RESEARCH SECOND QUARTER REVIEWER

Lesson 1 – Data and Levels of Measurement

Operationalization – Level of Measurement

- Mathematical precision with which the categories/attributes of a variable can be
expressed is the level of measurement.
 Nominal level of measurement = no mathematical interpretation.
 Quantitative levels of measurement = progressively more precise
mathematically.

Nominal level of measurement identifies variable whose attributes have no

mathematical interpretation; they vary in kind or quality but not in amount.

Quantitative level of measures:

 Ordinal Measures – You specify only the order of the attributes of the variable in
“greater than” and “less than” distinctions. (Example: Small, Medium, Large)
 Interval Measures – Numbers represent fixed measurement units but have no
absolute zero point. (Example: A zero on a test doesn’t mean that the test – taker
has an absolute lack of the trait being measured)
 Ratio Measures – Measurement units with an absolute zero point. (Example:
Zero heat on the Kelvin scale, zero years of formal education)
Lesson 2 – Re – introduction to Statistics
Statistic deals with:
1. Collection
2. Analysis
3. Interpretation
4. Presentation

Descriptive Statistics
Brief informational coefficients that summarize a given data set. It can either be the
representation of the entire population or a sample of a population.

4 Types of descriptive statistics:

1. Measure of Frequency = Count, Percent, Frequency. It shows how often something
occurs.
2. Measure of Central Tendency = Mean, Median, Mode. It locates the distribution by
various points.
3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation = Range, Variance, Standard Deviation. It
identifies the spread of scores by stating intervals.
4. Measures of Position = Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks. It describes how scores fall
in relation to one another. Relies on standardized scores.
Inferential Statistics discover some property or general pattern about a large group by
studying a smaller group of people in the hopes that the results will generalize to the
larger group.

Terms and Definitions:

 Population: A collection of persons, things, or objects under study.
 Sample: A proportion of the larger population
 Sampling: To select a proportion (or subset) of the larger population.

 Statistic: A number that represents the sample

 Parameter: A numerical characteristics of the whole population that can be
estimated by a statistic.

 Variable: Usually notated by capital letters such as X and Y, is a characteristic or

measurement that can be determined for each member of a population. They can
be numerical or categorical.
 Data: Are the actual values of the variable.

Lesson 3 – Making A Frequency Distribution Table

Data:
10 15 8 21 20 11
12 13 9 22 21 16 Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score = 28 – 8 = 20
Range 20
17 11 8 17 28 21 Width = = = 3.651 or 4
√ [ Total number of data ] √ [ 30 ]
21 17 16 18 25 20
12 20 18 21 22 12
CLASS TALLY FREQUENCY REL. FREQ CUM. FREQ
INTERVAL
8 – 11 IIIIII 6 0.20 6 or 0.20
12 – 15 IIIII 5 0.17 11 or 0. 37
16 – 19 IIIIIII 7 0.23 18 or 0.60
20 – 23 IIIIIIIIII 10 0.33 28 or 0.93
24 – 27 I 1 0.03 29 or 0.96
28 – 31 I 1 0.03 30 or 0.99

Frequency
Rel. Frequency =
Total number of Data
Cumulative frequency = Frequency of 1st class interval and Rel. Freq + Frequency of 2nd
class interval and Rel. Freq and so on.

Mean, Median, Mode

Σf ⋅m Highest+ Lowest point
MEAN = Midpoint =
Σf 2
Σf
MEDIAN =
2
MODE = highest Frequency

Lesson 4 – Sampling Methods

Random Sampling Methods
- A sample should have the same characteristics as the population it is
representing.
- Each sample has an equal probability of being chosen

Random Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling = Any group of n individual is equally likely to be chosen.
2. Stratified Random Sampling = Divide the population into groups called strata and
then take proportionate number from each stratum.

3. Cluster Random Sampling = Divide the population into clusters (groups) and then
randomly select some of the clusters. All the members from these clusters are in the
cluster sample.
4. Systematic Random Sampling = Randomly select a starting point and take every nth
piece of data from a listing of the population.

Non – Random Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling involves using results that are readily available. Results may be
very good in some cases and highly biased in others.

WITH REPLACEMENT/ WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

 With Replacement – Once a member is picked, that member goes back into the
population thus may be chosen more than once.

 Without Replacement – Surveys are typically done without replacement. That is,
a member of the population may be chosen only once.
Lesson 5 – Percentile and Quartiles
1st Quartile = 25th percentile (25%)
2nd Quartile = 50th percentile or the median (50%)
3rd Quartile = 75th percentile (75%)

Calculating Percentiles and Quartiles

Reminders:
 To calculate quartiles and percentiles, the data must be ordered from the
smallest to largest.
 Quartiles divide ordered data into quarters
 Percentiles divide ordered data into hundredths

Percentiles are useful for comparing values. Percentiles are mostly uses with very large
populations. Therefore, if you were to say that 90% of the test scores are less (and not
the same of less) than your score, it would be acceptable because removing one
particular data value is not significant.

Quartiles are numbers that separate data into quarters. Quartile may or may not be part
of the data.

Sample Calculations:

Arrange from lowest to highest:

1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8, 7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5
Find the Median or the 2nd quartile. Total number of data: 14
6.8+7.2
=7
2
1st Quartile
1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8 = 2
3rd Quartile
7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5 = 9

Min Value = 1
Max Value = 11.5

Lesson – 6 Boxplots, Dotplots, and Skewness of Data

Box Plot
1. Min Value = 5
2. 1st Quartile = 6.5
3. 2nd Quartile = 8
4. 3rd Quartile = 11
5. Max Value = 13

DotPlots

Skewness
Lesson 6 – Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation provides numerical measure of the overall amount of variation in a
data set. It can be used to determine whether a particular data value is close to or far
from the mean.
 It is always positive or zero
 Small when the data are all concentrated close to the mean exhibiting little
variation or spread.
 Larger when the date values are more spread out from the mean exhibiting
more variation.
Example:
Sample Data: Ages of Grade 5 Students

Summation of Data
Mean = 10.525 ( )
Total number of Data
Data Frequency Deviations Deviations Freq.
(x) (f) (x - x̄ ) (x - x̄ )2 Deviations
f(x - x̄ )2
9 1 -1.525 2.33 2.33
9.5 2 -1.025 1.05 2.10
10 4 -0.525 0.28 1.12
10.5 4 -0.025 0.000625 0.0025
11 6 -0.475 0.23 1.38
11.5 3 -0.975 0.95 2.85
S = 0.72
LEGEND
x̄ Mean Formula to get Standard Deviation:
x Data
f Frequency
n Sample Size