness.
Flexible | Cracks
• Cracks are fractured pavement condition resulting from a
number of causes and are found in a variety of patterns
ranging from single to an interconnected pattern. Possible
causes of cracks are deformations, fatigue life exceeded,
reflection of cracks from underlying layers, shrinkage, and
poor construction joints. Presence of cracks causes
numerous problems in the pavement including limiting
load spreading capability through loss of structural
strength, loss of waterproofing, and loss of roughness
level.
• Crocodile cracks are interconnected cracks forming a
series of small polygons resembling a crocodile skin.
Crocodile cracks are usually fatigue cracks and are the early
signs of pavement distress. They indicate a pavement
condition where excessive movements occur in or more
underlying layers. These cracks are caused due to
inadequate pavement thickness, low modulus base course
and aged wearing course, shrinkage of aged bitumen, very
low temperature, and over-loaded vehicles. They usually
appear only in the traffic loading areas and allow water
entering in the pavement.
• Longitudinal cracks | Single or a number of parallel
cracks appear longitudinally along the pavement due to
reflection of a shrinkage crack or joint in the underlying
layer, weak bond between pavement lanes, asphalt
hardening, volume change in the subgrade, and differential
settlement between cut and fill. Poorly constructed lane
joint may also cause longitudinal cracks. These cracks do
not usually result from load but wide cracks will permit
water to enter the pavement structure.
• Transverse cracks run transversely across the pavement
and are common in aged asphalt surfaces. These cracks are
caused due to primarily reflection of a shrinkage crack or
joint in the underlying layer, construction joint, and
structural failure in the cement base. Similar to
longitudinal cracks, wide cracks permit water in the
pavement.
• Block cracks | Interconnected cracks that form a series of
rectangular blocks over the entire pavement are known as
block cracks. Block cracks are generally non-load assisted,
but repeated loads increase severity. These cracks indicate
that the asphalt has hardened significantly and the
possible causes are (1) shrinkage and fatigue cracking in
the underlying cemented materials, (2) joints in the
underlying layer, and (3) fatigue and shrinkage cracking in
the asphalt surfacing layers.
• Crescent shaped cracks commonly appear on pavements
as a set of closely spaced parallel cracks along with
shoving, usually in the direction of traffic. These cracks
appear when part of the asphalt surface moves away from
the rest of the surface caused by the lateral and shear
stresses developed in the pavement due to traffic loading.
Weak bonding between surface layers and underlying
layer, inadequate surface thickness, and high stresses due
to braking and acceleration are primary causes for these
types of cracks.
• Diagonal cracks | These are single cracks that form
diagonally across the pavement, as shown. Differential
settlement, service trenches, and shrinkage crack or joint
in the underlying layers are possible causes for diagonal
cracks.
• Meandering cracks | These are unconnected irregular
single cracks that run in any direction. Possible causes are
reflection of a shrinkage crack in the underlying layer, weak
pavement edge, differential settlement between cut and
sill, and tree roots.
Flexible | Surface Defects
• As the term implies, surface distresses are associated
with the pavement surface and usually do not indicate
structural problem in the pavement layers. However, they
cause significant effect on pavement serviceability and skid
resistance, and, if not treated, may lead to structural
problems.
• Delamination is defined as the distress condition when
wearing course debonds from the underlying layers and as
a result part of pavement wearing course of uniform
thickness is lost. Possible causes of delamination are lack
of bonding due to poor construction practice, inadequate
surface thickness, seepage of water through surface
affecting bond between layers, weak underlying layer, and
adhesion of binder to tires.
• Flushing or bleeding | Flushing occurs when aggregate is
immersed in the bitumen resulting excess binder on the
surface with very little texture. Flushing causes soft
pavement surface in hot weather and slippery in wet or
cold weather. It is normally associated with sprayed seal
pavements, though it may appear in asphalt pavements.
Possible causes for flushing are (1) application of excess
binder, (2) use of excess prime coat, (3) excess binder in
the underlying surface, (4) flaky aggregate, and (5) low
strength base causing aggregate penetration into the base.
• Polishing is referred to the effect of smoothing or
rounding of the upper part of the aggregates by the action
of heavy vehicular traffic. Polishing usually occurs at the
wheel paths and can be identified by the relative
appearance of the trafficked and untrafficked areas. Use of
aggregate of low polishing resistance is the primary cause
of polishing.
• Raveling is used to define a distress condition where
both aggregate and binder are progressively lost from
pavement surface. Raveling is caused due to inadequate
binder, deterioration of binder condition, or inferior
asphalt mix design. Inadequate compaction or
construction in the wet or cold periods may also cause
raveling. Delamination and raveling in sprayed seal
pavements may not be easily differentiated.
• Stripping is normally associated with sprayed seal
pavements and is a condition where only coarse aggregate
is lost leaving the binder in good condition. Possible causes
of stripping are (1) poor mix design, (2) weak bonding
between binder and stone, (3) aging or absorption of
binder, (4) use of weak aggregate, (5) presence of water,
and (6) poor compaction.
• Potholes, bowl-shaped cavity in the pavements, are
developed due to the loss of surface and base course
material that become weak and loose when water enters
into the pavement through cracking. Localized
disintegration and freeze-thaw cycles also cause potholes
in the pavement. Traffic and water in the cavity accelerate
the development of pothole.
• Patches | Pavement sections repaired to fix loss of
serviceability or structural capacity are termed as patches.
Patches are considered as the distress when it is raised or
depressed below the surface level. Other distresses may
also occur in the patches. Patches include surface repair
without digging out pavement layers, reconstruction of
surface or other layers, and excavation for services.
Flexible | Edge Defects
• Defects that occur along the joint of the pavement edge
and shoulder are known as edge defects. These defects
may appear in isolated areas or continuously along the
joint and they are particularly significant for unsealed
shoulders. Edge defects reduce pavement width and affect
ride quality. They also allow water entry into the
pavement. Two types of edge defects, such as, edge break
and edge drop-off are common in flexible pavements.
• Edge break | Irregular or broken pavement edge is
caused due to lack of edge support, inadequate pavement
width, poor bonding between seal and base course, and
improperly designed pavement alignment.
• Edge drop-off | The difference between the elevation of
pavement surface and shoulder is termed as edge drop-off.
Inadequate pavement width, lack of support to protect
shoulder erosion, and pavement resurfacing are common
causes for the drop-off.
Rigid | Deformation
• Deformation in rigid pavements results from cracking of
slabs or from relative movement between slabs due to
load assisted and non-load assisted factors. Deformation
affects pavement ride quality and helps water entering in
the pavement structures. The common types of
deformations found in the rigid pavement are depression,
faulting, pumping, and rocking.
• Depressions in rigid pavement occur across a crack or
joint, and are generally associated with significant cracking.
Poor compaction, weak subgrade support, and differential
settlement of subgrade are possible causes for
depressions. It allows water ponding and increases the
chance of water entering through joints and cracks.
• Faulting is a condition where concrete slab breaks into
two pieces along joints or cracks and the vertical
displacements between the broken slabs create a step.
Possible causes for faulting are (1) volume change in the
subgrade, (2) poor support in the subbase or subgrade, (3)
rocking, (4) pumping as result of loss of fine material under
one slab, and (5) warping effects due to temperature and
moisture gradients. Faulting is a major distress in rigid
pavements as it allows water entry in the pavement and
affects ride quality.
• Pumping in the concrete slab occurs when excessive
moisture enters into the pavement through crack or poorly
constructed joint and the excess water is ejected through
cracks and joints, due to the upward wrap and curl of the
slab near the joint or crack, and movements of traffic.
Pumping causes erosion of fine particles in the basecourse
and thus causes structural deterioration such as, rocking,
faulting, and cracking.
• Rocking is felt at a joint or crack with the passage of a
vehicle where pumping has caused loss of support.
Inadequate subbase or subgrade support or differential
settlement in the subgrade may also cause rocking.
Rigid | Cracking
• Shrinkage cracks are common in rigid pavements but it
does not affect pavement performance if the pavement is
properly designed and constructed. Many patterns of
cracks ranging from single isolated cracks to
interconnected multiple cracks are found in rigid
pavements. The possible
causes of cracking in rigid pavements include: insufficient
slab thickness, shrinkage, weak subbase or subgrade, and
differential subgrade movement. Cracking causes a number
of problems such as loss of load spreading capability, loss
of appearance, deteriorate
• Block cracks | Interconnected cracks that form a series of
rectangular blocks over the entire pavement are known as
block cracks. Possible causes for block cracking are (1)
inadequate slab thickness, (2) loss of subbase or subgrade
support, and (3) subgrade settlement.
• Longitudinal cracks | Single or a number of parallel
cracks appear longitudinally along the pavement. Possible
causes for longitudinal cracks are (1) lateral shrinkage, (2)
insufficient slab thickness, (3)
differential settlement, (4) lateral shrinkage, and (5)
longitudinal joint too shallow or too close to traffic lane.
Poorly constructed joints can also cause longitudinal
cracks.
• Transverse cracks run transversely across the slab.
Shrinkage, rocking action, and insufficient slab thickness
are possible causes for these cracks. Late saw cutting of
construction joint can also cause these cracks. Transverse
cracks generally start near construction joints.
• Diagonal cracks are single cracks run diagonally across
the slab. Settlement, shrinkage in the slab, inadequate slab
thickness, and rocking actions are possible causes for
diagonal cracks in the rigid pavement.
• Corner cracks appear at the corners of slabs diagonally
from a longitudinal edge to a transverse joint. The causes
for corner cracks are inadequate slab thickness, loss of
support of subbase or subgrade, overloading, curling or
corners, and poor joint design.
• Meandering cracks | Similar to flexible pavements,
meandering cracks in rigid pavements are irregular single
cracks that run in any direction. Rocking action, settlement,
shrinkage, and inadequate slab thickness are possible
causes for meandering cracks.
Rigid | Joint Seal and Spalling
• Joint seal defects are the most common defects in
jointed concrete pavements. They can be easily identified
when seal is lost leaving a gap between the joints or when
sealant extrudes from the joint. Defective seal joints
permit water to enter in the pavement structures and
allow incompressible rubbish to lodge in the joint.
Incompressible material keeps the joint permanently open
and limits the horizontal expansion of slabs. As a result,
high stresses are developed in the pavement. Sealant
construction quality, ageing of sealant, too much or too
little sealant in the joint, and poor sealant performance are
primary causes for joint seal defects, though rocking and
pumping actions may also cause these defects.
• Spalling is found when small pieces of concrete, usually
in angular shape, are separated from the pavement
surface. Spalling generally occurs at joints, edges, corners
or cracks, or directly over reinforcing bars. Infiltration of
incompressible particles into joints or cracks, corrosion of
rebars or dowels, misalignment of dowels, subbase
movement, and poor-quality concrete aggregate are
possible causes for spalling.
Rigid | Surface Defects
• Surface defects in rigid pavements include scaling, skid
resistance, pothole, and patching.
• Scaling or raveling is a condition when mortar and
aggregate are lost through progressive breakdown of slab
surface due to poor aggregate quality, inadequate curing,
local cement deficiency, or overworking of surface during
construction.
• Skid resistance | Smooth, polished or glassy appearances
indicate lack of skid resistance. Loss of skid resistance can
occur from low microtexture and macrotexture of the
aggregates, as well as due to spillages, poor construction
finishing, and poor-quality mortar that worn by traffic.
• Pothole | Potholes in rigid pavement are bowl-shaped
cavity in the surface. Potholes are developed due to
localized cracks, freeze–thaw action, and rebars too close
to the surface. Traffic and water in the cavity accelerate the
development of pothole.
• Patch | Original material from localized area of the
concrete surface is removed and replaced with asphalt or
concrete material to repair localized distresses. Variety of
distresses may occur at the patches including cracking,
spalling, and distortion.
• Edge defects | shoulder drop-off is the most common
pavement edge defect found in concrete pavements.
Shoulder drop-off is characterized as the differential
settlement between the shoulder and the edge of the slab
that may cause due to incorrect geometry, poor shoulder
drainage, and loose shoulder materials.
Module 7
Traffic Engineering
• Traffic Engineering is the science of measuring traffic and
travel. It is the study of the basic laws relating to traffic
flow and generation and the application of this knowledge
to the professional practice of planning, designing, and
operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient
movement of persons and goods.
• Objective of traffic engineering:
– Achieve efficient “free and rapid” flow of traffic
– Reduce the number of accidents
• Various phases of traffic engineering:
– Engineering (design, construction)
– Enforcement (traffic laws, regulations, and control)
– Education (publicity through school and television)
Traffic Characteristics
• Road user characteristics:
– Physical
– Mental
– Psychological
• Vehicular characteristics:
– Vehicle dimension
– Weight of loaded vehicle
– Power of vehicle
– Speed of vehicle
– Braking characteristics
Traffic Studies
• Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic
characteristics. These studies help in deciding the
geometric design features, traffic control for the efficiency
of traffic movement.
• The various traffic survey studies generally carried out
are:
– Traffic volume study
– Speed study
– Origin and destination study
– Traffic flow characteristics
– Traffic capacity study
– Parking study
– Accident study
Traffic Volume Study
• It is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per
unit time at any selected period.
• It is used as a quantity measure of flow. The commonly
units are vehicles/day or vehicles/hour.
• The objectives and the used of traffic volume study are:
– It is generally accepted as a true measure of the relative
importance of roads and in deciding the priority for
improvement and expansion.
– It is used in planning, traffic operation, and control of
existing facilities and also for planning the new facilities.
– It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends.
– It is useful in structural design of pavement.
– It is used in planning one-way streets and other
regulatory
measure.
– Turning movement study is used in the design of
intersections, in planning signal timings, channelization of
control devices.
– Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side
walk, cross walks, subway, and pedestrian signals.
Counting of Traffic Volume
• Mechanical count
– These may be fixed type or portable type. It
automatically records the total number of vehicles crossing
a section of road in a desired period.
– Other methods of working the mechanical detectors are
by videos or by radar detectors.
– The advantage is that it can work throughout the day and
night for the desired period.
• Manual count
– It is possible to obtain data which cannot be collected by
mechanical counter such as vehicle classification and
turning movement.
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data
• Average annual flow (veh/yr)
• Annual average daily traffic (AADT or ADT) | Average
daily traffic (ADT) represents the total traffic for a year
divided by 365, or the average traffic volume per day
(veh/day).
• Hourly average traffic (veh/hr)
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume | or design hourly
volume is found from the plot between hourly volume and
the number of hours in a year that the traffic volume is
exceeded. The 30th highest traffic volume is found to be
satisfactory for both facility and economic considerations.
Speed Study
• Spot speed | It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at
a specified location.
• Average speed | It is the average of spot speed of all
vehicles passing at given points on the highway.
• Space mean speed | or harmonic mean is the average
speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a given instant.
• Time mean speed | or arithmetic mean is the mean
speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time
or it is the average of instantaneous speeds of observed
vehicles at the spot.
• Running speed | it is the average speed maintained by a
vehicle over a particular stretch of road, while the vehicle
is in motion. This is obtained by dividing the distance
covered by the time during which the vehicle is actually in
motion.
• Journey speed | or travel speed is the effective speed
with which a vehicle traverses a particular route between
two terminals. It includes delay and stoppages.
• Types of speed study
– Spot speed study
– Speed and delay study
• Use of spot speed study
– To use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulation
– To use in geometric design for redesigning the existing
highway
– To use in accident studies
– To study the traffic capacity
• Speed and delay study
– The speed and delay studies give the running speeds,
overall speed, fluctuations in speeds, and the delay
between two stations of a road.
– It gives the information such as the amount, location,
duration and cause of delay in the traffic stream.
– The result of the spot and delay studies are useful in
detecting the spot of congestion.
– The delay or time lost during the travel period may be
either due to fixed delays or operational delays.
– Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic
signals and at level crossings.
– Operational delays are caused by the interference of
traffic
movement, such as turning vehicles, parking vehicles,
pedestrians, etc.
Spot Speed Data
• A graph is plotted with the average value of each speed
group on x-axis and the cumulative percent of vehicles
travelled at or below the different speeds on y- axis.
• 98th percentile speed – design speed
• 85th percentile speed – maximum speed
• 50th percentile speed – median speed
• 15th percentile speed – minimum speed
• Modal average speed
– A frequency curve of spot speed is plotted with average
value of each speed group of vehicles in x-axis and the
percentage of vehicle in that group on the y-axis.
– The speed corresponding to peak value of curve is
denoted as modal speed.
Methods of Speed and Delay Study
• Floating car or riding check method
• License plate or vehicle number method
• Interview method
• Elevated observations
• Photographic technique
Floating Car or Riding Check Method
• In this method, a test vehicle is driven over a given
course of travel at approximately the average speed of the
stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream.
• A number of test runs are made along the study stretch
and a group of observers record the various details.
• One observer is seated in the floating car with two stop
watches.
• One of the stop watch is used to record the time at
various control point like intersections, bridges, or any
other fixed points in each trip.
• The other stop watch is used to find the duration of the
individual delays.
• The time, location, and cause of these delays are
recorded by the second observer.
• The number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and
the
overtaken by the test vehicle are noted in each trip by third
observer.
• The number of vehicles traveling in the opposite
direction in each trip is noted by fourth observer.
• In this method, the detailed information is obtained
concerning all phases of speed and delay including
location, duration, and causes of delay.
Module 8
The Capacity Concept
• The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), one of the most
important references for transportation professionals,
defines the capacity of a facility as follows:
• “The capacity of a facility is the maximum hourly rate at
which persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway
during a given time period under prevailing roadway,
traffic, and control conditions.”
• Three important remarks should be made regarding the
HCM’s definition of capacity:
– First, it should be noted that the manual defines capacity
in terms of either vehicles or persons. The capacity for
highways, is typically defined in terms of vehicles. For
transit or pedestrian facilities, the capacity will be
expressed in terms of persons.
– Second, the definition specifies that capacity is defined
for a point or for a uniform section of a facility. The
capacity of a facility varies based upon its geometric
characteristics, the mix of vehicles using it, and any control
actions applied to it.
– Finally, the HCM defines capacity as the maximum
number of vehicles or persons that a facility can
reasonably accommodate.
The Level of Service Concept
• Closely associated with the concept of capacity is the
concept of level of service (LOS).
• The quality of operations or level of service for a given
facility is a direct function of the flow or usage level on the
facility.
• For many transportation facilities, the level of service
along a section of the facility is described by assigning the
section a letter from A to F, with LOS A referring to the best
operating conditions and LOS F the worst.
Service Flow Rate
• This represents the maximum flow rate that can be
accommodated while maintaining a certain LOS.
• We would have a service flow rate for LOS A, another for
LOS B, and so on, up to LOS E.
• Service flow rate corresponding to LOS E is defined to be
equal to the capacity of the facility.
• There is no service flow rate defined for LOS F because it
corresponds to unstable flow conditions and to a
breakdown in operations.
Highway Capacity
• From a traffic flow analysis standpoint, highway facilities
can be divided into two broad categories:
– Uninterrupted flow facilities| are those in which there
are no external controls interrupting the flow of the traffic
stream. Example is a freeway, where there are no at-grade
intersections, no traffic lights, and stop and yield signs.
– Interrupted flow facilities | are those in which there are
external controls interrupting the flow of the traffic stream.
Almost all urban surface streets fall under the category of
interrupted flow facilities.
Traffic Stream Characteristics
• A highway traffic stream consists of drivers and vehicles
interacting with each other and with the roadway
environment.
• To describe traffic stream behavior, transportation
professionals have devised a set of macroscopic
parameters and microscopic parameters.
– Macroscopic parameters | describe the behavior of the
traffic stream as a whole. (i.e., flow, speed, and density)
– Microscopic parameters | pertain to the behavior of
individual vehicles. (i.e., headways, and spacing)
Traffic Flow Parameters
• Flow (q) | Flow or volume is defined as the number of
vehicles passing a given point on a highway during a given
period of time, typically one hour (veh/hr).
• An important flow parameter is the maximum flow value
a given facility can reasonably be expected to
accommodate.
• This is often referred to as the capacity (qm) of a
roadway section.
• Speed (u) | Speed is the distance traveled by a vehicle
during a unit of time. It is usually expressed in miles/hr,
km/hr, or ft/sec.
• The speeds of individual vehicles can be averaged
– over time (by averaging the speeds of vehicles as they
pass by an observer)
– over space (by averaging the speeds of vehicles
occupying a given stretch of a highway at a given point in
time)
• This leads to time mean speed (ut) and space mean
speed (us), respectively.
• Space mean speed is typically used for traffic modeling.
• Density (k) | Traffic density is defined as the numbers of
vehicles present over a unit length of highway at a given
instant in time.
• Density is typically expressed in veh/mile or veh/km.
• Headway (h) | Headway is defined as the difference in
time between the moment the front of a vehicle arrives at
a point on the highway and the moment the front of the
following vehicle arrives at the same point.
• The time headway is typically expressed in seconds.
• The flow of a traffic stream is equal to the inverse of the
average time headway:
• q = 1/h.average
• For example, if the average time headway for a given
traffic stream is 2 sec, the corresponding hourly flow value
would be equal to 3600/2 = 1800 veh/hr.
• Spacing (d) | The space headway is defined as the
distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of
the following vehicle (in feet or meters).
• The average spacing of vehicles in a traffic stream is
inversely related to the density.
• If the average spacing between vehicles on a roadway
stretch is 300 ft, the number of veh/mile (i.e., the traffic
density) on that stretch is 5280/300 = 17.6 veh/mile.
• Therefore,
• k = 1/d.average
Relationships among Macroscopic Parameters
• The three basic macroscopic parameters of a traffic
stream (i.e., flow, speed, and density) are related to each
other by the following equation:
• q = uk
• This equation states that the flow or traffic volume is
equal to the product of speed and density.
• So, if a 1-mile stretch of a roadway contains 20 vehicles
(i.e., k = 20), and the mean speed of the 20 vehicles is 40
mph, after 1 hour, 800 vehicles (40 x 20) would have
passed.
• The value of the flow (q) or traffic volume in this case
would be equal to 800 veh/hr.
Example 1
• Computing Macroscopic Traffic Parameters
• Data obtained from aerial photography showed eight
vehicles on an 800-ft long section of road. Traffic data
collected at the same time indicated an average time
headway of 3 sec.
• Determine the density on the highway.
• Determine the flow on the road.
• Determine the space mean speed.
Module 9
Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
• Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMAC) consists primarily of
mineral aggregates, asphalt cement (binder), and air.
• It is important to have suitable proportions of asphalt
cement and aggregates in HMAC so as to develop mixtures
that have desirable properties associated with good
performance.
• These performance measures include the resistance to
the three primary GMAC distresses: permanent
deformation, fatigue cracking, and low-temperature
cracking.
Mineral Aggregates
• Mineral aggregates make up 90 to 95% of a HMA mix by
weight or approximately 75 to 85% by volume.
• Their physical characteristics are responsible for
providing a strong aggregate structure to resist
deformation due to repeated load applications.
• Aggregate mineralogical and chemical makeup are
important in evaluating characteristics such as hardness
(toughness), soundness (durability), shape, and stripping
potential.
• In ASTM D8 (ASTM, 2003), aggregate is defined as “a
granular material of mineral composition such as sand,
gravel, shell, slag, or crushed stone, used with cementing
medium to form mortars or concrete or alone as in base
courses, railroad ballasts, etc.”
• These aggregates can be divided into three main
categories:
– Natural
– Processed
– Synthetic (artificial)
• Natural aggregates | Natural aggregates are mined from
river or glacial deposits. They are frequently referred to as
pit-run or bank- run materials.
• Gravel and sand are examples of natural aggregates.
– Gravel | is normally defined as aggregates passing the 3
in. (75 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
sieve.
– Sand | is usually defined as aggregate passing the No. 4
sieve with the silt and clay fraction passing the No. 200
(0.075 mm) sieve.
• These aggregates in their natural form tend to be smooth
and round.
• Processed materials | include gravel or stones that have
been crushed, washed, screened, or otherwise treated to
enhance the performance of HMAC.
• Processed materials tend to be more angular and better
graded.
• Synthetic aggregates | are not mined or quarried.
Rather, they are manufactured through the application of
physical and/or chemical processes as either a principal
product or a by-product.
• They are often used to improve the skid resistance of
HMAC. Blast furnace slag, lightweight expanded clay, shale
or slate are examples of synthetic aggregates.
Aggregate Specifications and Tests
• Traditional aggregate specifications for HMA:
• AASHTO M29 or ASTM D1073 “Standard Method of Test
for Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures.”
• ASTM D692 “Standard Specification for Coarse Aggregate
for Bituminous Paving Mixtures.”
• ASTM D242 “Standard Specification for Mineral Filler for
Bituminous Paving Mixtures.”
• During the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP,
1994), no new research was conducted on aggregate
properties.
• However, experts were polled (using a modified Delphi
method) on the important aggregate tests and
corresponding appropriate test values to ensure adequate
performance in HMAC.
• This served as the basis for determining the consensus
properties and source properties used in the Superpave
mix design system.
• The consensus properties are critical properties required
to develop a desirable HMA mix.
• These properties are:
– Coarse aggregate angularity
– Fine aggregate angularity
– Flat and elongated particles
– Clay content
• During the SHRP program, criteria were developed for
consensus properties and have been modified to reflect
later developments in Superpave research, as will be
discussed under the Superpave mix design section.
• In addition to the consensus properties, properties
specific to each aggregate source (source properties) are
also important. Since the critical values are source specific,
a range of universally acceptable values could not be
established.
• Instead, these values should be established by individual
agencies for sources specific to their locality based on
knowledge and experience in the area. The source
properties are:
– Toughness
– Soundness
– Deleterious materials
Coarse Aggregate Angularity
• Coarse aggregate angularity | is defined as the percent
by weight of aggregates retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
sieve with one or more fractured face.
• ASTM D5821 “Standard Test Method for Determining the
Percentage of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate.”
• In this procedure, individual aggregates are manually
examined for the presence of fractured faces.
• Once the aggregates are sorted by the number of
fractured faces, their percentages of aggregate with at
least one or two fractured faces are calculated.
• A fractured face is defined as any angular, rough, or
broken surface of an aggregate particle that occupies more
than 25% of the outline of the aggregate particle visible in
that orientation.
• The percent of fractured particles in coarse aggregate can
provide an indication of inter-particle shear friction or
stability.
Fine Aggregate Angularity
• Fine aggregate angularity | is defined as the percent of
air voids present in a loose compacted aggregate sample
that passes the No. 8 (2.36 mm) sieve.
• AASHTO T304 “Standard Method of Test for
Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate - Method A.”
• In this procedure, a nominal 100 cm3 calibrated cylinder
measure is filled with fine aggregate through a funnel
placed at a fixed height above the measure.
• When the measure is overfilled, it is struck off and the
mass of aggregate inside the measure is determined by
weighing.
• The uncompacted void content is the difference between
the volume of the cylindrical measure and the absolute
volume of the fine aggregate (calculated from its mass and
bulk dry specific gravity).
• For fine aggregate with a given gradation, the void
content
determined from this test provides an indication of the
aggregate’s angularity, sphericity, and surface texture
relative to other fine aggregates with the same gradation.
Flat and Elongated Particles
• Flat or elongated particles are defined as aggregate
having a ratio of width to thickness or length to width
greater than a specified value.
• ASTM D4791 “Standard Practice for Flat Particles,
Elongated Particles, or Flat and Elongated Particles in
Coarse Aggregate.”
• This test is conducted on aggregates retained on the No.
4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
• In this procedure, a proportional caliper is used to
measure the dimensional ratio of a representative sample
of coarse aggregate.
• Aggregates exceeding the 5 to 1 ratio are considered flat
and elongated in the Superpave mix design system.
• The percent of flat or elongated aggregates is reported as
a percentage of total aggregates tested.
• Some people believe that this requirement should be
more stringent, possibly at 3 to 1 or 2 to 1.
• Aggregates used in HMA mixes should be cubicle rather
than disproportionate in their dimensions.
• Aggregates particles that are significantly longer in one
dimension than in the other one or two dimensions have a
propensity to break during the construction process or
under traffic loading.
Clay Content
• Clay content is defined as the percentage of clay material
contained in the aggregate fraction that passes the No. 4
(4.75 mm) sieve.
• AASHTO T176 “Standard Method of Test for Plastic Fines
in Graded Aggregates and Soils by Use of the Sand
Equivalent Test.”
• In this procedure, a sample of fine aggregate is placed in
a Sulfate.”
graduated cylinder with a flocculating solution.
• The cylinder is then agitated to loosen the clayey fines
within and surrounding the aggregate particles.
• The presence of a flocculating solution and the agitation
to the container cause the clayey material to go into
suspension above the aggregate.
• After allowing the constituents to settle for a specific
length of time, the height of suspended clay and
sedimented aggregate is measured.
• The sand equivalent value is the ratio of the sand reading
to the clay reading as a percentage.
• A low sand equivalent value, or high clay content, means
that there is “dirt” on the surface of the aggregates.
• This “dirt” can reduce the bond between the aggregate
and asphalt cement.
• Consequently, the mix would have a greater tendency for
stripping.
• Cleaner aggregate with higher sand equivalent values will
enhance the performance of HMA.
Toughness
• Toughness is the percent loss of material from an
aggregate blend during the Los Angeles Abrasion test.
• AASHTO T96 “Standard Method of Test for Resistance to
Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.”
• This test covers a procedure for testing aggregates up to
1.5 in. (37.5 mm) in size. ASTM C535 should be used for
aggregates with a larger maximum size up to 3 in. (75 mm).
• In this procedure, aggregate is degraded through
abrasion, impact, and grinding in a rotating steel drum
containing steel spheres.
• The Los Angeles abrasion loss is the difference between
the original and final mass of the sample is expressed as a
percentage of the original mass after washing off the No.
12 (1.70 mm) screen.
• It should be noted that the Los Angeles abrasion test
primarily evaluates an aggregate’s resistance to
degradation by abrasion and impact.
• However, results from this test do not correlate
satisfactorily with HMA performance in the field.
• For example, slag and soft limestones often produce
good
performing mixes even though their Los Angeles abrasion
loss is high.
Soundness
• Soundness is the percent loss of material from an
aggregate blend during the sodium or magnesium sulfate
soundness test.
• AASHTO T104 “Standard Method of Test for Soundness of
Aggregate by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium
• In this procedure, aggregate samples are put through
repeated cycles of immersion in saturated solutions of
sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying.
• The percent loss of material is determined by taking the
difference between the original and final (after the
specified number of cycles) masses expressed as a
percentage of the original mass.
Deleterious Materials
• The percentage of deleterious materials in blended
aggregate is determined.
• AASHTO T112 or ASTM C142 “Standard Method of Test
for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregate.”
• In this procedure, aggregates are individually subjected
to finger pressure (while soaking) to determine materials
that are friable or clay lumps.
• The percent of clay lumps and friable particles is
determined by taking the difference between the original
and final mass retained on a No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve,
after wet sieving, expressed as a percentage of the original
mass. The percent of deleterious materials can range from
0.2 to 10%.