Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Design, modeling and analysis of efficient multi-rack tray solar cabinet

dryer coupled with north wall reflector
Saloni Spall, V.P. Sethi *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: An innovative design of front loaded multi-rack tray (MRT) solar cabinet dryer is presented having optimally
Multi-tray solar cabinet dryer inclined reflective north wall (RNW) which utilizes reflected component of the solar radiation in addition to the
Reflective north wall beam radiation for efficient drying particularly in winter when conventional dryer does not perform well at
Solar radiation capture model
higher latitudes (>30◦ N). A modified global solar radiation capture model coupled with RNW is presented to
Thermal model
Dryer efficiency
determine the effect of RNW on its performance. A thermal model is also developed for chamber air temperature
Drying model (Tch) and crop surface temperature (Tc) with experimental validation and solved using Modified Euler’s method
using FREEMAT software with experimental validation at Ludhiana climate (30.56◦ N) India. Use of RNW en­
hances the radiation capture by 37.58%, 31.57% and 23.24% at 30◦ , 40◦ and 50◦ N latitude respectively in
winter. Daily average efficiency η(avg) with RNW was 5% and 4.35% higher under natural and forced convection
modes respectively as compared to without using RNW. By using RNW, 4–7 ◦ C and 2–5 ◦ C higher Tch was
observed as compared to when RNW was not used under natural and forced convection modes respectively. Total
reduction in drying time for carrot drying was observed to be 20% and 15% under natural and forced convection
modes respectively. Predicted and experimental values for Tch were successfully validated with root mean square
error (RMSE) ranging between 2.6 and 4.9. Uncertainty was found to be 20.5 out of which 19.3 was internal and
1.2 external which indicates the accuracy of observed data to determine the performance of solar dryer.

under natural convection mode for greenhouse. Barnwal and Tiwari

1. Introduction
Biomass and solar energy are most common sources of energy used
for heating, cooking and drying applications worldwide. However, use
of solar energy for such applications is better option because it is freely
and abundantly available besides being a clean source. At higher lati­
tudes, the availability of solar radiation becomes significantly low dur­
ing winter months resulting in poor performance of solar devices. Singh
and Tiwari (2000) presented an experimental study of thermal heating
in a greenhouse to maintain the plant and room air temperature using a
concrete north wall and ground air collector. Jain and Tiwari (2002)
investigated three simple mathematical models to predict the crop,
greenhouse room temperature and moisture evaporation for sun drying
and greenhouse drying under natural and forced convection modes. Jain
and Tiwari (2004) studied the effect of greenhouse on crop drying under
natural as well as forced convection modes and also evaluated convec­
tive mass transfer coefficient for cabbage and peas under open sun
drying as well as greenhouse drying. Kumar and Tiwari (2006) pre­
sented an experimental validation for the complete drying of jaggery
(2008) designed and developed a hybrid photovoltaic thermal green­
house solar dryer for drying of grapes in open, shades and in greenhouse
solar dryer for comparison.
Sethi and Arora (2009) presented the improvement in greenhouse
solar drying using inclined north wall reflection under natural as well as
forced convection mode to increase the solar radiation availability on
the product during summer months. Sethi et al (2009) designed and
economically evaluated a modified screen net house as a replacement to
conventional polyethylene sheet covered greenhouse. Rajeshwari and
Ramaligam (2012) designed a portable and inexpensive rectangular box
type solar dryer and evaluated the collector efficiency of solar drying
system by including ambient air temperature, air velocity and atmo­
spheric pressure and drying time as compared to open air drying Gupta
et al (2012) calculated total solar fraction for different orientation of
greenhouse using 3D-shadow analysis in Auto–CAD. It was concluded
that the total solar fraction was much higher in winters as compared to
the summers due to low altitude angle of the sun.
Prakash and Kumar (2012a,b) developed a computer model for
calculating jaggary temperature, greenhouse air temperature and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vpsethi@pau.edu, vpsethi68@yahoo.co.in (V.P. Sethi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.10.012
Received 18 November 2019; Received in revised form 13 August 2020; Accepted 5 October 2020
Available online 16 October 2020
0038-092X/© 2020 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

Nomenclature MC moisture content

MRexpi experimental moisture ratio, dimensionless
a experimental constant for drying model MRprei predicted moisture ratio, dimensionless
Ac area of collector of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 N experimental constant
Aew area of east wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 n experimental constant for drying model
Aww area of west wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 N no. of observation
Anw area of north wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 n1 experimental constant
Asw area of south wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 n day of the year (January 15 = 15)
Atw area of top wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer, m2 Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless
b experimental constant for drying model qabs heat energy absorbed by the inclined surface of MRT solar
C experimental constant cabinet dryer, MJ m− 2
c experimental constant for drying model qlo heat energy lost by MRT solar cabinet dryer, MJ m− 2
Cv specific heat of humid air, kJ kg− 1⁰C qga useful heat energy by MRT solar cabinet dryer , MJ m− 2
Cch specific heat of chamber air, kJ kg− 1⁰C Ra Rayleigh number, dimensionless
Cc specific heat of crop, kJ kg− 1⁰C Rb conversion factor for beam radiation, (dimensionless)
dTch predicted chamber air temperature, ⁰C Rnb conversion factor for reflected beam radiation from north
dTc predicted crop surface temperature, ⁰C wall reflector of MRT solar cabinet dryer, (dimensionless)
Gr Grashof number, dimensionless Rd conversion factor for diffuse radiation, (dimensionless)
hb overall heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to Rr conversion factor for reflected radiation, (dimensionless)
ambient air through insulation,Wm− 2⁰C-1 Ta ambient air temperature, ⁰C
hc convective mass transfer coefficient for natural convection, Tch chamber air temperature, ⁰C
Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 Tt top surface temperature, ⁰C
hcc convective mass transfer coefficient for forced convection, Tc crop surface temperature, ⁰C
Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 Ti average temperature of crop surface and chamber air
hrta radiative heat transfer coefficient from inclined surface to temperature, ⁰C
ambient air, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 ΔT temperature difference, ⁰C
hcta convective heat transfer coefficient from inclined surface t time in hours
to ambient air, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 UB bottom heat loss coefficient of MRT solar cabinet dryer,
h sum of radiative, convective and evaporative heat transfer Wm− 2 ⁰C-1
coefficient from crop surface to drying chamber air, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 UL overall heat loss coefficient of MRT solar cabinet dryer
hrc radiative and convective heat transfer coefficient between Wm− 2 ⁰C-1
crop surface and chamber air, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 UCR convective heat loss coefficient of MRT solar cabinet dryer,
hec evaporative heat transfer coefficient between crop surface Wm− 2 ⁰C-1
and chamber air, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 V velocity of air flowing over the inclined surface of MRT
h2 convective and radiative heat transfer from crop to drying solar cabinet dryer, m s− 1
chamber, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 wi initial weight of product, gm
hi convective heat transfer coefficient from chamber to wf final weight of product, gm
ambient air due to fans and wind as well, Wm− 2 ⁰C-1 Xi initial moisture content, %
Ib beam solar radiation intensity, Wm− 2 Xe equilibrium moisture content, %
Id diffuse solar radiation intensity, Wm− 2 Xt moisture content at particular time, %
Iew solar radiation intensity on east wall of MRT solar cabinet y,n+1 predicted value
dryer, Wm− 2
Iww solar radiation intensity on west wall of MRT solar cabinet Greek letters
dryer, Wm− 2 αc absorptivity coefficient of crop, dimensionless

Inw solar radiation intensity on north wall of MRT solar cabinet εc emissivity of the crop, dimensionless
dryer, Wm− 2 τc transmissivity coefficient of crop, dimensionless
Isw solar radiation intensity on south wall of MRT solar cabinet ηd thermal efficiency of MRT solar dryer, dimensionless
dryer, Wm− 2 θin angle of incidence with north wall reflector, degrees
Itw solar radiation intensity on top wall of MRT solar cabinet θz zenith angle of the sun, degrees
dryer, Wm− 2 θi angle of incidence with MRT solar dryer inclined surface,
It total solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface degrees
consisting of beam radiation, diffuse radiation and βn slope of the MRT solar dryer north wall with vertical,
radiation reflected from ground, W m− 2 degrees
IT total solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface β’ coefficient of volumetric expansion, 0C
consisting of beam radiation, diffuse radiation, radiation ρn reflectivity of reflective north wall, dimensionless
reflected from ground and reflected from north wall αp absorptivity coefficient of polycarbonate sheet,
reflector installed at optimized tilt angle, W m− 2 dimensionless
kv thermal conductivity of humid air, Wm− 1 ⁰C-1 τp transmissivity coefficient of polycarbonate sheet,
Kin thermal conductivity of insulation, Wm− 1 ⁰C-1 dimensionless
Lin thickness of insulation, mm ρv density of humid air, kg m− 1 s− 1
mwb moisture content in wet basis, % μv dynamic viscosity of humid air, kg m− 1 s− 1
mdb moisture content in dry basis, % μ dynamic viscosity, kg m− 1 s− 1
mev mass of moisture evaporation, gm ρ reflectivity of ground, dimensionless
MRT multi rack tray β slope of the MRT solar dryer with horizontal, degrees
m mass flow rate air of air inside the chamber, kg s− 1 φ latitude of selected location, degrees
MR moisture ratio, dimensionless σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10-8 W m− 2 K4
909
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi
moisture evaporated for drying jaggary inside the greenhouse for nat­
ural convection mode. Panwar et al (2013) conducted analysis on walk-
in-type solar tunnel dryer for computing thermal modeling, energy ef­
ficiency and exergy efficiency. Prakash and Kumar (2015) computed
various thermal parameters such as; heat loss, coefficient of diffusion,
heat transfer coefficient on greenhouse crop dryer. Singh et al (2018)
concluded that the greenhouse operated in active mode was much better
than the passive mode and forced convection mode was suitable for
higher moisture removal than the natural convection mode.
Sharma et al (1990) developed energy balance equations for cabinet
solar dryer and solved for typical days in summer season. Anwar and
Tiwari (2001) presented thermal analysis on four-tray solar crop dryer
by considering basic energy balance equations and solved them using
fourth order Runge-Kutta method. The magnitude of different heat and
mass transfer coefficients affecting the moisture removal were deter­
mined. Sreekumar et al (2008) presented an indirect type shaded solar
cabinet dryer which consisted of two components that helped to absorb
more solar radiation and thermal energy for drying of vegetables and
fruits. Two fans were fitted at the inlet of the dryer to accelerate the
drying rate significantly.
Bala and Janjai (2009) presented the potential of solar drying tech­
nologies for drying fruits, vegetables, spices, medicinal plants and fish
examined the drying performance, product quality and economics for
the rural area of the tropic and subtropics regions. Medugu (2010)
studied the performance of solar cabinet and solar chimney dryer for
drying tomatoes, pepper and bitter leaves. Singh and Kumar (2011)
studied the steady state mathematical model based on heat balance
concept of solar cabinet drier without loading the crop. Gatea (2011)
conducted a study on design and development of a solar dryer and
analysis on the performance of thermal drying system which consists of
a solar collector flat plate, drying chamber cylindrical section for the
purpose of drying 70 kg of bean crop. Badgujar (2012) designed a forced
convection desiccant integrated solar dryer operating in two modes;
during sunshine and off-shine hours. The dryer was used to dry 20 kg
green peas and pineapple slices. Misha et al (2013) reviewed various
designs of tray dryers for drying of agricultural products and evaluated
the performance. Rigit et al (2013) designed and developed indirect
prototype solar dryer with biomass backup burner for the use of small
scale rural farmers to dry their harvested pepper berries. Sundari et al
(2013) studied the performance of a forced convection solar drier with
evacuated tube collector for drying amla. The efficiency of the designed
drier varied from 38.16% to 43.7% whereas in sun drying the efficiency
varied from 12.5% to 14.51%.
Chaudhari and Salve (2014) reviewed various types of dryers with
their design and performance parameters as well which were helpful in
preservation of agricultural products for a long time. Sansaniwal and
Kumar (2015) presented a natural convection indirect solar dryer to
analyze the drying behavior of ginger in terms of convective heat
transfer coefficient and moisture removal rate (%db). Aiswarya and
Divya (2015) designed and developed a solar dryer incorporated with
PCM (phase change material) for drying of potato and canvas root. Flat
plate solar collector was used to absorb more heat which was transferred
to the drying compartment with the help of a blower. Chevli et al (2016)
studied the performance of a chimney type solar dryer tested for chilli
drying. The dryer consisted of a flat plate solar collector with a drying
chamber. Pakhare and Salve (2016) studied the performance of a solar
cabinet dryer with thermal storage for drying chillies in forced con­
vection mode which consisted of a flat plate collector for air heating and
used paraffin wax as PCM.
Shanmugam and Natarajan (2006) presented an experimental
investigation of indirect forced convection and desiccant integrated
solar dryer under hot and humid climatic conditions. It was concluded
that the integrated desiccant unit with solar drying continued the drying
of products in off-shine hours which improved the quality of the drying
products. Janjai et al (2009) presented an experimental and simulated
performance of a PV-ventilated solar greenhouse dryer for drying of
910
Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919
peeled longan and banana. Kumar (2013) investigated the behavior of
heat and mass transfer phenomena for papad drying under forced con­
vection mode. Wankhade et al (2014) presented an experimental anal­
ysis to investigate the performance of solar dryer with air vents for
natural air flow in dryer. ELkhadraoui et al (2015) conducted an
experimental analysis to investigate the performance of a novel mixed
mode solar greenhouse dryer with forced convection to dry red pepper.
Yuan et al (2015) presented an experimental investigation of a solar
dryer system used for drying carpet. Thermal performance of the
designed collector was tested based on ANSI/ASHRAE standard. Singh
and Sethi (2018) presented a comprehensive review of various indirect
type solar dryers and also reviewed that these dryers were better than
against open sun drying. Simate and Siwanzi (2016) studied the per­
formance of a photovoltaic ventilated solar tunnel dryer with unglazed
transpired cloth absorber which was used to dry cabbage.
It has been observed from above studies that although several de­
signs, experimental and theoretical studies of solar dryers have been
reported. However, in composite type of climate the solar dryer does not
perform well due to low solar radiation availability during winter
months hence many drying operations at domestic level cannot be
performed when fresh vegetables are needed for drying and value
addition. Therefore, in this study, a sufficiently large capacity multi-
shelf crop dryer coupled with north wall reflector (RNW) is presented
which improves the solar radiation capture by adding the reflected
component particularly in winter conditions at higher latitudes. For
continuous operation of cabinet solar dryer under forced convection
mode, PV operation has been used for operating the fans for moisture
removal. Furthermore, modified solar radiation and thermal models
have also been developed and used to predict the drying chamber air
temperature, crop surface temperature. To solve the energy balance
equations, Modified Euler’s method was used and computations were
performed in FREEMAT software. Other performance parameters such
as; heat loss coefficient and useful heat gained along with thermal effi­
ciency of the MRT solar cabinet dryer have been computed and
compared with experimental values. Experimental validation of the
designed dryer with RNW is also performed for carrot drying.
2. Design details and working principle of MRT solar cabinet
dryer
A multi rack tray (MRT) solar cabinet dryer with reflective north wall
(RNW) of 1.25 m length, 1.50 m breadth and 1.09 m height with 1.61 m2
bottom area was fabricated using 6 mm polycarbonate sheet at solar
energy research laboratory of mechanical engineering department at
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Fig. 1a Isometric view and
Fig. 1b Pictorial view). Specialty of the design was that MRT solar
cabinet dryer (having two shelves and four trays) was front loaded for
ease of loading and unloading and to maximize the reflected solar ra­
diation reflective north wall (RNW) was fitted for efficient drying
operation at domestic level as well as commercial level.
Use of reflective north wall (RNW) on optimally inclined north wall
was suggested by Sethi and Arora (2009) for greenhouse type dryer. The
optimum angle of north wall for four winter months at 30◦ N latitude as
suggested by these authors is used in the current study so that RNW
reflects the solar radiation from the north wall onto the tray that helped
in raising the chamber temperature during winter months when altitude
angle of the sun is low particularly at higher latitudes. The south wall
and south facing roof with downward inclination (at β = 25⁰ with the
horizontal) of MRT solar cabinet dryer fitted with RNW which helped in
maximization of transmitted solar radiation during winter months when
altitude angle of the sun is low. The base material used for RNW was
aluminized reflector sheet of 0.8 mm thickness having reflectivity close
to glass 0.92 for glass and 0.9 for aluminized sheet) as prescribed by the
manufacturer. The cost of the reflective sheet was about 40% less as
compared to good quality reflecting glass (having silver nitrate layer at
the back) and has at least 5 years of life in sun without fading and does
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

Fig. 1a. Isometric view of MRT solar dryer.

Fig. 1b. Pictorial view of MRT solar cabinet dryer with north wall reflector sheet.

Table 1a
Cross-sectional details of MRT solar cabinet dryer.
Shape (area) SW-south wall, NW-north wall, WW-west wall, EW-east wall, SR-south roof, BS-bottom surfaceAn area of nth section, where n is 1–5 for MRT solar dryer
2
MRT solar dryer (6.89 m ) SW NW WW EW SR* BS
0.64 m2 1.41 m2 0.81 m2 0.81 m2 1.61 m2 1.61 m2
β = 900 β = 900 β = 900 β = 900 β = 250 (inclined*)
γ =00 γ =1800 γ = + 900 γ = − 900 γ =00

not require ant maintenance or extra care against breakage except oc­
casional cleaning of dust. The sheet can be easily rolled, replaced and
fixed just by removing the north wall of the MRT dryer using removable
screws.
Thermocol sheet of 0.04 m thickness was used at the base of the dryer
to minimize bottom loss coefficient. The size, dimensions and cross
sectional area of each section of MRT solar cabinet dryer are given in
Table 1a. Front door was provided for ease of loading and unloading of
vegetables. Ten holes of 3 cm diameter were provided at the top inclined
roof and six holes of 6 cm diameter at the bottom were provided for
moisture removal under natural convection mode while during forced
convection mode, the holes were kept closed with cotton plugs so that
the outside air could not enter the drying chamber and the moisture was
removed by operating the PV operated fans.
Because there was angle iron partition between the two parallel trays
to rest them at the lower side and uniformity was maintained by

911
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi
providing 3 holes at equal distance under each tray but of double size
diameter for proper air inflow. However, at the top inclined roof, 10
holes of 3 cm diameter were provided as it was a continuous surface
without any partition and holes were provided at equal distance for
moist air removal.
Front and side views along with the dimensional details are shown in
Fig. 1c, Fig. 1d and Table 1b. The north wall of MRT solar cabinet dryer
is inclined at optimum angle for achieving the maximum width of the
reflected radiation onto the drying trays. Two fans of 7.7 cm diameter
consuming 3 W power each were connected with a six watt PV panel and
attached with the iron frame on the top side of the MRT solar cabinet
dryer at optimum angle. Four rectangular wire mesh trays of 80 cm × 70
cm × 2 cm depth size each were designed for placing on the iron frame
for drying operations. Trays were designed to have sufficient quantity of
loading material over a wider area, for the ease of drying process as it
helps to maintain good space between crops spread over it for uniform
drying throughout the day. The main design aspect of optimum dryer
width was based on the optimum inclination angle of the north wall of
the dryer so that all the reflected radiation from the RNW falls back on
the tray at solar noon when zenith angle of the sun (θz) is minimum for
four winter months as given by Sethi et al. (2014) for solar cooker. In this
study, an average value of θz for four winter months at 30◦ N is chosen as
49.32◦ and used to compute the optimum inclination angle of north
reflective wall (βn) such that all the reflected radiation from RNW is
received up to the farthest end of tray for uniform crop drying. Thus, an
optimum size of tray dimensions having 80 cm length (leaving some
space for tray movement within 125 cm of total length) and 70 cm width
(having two trays covering 140 cm and 10 cm gap for placement was
left) were chosen.
3. Theoretical aspects
3.1. Solar radiation capture model by MRT solar cabinet dryer
Solar radiation capture model for MRT solar cabinet dryer fitted with
reflective north wall was presented after making suitable modifications
in the original model developed by Sethi (2009) for greenhouse. The
equations were used to write total instant solar radiation incident (It )on
the surface of the MRT solar cabinet dryer and computed by adding the
effects of beam radiation (Ib ), diffuse radiation (Id ), reflected radiation
(Ir ) from the surface of earth and north wall reflector and conversion
factor of diffuse radiation (Rb ), reflected radiation (Rr ) and beam radi­
ation north wall reflector (Rb ) as given below
Fig. 1c. Front view of MRT solar cabinet dryer (all dimensions in cm).
912
Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919
It = Ib Rb + ρn Ib Rbn + Id Rd + ρRr [Ib + Id ] (1)
− 2
Instant solar radiation (Wm ) was converted into hourly insolation
(MJ m− 2) on a particular day as given below
3600
Hourlysolarradiation(MJm − 2) = IT × (2)
1000000
Hourly total solar radiation on MRT solar cabinet dryer surfaces was
calculated as under
ST = Aww Iww + Aew Iew + Anw Inw + Asw Isw + ASR ISR (3)
Year round solar radiation availability was evaluated at selected
latitudes of 30◦ , 40◦ , and 50◦ respectively to determine the performance
of MRT solar cabinet dryer. Thermal performance of the dryer was
computed by total heat loss coefficient (UL), convective and radiative
loss coefficient (UCR), bottom loss coefficient (UB), heat absorbed by
MRT solar cabinet dryer (qabs), useful heat gained by MRT solar cabinet
dryer (qga), heat loss by MRT solar cabinet dryer (qlo) and thermal ef­
ficiency of MRT solar cabinet dryer (ηd) on the pattern as presented in
detail by Sekhon and Sethi (2019) for community solar cooker.
3.2. Thermal analysis of MRT solar cabinet dryer with north wall
reflector
Modified energy balance equations for different components of MRT
solar cabinet dryer were computed using the greenhouse crop dryer
model presented by Tiwari and Goyal (1998).
3.2.1. Crop surface temperature
The energy balance equation for crop surface in MRT solar cabinet
dryer is given below
dTc
McCc = [hAc (Tc − Tch ) + (αc τc I(t)Ac )] (4)
dt
Where
αc τc I(t)Ac = Rate of solar energy absorbed by the crop (carrot) inside
the dryer from solar radiation
hAc (Tc − Tch ) = Rate of thermal energy transfer from crop to cham­
ber air due to convective, evaporative and radiative heat transfer
coefficients
h = hrc + hev (Tiwari and Goyal, 1998)
h2 = 5.7 + 3.8 v is convective and radiative heat transfer from crop to
drying chamber
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

Fig. 1d. Side view of MRT solar cabinet dryer with inclined north wall reflector.

Table 1b K
hc = hc = C(Gr × Pr)n For natural convection (Jain and Tiwari 2004)
Size and dimensions of MRT solar cabinet dryer. X
(8)
S. Particulars Dimensions
No.
K
1. Length 1.25 m
hc = hcc = C(Re × Pr)n For forced convection (Jain and Tiwari 2004)
X
2. Breadth 1.50 m (9)
3. Height 1.09 m
Tray dimensions 80 cm × 70 cm
4. Bottom area 1.61 m 3.3. Mathematical solution
5. Covered area 6.89 m2
6. Door size 0.55 m × 1.15 m
To solve the energy balance equations for crop surface temperature
7. Vertical distance between the trays 0.23 m
8. Vertical distance from the bottom area to below tray 0.08 m
and chamber air temperature discussed above, Modified Euler’s method
9. Distance between PV operated exhaust fans 0.92 m (Grewal, 2016) was used and computation were performed by using
10. Surface area of MRT solar dryer (6.89 m2); SW, NW, 0.64, 1.41, 0.81 FREEMAT software.
WW 0.81, 1.61, 1.61
EW, SR and BS(bottom surface) (m2) 1
yn+1 = yn + [k1 + k2 ]
11. Tilt angle (β); βSW , βNW. βWW (◦ ) 90, 90, 90 2
ВEW , βSR (◦ ) 90, 25
12. Solar Azimuth Angle (γ); γSW, γSR γNW, γWW, γEW (◦ ) 0, 0, 180, +90, Where
γEW, γSR, (◦ ) − 90
-90, 0
k1 = f(xn , yn )

k2 = f(xn + h; yn + k1 )
0.016hc [P(Tc ) − γP(Tch )]
hev = (5) To apply this method, yn+1 is the required temperature after
[Tc − Tch ] particular time, y is the initial temperature and × values were taken as
zero in this case and h is the time step (1 h). The initial values of tem­
h2 (Tch − Tc ) − 0.016hc [P(Tch ) − γP(Tc )]
hrc = (6) perature for chamber air and crop surface in MRT solar cabinet dryer (Tc
(Tch − Tc )
and Tch) were assumed as equal to ambient temperature. Solar radiation
intensity changes with time so it is input parameter in these equations
3.2.2. Chamber air temperature and obtained from global solar radiation model. Therefore the devel­
Heat loss or gain by or from the chamber air depends upon the oped program helps in obtaining these values.
interaction with the crop in MRT solar cabinet dryer as given below
dTch ( ) 3.3.1. Computation of predicted crop temperature with respect to time(dT c )
Mch Cch = [hi Ac (Tch − Ta ) + αp τp I(t)Ac ] (7)
dt Predicted crop surface temperature dTc was computed by using
Modified Euler’s method applied on Eq. (4).
Where
⌊ ⌋ [ ]
αp τp I(t)Ac = Rate of solar energy absorbed by the chamber air inside dTc hAc (Tc − Tch ) αc τc I(t)Ac
= + (10)
the dryer from solar radiation dt Mc C c Mc C c
hi Ac (Tch − Ta ) = Rate of thermal energy transfer from chamber to
Where
ambient air due to convection and evaporation
rate of thermal energy transfer from crop to chamber due to
hi = 2.8 + 3V = Convective heat transfer coefficient from chamber
convective, evaporative and radiative heat transfer coefficients, y
to ambient air due to fans and wind as well ⌊ ⌋
∑ = hAc M
(Tc − Tch )
c Cc
Ac = AEW + AWW + ANW + ASR + ASW
rate of thermal energy transfer from crop to chamber due to

913
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

convective, evaporative and radiative heat transfer coefficients, x
[ ]
= αc τMc I(t)A c
C
c c
( )
derivative function of × and y at particular point, k1 = f xn , yn
derivative function of × and y at particular point with adding value
of k1, k2 = f(xn + h; yn + k1 )
1 winter season as well as summer season. After each drying day, the
actual value of predicted temperature y, n+1 = yn + [k1 + k2 ]
2 samples were removed from each tray in the evening time and then
Where
y’n+1 is predicted value of crop temperature (Tc )
n is number of terms or experimental values
h is time difference in hours
the number of experimental values is 7 (10 am to 5 pm).
Same procedure was applied for computation of predicted chamber
air temperature Tch with respect to time(dTch )
As there was very little free moisture available in the carrot, there­
fore, due to evaporation of moisture, the temperature just above the crop
surface was almost equal to the chamber air temperature. Hence, in
order to obtain the physical properties of humid air (Ti) the average crop
temperature (Tc) and chamber air temperature (Tch) were used as given
below
Ti = (Tc + Tch )/2
Physical properties of humid air like density (ρv ), viscosity (μv ),
thermal conductivity(kv )and specific heat (Cv )for computing Grashof
number (Gr), Reynolds number (Re) and Prandtl number (Pr) were used
as given by Anwar and Tiwari (2001).
The numerical value of ‘C’ and ‘n’ depends upon the type of crop
dried and these equations were suitable for computing the moisture
evaporated as suggested by Tiwari and Goyal (1998).
0.016 K
mew = C(Gr Pr )n [P(Tc ) − γP(Tch )]At t (11)
L X
3.4. Experimental uncertainty analysis
Experimental percentage uncertainty was calculated for chamber air
temperature Tch which is most important parameter for predicting and
validating the developed thermal model. It is the summation of internal
and external percentage of uncertainty. The external percentage un­
certainty was taken as least count of the measuring instruments while
internal percentage uncertainty was determined as Kumar and Tiwari
(2007) and Prakash and Kumar (2014).
The experimental percentage of uncertainty was found to be 20.5 out
of which 19.3 was internal and 1.2 external uncertainties. The uncer­
tainty analysis clearly indicates that the observed data was adequately
precise to determine the performance of MRT solar cabinet dryer.
3.5. Drying performance
3.5.3. Drying method
Blanching of carrots was done at 80 ◦ C temperature for 5 to 8 min in
hot water before the start of the experiment and allowed to cool down
for 30 min and cut into round pieces of 4 mm to 6 mm thickness. Batch of
2 kg carrots were spread uniformly on each tray and kept in the drying
chamber of MRT solar cabinet dryer as shown in Fig. 2.
All experiments were performed during the day from 9 am to 5 pm in
packed in sealed polyethylene bags to avoid moisture gain. Next day
experiment was continued with the same sample until the equilibrium
moisture content (8% db) was reached. The initial moisture content in
carrots (86% db) was measured by standard oven drying (AOAC 2001)
method by placing 250 gm carrot sample in a hot air oven. The inclined
surface (roof) of the dryer had 10 holes on the top side of the dryer and
was kept open during natural convection mode for release of moist air,
but during forced convection mode these holes were kept closed and PV
operated fans operated at constant speed of 0.25 ms− 1 for continuous
removal of moist air. Two solarimeters (range 0–2000 Wm− 2 and least
count 5 Wm− 2) were used to measure solar radiation on horizontal and
inclined surface after each hour and average taken. A digital type elec­
tronic balance was used to measure moisture reduction (maximum
loading capacity of 10 kg, least count 0.01 gm) from the samples. Inside
and outside chamber air temperature and relative humidity were
measured using thermo-hygrometers (Maxtech, TH-103 model,
measuring range − 50 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C and 1–99% respectively having ac­
curacy of ± 0.1%). Crop surface temperature was measured using a non-
contact gun type infrared thermometer (measuring range − 20 ◦ C to 315
◦
C, least count 0.5 ◦ C). All the data was recorded after every one hour of
interval.
Series of four experiments were conducted on consecutive sunny
days having almost similar day time temperature variations in both
under natural convection as well as forced convection mode with and
without using reflective north wall (RNW) such as; (i) natural convec­
tion mode with RNW (ii) forced convection mode with RNW (iii) natural
convection mode without RNW and (iv) forced convection mode
without RNW. The air flow through the sample was measured using vane
type an anemometer. Solar radiation intensity (It) available on hori­
zontal surface equivalent to tray surface of MRT solar cabinet dryer,
ambient air temperature (Ta) and chamber air temperature (Tch) and
weight of the sample were recorded on hourly basis. Moisture content
(%) on dry basis and drying rate were calculated using equations given
by Sekhon and Sethi (2019).
Where
Xt − Xe
MR = Moisture ratio = (12c)
Xi − Xe
Xt, Xe and Xi are moisture contents % (db) at any time ‘t’, at equi­
librium and at time t = 0, respectively. Various constants used in the
study are given in Table 2.

Drying performance parameters are given below (Singh and Sethi,

2018)

3.5.1. Moisture content (%) in wet basis

wi − wf
mwb = × 100 (12a)
wf

Where
wi is initial weight of product and wf final weight of product in gm

3.5.2. Moisture content (%) in dry basis

mwb
mdb = × 100 (12b)
100 − mwb
Fig. 2. Pictorial view of carrot slices blanched for drying in MRT solar cabi­
net dryer.

914
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Effect of latitude on solar radiation availability for MRT solar

cabinet dryer

Effect of selected latitudes (30◦ , 40◦ and 50◦ N) was computed on

instant global solar radiation availability model per unit surface area of
MRT solar cabinet dryer. Global solar radiation constituting of direct,
beam, ground reflected and reflected from reflective north wall (RNW)
available at the different surfaces of MRT solar cabinet dryer was
computed at solar noon as shown in Fig. 3. Significant variation in solar
radiation capture by dryer was observed at selected latitudes during
each season and in general decreased with increase in latitude (40◦ and
above). During the summer season (April), the highest available solar
radiation was observed as 1103 Wm− 2 at 40◦ N followed by 1061 Wm− 2
at 30◦ N and 961 Wm− 2 at 50◦ N latitude. Similarly, during winter
(October) the highest solar radiation was observed as 996 Wm− 2 at 40◦
latitude followed by 968 Wm− 2 at 40◦ and 866 Wm− 2 at 50◦ N latitudes.
In general, monthly average of solar radiation availability in twelve
months at 30◦ N and 40◦ N latitude is 940 Wm− 2 and 989 Wm− 2
respectively but at 50◦ N latitude it is only 861Wm− 2. It is due to the fact
that at 30◦ N latitude, there are rainier days (in July and August) and
foggy days (in December and January) during the whole year that lowers
the clearness index of the sky hence the solar radiation is comparatively
less as compared to at 40◦ N latitude. However at 50◦ N latitude altitude
angle of the sun is small that lowers the availability of monthly average
solar radiation on MRT solar cabinet dryer during the whole year.
4.2. Effect of reflective north wall of MRT solar dryer on solar radiation
enhancement
Summation of hourly solar radiation (TSR) availability (computed
through Eq. (2)) during representative day of each month from 10 am to
5 pm (as solar radiation before 10 am and after 5 pm does not contribute
much due to very acute angle of reflection from RNW) with RNW (w)
and without RNW (w/o) at selected latitudes is presented in Table 3 to
distinguish the effect of RNW on its percent enhancement.
It was observed that during winter season (January), RNW could
enhance the TSR by 37.58%, 31.57% and 23.24% at 30◦ , 40◦ and 50◦ N
latitude respectively. Similarly in summer season (April), increase in
TSR was 49.79%, 42.92% and 35.81% at 30◦ 40◦ and 50◦ N latitude
respectively. The yearly average was 47.75%, 39.41% and 28.33% at
30◦ 40◦ and 50◦ N latitude respectively. This decrease with increase in
latitude was due to decrease in available solar radiation due to which the
reflected radiation from RNW decreased significantly particularly dur­
ing winter months.
Fig. 3. Monthly average daily instant global solar radiation availability at solar
noon (Wm− 2).
4.3. Performance efficiency of MRT solar cabinet dryer
In order to test the performance of MRT solar cabinet dryer with
RNW, experiments were conducted during winter as well as summer
seasons with and without using the RNW under natural as well as forced
convection modes. Although experimental data and computations were
performed from 10am to 5 pm (at each hour), however, daily average
and maximum values of various parameters of interest are shown in
Table 4.
In winter under natural convection mode, daily average efficiency
η(avg) of MRT solar dryer with RNW was 25.88% as compared to 20.91%
when RNW was not used. Computations showed that RNW was
responsible for 4.97% increase in daily η(avg) and about 20% increase in
maximum η(max) due to increase in reflected component from RNW
when the beam radiation was low. However, in summer the heat loss
coefficient (UL) was higher due to higher chamber air temperature.
Moreover, reflected component from RNW was small due to greater
zenith angle of the sun due to which average efficiency η(avg) was only
about 2% higher with RNW as compared to without RNW and maximum
efficiency η(max) was about 7% higher with RNW.
In winter, under forced convection mode, the daily average effi­
ciency η(avg) of MRT solar dryer with RNW was 23.98% as compared to
19.63% without RNW. Hence, RNW is again responsible for about 4.35%
increase in daily average efficiency η(avg) and about 12.88% increase in
maximum efficiency η(max) due to increase in reflected component of the
solar radiation from RNW. However, in summer, η(avg) was only about
1.5% with RNW as compared to without RNW and η(max) was 5.12%
higher with RNW.

Table 2
Values of different constants used in the study.
Name of the constant Symbol Value used Reference

Absorptivity of crop (carrot) αc 70% www.engineeringtoolbox.com

Transmissivity of crop (carrot) τc 60% (αc + τc + ρc = 1) Tiwari and Goyal (1998)
Area of collector Ac 0.703 (m2) measured dimension
Mass of crop (carrot) Mc 4 (kg) measured dimension
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67×10− 8 Tiwari and Goyal (1998)
Latent heat of vaporization L 2447 (kJ kg− 1) Srikiatden and Roborts (2007)
Absorptivity of polycarbonate αP 94% Pinto et al (2006)
Transmissivity of polycarbonate τP 82% Zadhradhi_nabytek_vyprodej.info//polycarbonate_uv_transmission.htmltml
Emissivity of crop (carrot) εC 94% Kirchoff’s law
Area of vent As 0.03 (m) Measured dimension
2◦
Thermal conductivity of thermocol insulation Kb 0.22 (Wm− C) www.wikipedia.com
Thickness of insulation Lb 0.06 (m) Measured dimension

915
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919

Table 3
Total solar radiation enhancement by north wall reflector sheet during solar noon at selected latitudes (MJ m− 2).
Month Day φ = 30◦ N φ = 40◦ N φ = 50◦ N

w w/o % increase w w/o % increase w w/o % increase

J − 17 19.63 14.27 37.58 16.02 12.18 31.57 9.81 8.96 23.24

F − 16 22.20 15.98 38.92 19.85 14.74 34.66 14.49 11.50 26
M− 16 24.87 17.44 42.60 23.87 17.53 36.16 17.25 13.04 32.28
A − 15 28.91 19.30 49.79 28.10 19.66 42.92 22.64 16.67 35.81
M− 15 31.01 19.95 55.42 31.20 21.46 45.38 25.44 17.95 41.72
J-11 36.41 24.19 50.51 30.11 20.05 50.17 25.97 18.61 39.54
J − 17 34.94 22.09 57.99 27.07 17.76 52.42 22.69 16.98 33.96
A − 16 28.98 18.11 60.02 25.37 16.95 49.67 19.95 14.72 35.53
S − 15 26.73 17.40 53.62 25.12 16.95 48.49 16.48 12.81 28.64
O – 15 17.61 11.64 51.28 19.67 14.55 35.18 13.58 11.19 21.35
N – 14 16.91 11.46 47.59 17.44 13.92 25.28 10.66 9.53 11.85
D − 10 12.35 9.67 27.71 15.48 12.78 21.12 8.35 7.58 10.15
Yearly average % increase 47.75 39.41 28.33

Table 4
Showing maximum and daily average of performance parameters of MRTS solar cabinet dryer with and without RNW under natural and forced convection modes.
Mode Season Date (2017) Solar insolation at noon (MJ m− 2) Tch(max) (◦ C) UL(avg) (Wm− 2) UL(Max) (Wm− 2) η(avg) (%) η(max) (%)
Natural convection (with RNW) Winter (Jan 10) 2.20 51.3 5.12 5.66 25.88 61.45
Summer (Aril 09) 2.87 64.4 5.31 6.03 24.06 53.03
Natural convection (without RNW) Winter (Jan 11) 2.99 47.2 5.18 5.80 20.91 41.11
Summer (April 10) 2.87 60.6 5.30 6.55 22.79 46.26
Forced convection (with RNW) Winter (Jan 12) 2.62 50.3 4.92 6.35 23.98 54.13
Summer (April 14) 2.88 64.2 5.21 6.47 23.21 48.24
Forced convection (without RNW) Winter (Jan 14) 2.99 48.4 5.28 6.36 19.63 41.25
(Summer) April 16 3.07 62.5 5.44 7.46 21.73 43.12

Fig. 5. Hourly variation of predicted Tc(p) and experimentally measured Tc(exp)

crop surface temperature with using RNW under natural convection mode at
Ludhiana (30◦ N) India in winter (10th January 2017).
Fig. 4. Hourly variation of chamber air temperature (Tch), crop surface tem­
perature (Tc), ambient air temperature (Ta) and solar radiation intensity (It)
with using RNW at Ludhiana (30◦ N) India on selected drying days in winter.

4.4. Crop surface temperature, chamber air temperature and model

validation

4.4.1. Crop surface temperature

Under natural convection mode in winter using RNW, maximum
chamber air temperature Tch was between 42.5 ◦ C and 46.2 ◦ C (12 pm to
1 pm) and gradually decreased to 30.2 ◦ C during the end of the first
drying day (at 5 pm) as shown in Fig. 4.
During the next drying day, maximum range of chamber air tem­
perature (44.2 ◦ C to 48.5 ◦ C) was attained between 12 noon to 1 pm.
Crop surface temperatures on both drying days varied from 19.3 ◦ C at 10
am to 37.4 ◦ C at 5 pm). The measured global solar radiation intensity on
the surface of MRT solar cabinet dryer varied from 350 Wm− 2 to 590 Fig. 6. Hourly variation in predicted Tch(p) and experimentally measured Tch
Wm− 2 and 345 Wm− 2 to 610 Wm− 2 during 10 am to 12 pm on first and (exp) chamber air temperature with using RNW under forced convection mode at
second drying day respectively and was almost comparable. The Ludhiana (30◦ N) in winter.
ambient air temperature on both drying days varied from 9.3 ◦ C to 18.2
◦
C.
Validation of the developed thermal model was performed with

916
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi
experimental data of crop surface temperature Tc(exp) (Fig. 5). It was
observed that the predicted crop surface temperature (Tc(p)) was closely
matched with the experimentally measured data of Tc(exp) with RMSE of
2.36%.
4.4.2. Chamber air temperature
The initial values of experimentally measured chamber air temper­
ature Tch(exp) and predicted Tch(p) were 37.5 ◦ C and 36.1 ◦ C at 10 am
respectively as shown in Fig. 6. The peak predicted Tch(p) and experi­
mental Tch(exp) with using RNW varied from 52.2 ◦ C to 49.3 ◦ C during 1
pm to 2 pm respectively and closely matched till the end of the day with
RMSE of 2.12%.
4.5. Effect of reflective north wall on chamber air temperature
4.5.1. Variation of chamber air temperature with RNW under natural and
forced convection mode
Hourly variation of chamber air temperature (Tch) with RNW under
natural and forced convection mode is shown in Fig. 7. It was observed
that at 10 am Tch under natural and forced convection mode was 39.4 ◦ C
and 36.8 ◦ C respectively (difference of only 2.6 ◦ C). This difference
further increased to only 3.4 ◦ C up to 1 pm as peak chamber air tem­
perature was observed to be 55.8 ◦ C and 52.4 ◦ C under natural and
forced convection mode at 1 pm. By the end of experiment (at 5 pm),
chamber air temperature was 33.4 ◦ C for natural convection and 31.4 ◦ C
for forced convection mode. It was thus observed that the temperature
difference of chamber air under natural and forced convection was only
2 to 3.4 ◦ C during the whole day which clearly indicates that use of RNW
helped to maintain chamber air temperature even under forced con­
vection mode throughout the day.
4.5.2. Variation in chamber air temperature without RNW under natural
and forced convection mode
The chamber air temperature under natural and forced convection
mode without using RNW was 38.4⁰C and 34.4⁰C respectively at 10 am
(difference of 4 ◦ C) as shown in Fig. 8. This difference further increased
to 7 ◦ C at 1 pm (maximum) as peak chamber air temperature was 54.6⁰C
and 47.6⁰C under natural and forced convection mode respectively. This
difference gradually reduced to only 1⁰C at 5 pm. It was thus observed
that without using RNW, the chamber air temperature remained higher
under natural convection as compared to forced convection mode
because constant speed of fans caused faster removal of hot and moist air
(under forced convection mode).
4.6. Effect of reflective north wall on drying rate
The experiments were conducted on four consecutive bright and
sunny days in the month of January (11th to 14th January 2017). It was
observed that under natural convection mode, moisture reduction
without using RNW and with using RNW was 381.43% and 513.86%
Fig. 7. Hourly variation of chamber air temperature (Tch) under natural con­
vection (NC) and forced convection (FC) mode with using RNW at Ludhiana
(30◦ N latitude) on representative in winter.
917
Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919
Fig. 8. Hourly variation of chamber air temperature (Tch) under natural con­
vection (NC) and forced convection (FC) modes without using RNW at 30⁰N in
winter month.
respectively at the end of first drying day i.e. up to 5 pm (Fig. 9). During
the start of 2nd drying day moisture content was almost same as of
previous day and then drying continued till the equilibrium moisture
content is attained. It is thus clearly evidenced that moisture reduction
with RNW as compared to without RNW was much higher. It was due to
the fact that north wall reflector fixed of MRTS helped to maintain the
higher inside chamber air temperature of the dryer for a long time
resulting in faster moisture evaporation from the carrots. During the
second drying day it was observed that the samples placed under RNW
dryer attained the equilibrium moisture content of 8.56% at around 2
pm however, the samples placed under without NWR dryer took about 3
hrs more to attain the equilibrium condition which clearly shows that
use of NWR can save about 18% drying time for carrot drying.
However, estimation of moisture reduction percent in forced con­
vection mode was less significant as compared to natural convection
mode due to continuous removal and replacement of hot and moist air
with outside cold and dry air using PV operated constant speed fans
(0.25 ms− 1) that did not allow the inside temperature to rise much even
with RNW. It was observed that without and with RNW, the percent
moisture reduction of the carrots was 505.40% and 514.28% at the end
of first day of drying i.e. up to 5 pm which was almost same in forced
convection mode for both the cases. After two days of experimentation,
the moisture content in the crop reached to the equilibrium condition of
8.33% only about 2 hrs earlier as compared to when RNW was not used
(Fig. 10) and could save about 15% of drying time.
The effect of NWR under natural and forced convection mode is
shown in Fig. 11. It was clearly established that NC mode with NWR had
the highest drying rate followed by FC mode with NWR. In natural
convection mode, the effect of RNW was more significant as compared to
the forced convection mode due to much higher chamber air tempera­
ture under NC mode with RNW than that of FC mode with RNW.
However, when RNW was not used moisture reduction rate was much
lower both under NC and FC modes due to lesser increase in chamber air
temperature. The speed of PV operated fans was also small (0.25 ms− 1)
which could not generate significant effect under FC drying and was
only capable of removing the moisture from the chamber of the dryer
but was not enough to increase the evaporative heat transfer coefficient
(hev) and the temperature effect was more predominant over the
convective drying.
5. Conclusions
Significant variation in solar radiation capture by the MRT solar
cabinet dryer was observed at selected latitudes during each season and
in general decreased with increase in latitude. RNW could enhance the
TSR by 37.58%, 31.57% and 23.24% at 30◦ N, 40◦ N and 50◦ N latitude
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi
Fig. 9. Variation of moisture content (MC) reduction (%) of carrot samples without and with using RNW under natural convection (NC) mode of drying for two
consecutive drying days at Ludhiana (30◦ N latitude) India in winter.
Fig. 10. Variation of moisture content (MC) reduction (%) of carrot samples without and with using RNW under forced convection (FC) mode of drying for two
consecutive drying days at Ludhiana (30◦ N latitude) India in winter.
Fig. 11. Variation in moisture content reduction (%) during natural convection
(NC) and forced convection (FC) mode with and without north wall reflector
(NWR) for two consecutive drying days at Ludhiana (30◦ N latitude) India
in winter.
respectively during January in winter season. Similarly increase in TSR
was 49.79%, 42.92% and 35.81% at 30◦ N 40◦ N and 50◦ N latitude
respectively during April in summer season. The yearly average of solar
radiation enhancement using RNW was 47.75%, 39.41% and 28.33% at
30◦ 40◦ and 50◦ N latitude respectively.
Under natural convection mode, the daily average efficiency η(avg) of
MRT solar dryer with RNW was about 5% higher and maximum η(max)
was about 20% higher as compared to without using RNW. However, in
summer (April) RNW could enhance the η(avg) only 1.27% and η(max) was
918
Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919
also only about 7% higher with using RNW as compared to without
using it. Similarly, under forced convection mode RNW could enhance
the daily average efficiency η(avg) of MRT solar cabinet dryer by 4.35%
and about 12.88% increase in maximum η(max) was observed. However,
in summer (April) the effect of RNW was small as η(avg) was only 1.48%
higher as compared to when RNW was not used. η(max) was also only
5.12% higher as compared to when RNW was not used.
Under natural convection mode, daily average chamber temperature
Tch was observed 4 ◦ C − 7◦ C higher with using RNW as compared to
without RNW however, Tch was 2 ◦ C − 5◦ C higher under forced con­
vection mode in winter conditions.
The developed thermal model was validated with the experimental
data for crop surface temperature Tc with RMSE of only 2.36%. Simi­
larly, the validation of the chamber air temperature Tch was also in close
agreement with the experimental data having RMSE of just 2.12% which
shows the accuracy of the developed model.
The experimental percentage of uncertainty was found to be 20.5 out
of which 19.3 was internal and 1.2 external uncertainties. The uncer­
tainty analysis clearly indicates that the observed data and instruments
were adequately precise to determine the performance of MRT solar
cabinet dryer.
The moisture content % decreased with increase in drying time and
increase in chamber temperature for all experiments. In all the experi­
ments, almost two drying days were required to bring the carrots at
equilibrium moisture of 8%. Reduction in drying time for carrot drying
was about 20% and 15% under natural convection (NC) and forced
convection (FC) modes respectively by using RNW in winter. However,
reduction in drying time during summer was not much significant (less
S. Spall and V.P. Sethi
than 10%).
It can thus be concluded that use of RNW on MRT solar cabinet dryer
can play significant role in reducing the drying time in winter when solar
radiation availability is low due to lower solar altitude angle of the sun
at 30◦ N latitude. RNW can also lower the drying time at higher latitudes
of 40◦ N and 50◦ N as the effect of RNW is significant on solar radiation
enhancement at these latitudes both in winter as well as in summer.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Authors are thankful to the authorities of Punjab Agricultural Uni­
versity, Ludhiana for providing all the necessary financial and technical
support for the development of this innovative low cost solar dryer for
efficient drying particularly in winter for domestic and small scale
commercial applications.
References
Aiswaya, M.S., Divya, C.R., 2015. Economic analysis of solar dryer with PCM for drying
agricultural product. Int. Res. J. Eng. Tech. 2 (4), 1948–1953.
Anwar, S.I., Tiwari, G.N., 2001. Heat and mass transfer coefficient in a four tray solar
crop drying system. Int. J. Ambient Energy 22 (4), 48–56.
Badgujar, V.R., 2012. An experimental investigation of solar dryer with regenerative
desiccant material for multi-crops. Int. J. Eng. Res. Appl. 2 (3), 3144–3149.
Bala, B.K., Janjai, S., 2009. Solar drying of fruits, vegetables, spices, medicinal, plants
and fish: development and potentials. Int. J. Res. Eng. Tech. 2, 218–232.
Barnwal, P., Tiwari, G.N., 2008. Grape drying hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T)
greenhouse dryer: an experiment study. Sol. Energy. 82, 1131–1144.
Chaudhari, D.A., Salve, P.S., 2014. A reviews of solar dryer technologies. Int. J. Res.
Advent. Tech. 2, 218–232.
Chevil, S., Patel, V., Patel, A., 2016. Performance analysis of chimney type solar dryer for
drying chili. Int. J. Inno. Res. Sci. Eng. Tech. 5 (1), 506–513.
ELkhadraoui, A., Kooli, S., Farhat, A., 2015. Study of mixed mode solar greenhouse dryer
for drying of red pepper. Int. J. Sci. Res. Eng. Tech.3, 143-46.
Gatea, A., 2011. Design and construction of a solar drying system, a cylindrical section
and analysis of the performance of the thermal drying system. African J. Agric. Res. 6
(2), 343–351.
Grewal, B.S., 2016. Higher Engineering Mathematics, 43rd ed. Khanna Publications, N
Delhi, India.
Gupta, R., Tiwari, G.N., Kumar, A., Gupta, Y., 2012. Calculation the total solar fraction
for different orientation of greenhouse using 3D-shadow analysis in auto –CAD.
Energy and building. 47, 27–34.
Jain, D., Tiwari, G.N., 2002. Effects of greenhouse on crop drying under natural and
forced convection 2. Thermal modeling and experimental validation. Energy
conversion and management 45, 2777–2793.
Jain, D., Tiwari, G.N., 2004. Effect of greenhouse drying under natural and forced
convection 1. Evaluation of convective mass transfer coefficient. Energy convers.
And manage.45, 765–783.
Janjai, S., Lamlert, N., Intawee, P., Mahayothee, B., Bala, B.K., Nagle, M., Miller, J.,
2009. Experimental and simulated performance of a PV- ventilated solar greenhouse
dryer for drying of peeled longan and banana. Sol. Energy 83, 1550–1556.
Kumar, A., Tiwari, G.N., 2006. Effect of mass on convective heat transfer coefficient
during Onion Flakes drying. Am JFd Techno 1, 1–18.
Kumar, A., Tiwari, G.N., 2007. Effect of mass on convective mass transfer coefficient
during open sun and greenhouse drying of onion flakes. J. Food Eng. 79, 1337–1350.
Kumar, M., 2013. Forced convection greenhouse papad drying. An experimental study.
J. Eng. Sci. Techno. 8 (2), 177–189.
919
Solar Energy 211 (2020) 908–919
Medugu, D.W., 2010. Performance study of two design of solar dryer. Arch. Appl. Sci.
Res. 2 (2), 136–148.
Misha, S., Mat, S., Ruslan, M.H., Sopian, K., Salleh, E., 2013. Review on the application of
a tray dryer system for agriculture products. World. Appl. Sci. J.22 (3), 424–433.
Pakhare, V., Salve, S.P., 2016. Performance of indirect solar cabinet dryer. Energy
Convers. and Manag. 49 (6), 1388–1395.
Panwar, N.L., Kaushik, S.C., Kothari, S., 2013. Thermal modeling and experimental
validation of solar tunnel dryer a clean energy option for drying surgical cotton. Int.
J. low carbon Techno. 1–13.
Prakash, O., Kumar, A., 2014. ANFIS modelling of a natural convection greenhouse
drying system for jaggery: an experimental validation. Int. J. Sustain. Energy 33,
316–335.
Pinto, R.J., Dumroese, R.K., Marshall, J.D., 2006. Run for cover! What’s covering your
greenhouse and how it is affecting seedling growth. In: Proc 48th USDA Forest
Service, pp. 44–50.
Prakash, O., Kumar, A., 2012a. ANFIS modeling of a natural convection greenhouse
drying system for jaggary: an experimental validation. Int. J. sustainable. Energy. 33
(2), 316–335.
Prakash, O., Kumar, A., 2015. Annual performance of a modified greenhouse dryer under
passive mode in no load conditions. Int. J. green energy. 12, 1091–1099.
Prakash, S., Kumar, S., 2012b. Development of convective heat transfer correlation for
common design of solar dryer. Energy convers. And manag. 64, 403–414.
Rajeshwari, N., Ramaliyam, A., 2012. Low cost material used to construct effective solar
dryer. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res. 4 (3), 1476–1482.
Rigit, A.R.H., Jakhrani, A.Q., Kamboh, S.A., Kie, P.L.T., 2013. Development of an
indirect solar dryer with biomass backup burner for drying pepper berries. World.
Appl. Sci. J.22, 1241–1251.
Sekhon, M., Sethi, V.P., 2019. Thermal modeling and analysis of novel twin-chamber
community solar cooker as a replacement of biomass-based cooking. Int. J. Green
Energy 16 (2), 164–184.
Sethi, V.P., 2009. On the selection of optimum shape and orientation of greenhouse:
thermal modeling and experimental validation. Sol. Energy 83, 21–38.
Sethi, V.P., Arora, S., 2009. Improvement in greenhouse solar drying using north wall
inclined north wall reflection. Sol. Energy 83, 1472–1484.
Sethi, V.P., Dubey, R.K., Dhatt, A.S., 2009. Design and evaluation of modified screen net
house for off season vegetable raising in composite climate. Energy Convers.
Manage. 50, 3112–3128.
Sethi, V.P. Pal, D.S. Sumathy K. 2014. Performance evaluation and solar radiation
capture of optimally inclined box type solar cooker with parallelepiped cooking
vessel design. Energy Conversion and Management 81, 231–241.
Shanmugan, V., Natarajan, E., 2006. Experimental investigation of forced convection and
desiccant integrated solar dryer. Renewable Energy. 31, 1239–1251.
Sharma, S., Sharma, V.K., Ranjana, J., Ray, R.A., 1990. Evaluation of the performance of
a cabinet type solar dryer. Energy Convers. Manage. 30 (2), 75–80.
Simatel, N., Siwanzi, G., 2016. Performance of photovoltaic ventilated solar tunnel dryer
with an unglazed transpired cloth absorber. Afri. J. Agric. Sci. Tech. 4 (3), 580–588.
Singh, P., Shrivastava, V., Kumar, A., 2018. Recent development in greenhouse solar
drying: A review. Renewable sustainable Energy 82, 3250–3262.
Singh, R.D., Tiwari, G.N., 2000. Thermal heating of controlled environment greenhouse a
transient analysis. Energy convers. Manage. 41, 505–522.
Singh, S., Kumar, S., 2011. Testing method for thermal performance based rating of
various solar dryer designs. Sol. Energy 86, 87–98.
Singh, M. Sethi V.P. 2018. On the design, modelling and analysis of multi-shelf inclined
solar cooker-cum-dryer Solar Energy 162 (2018) 620–636.
Sreekumar, A., Manikantan, V., kumar, P. E., 2008. Performance of indirect solar cabinet
dryer. Energy Conserve. And Manage.49 (6), 1388-1395.
Srikiatden, J., Roberts, J.S., 2007. Moisture transfer in solid food materials: a review of
mechanisms, models, and measurements. Int. J. Food Properties 10, 739–777.
Sundari, A.R.U., Neelamgam, P., Subramanimam, C.V., 2013. Performance evaluation of
a forced convection solar drier with evacuated tube collector for drying amla. Int. J.
Eng. Tech. 5 (3), 2853–2858.
Sansaniwal, S.K., Kumar, M., 2015. Analysis of ginger drying inside a natural convection
indirect solar dryer: An experimental study. J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 5, 1671–1685.
Tiwari, G.N., Goyal, R.K., 1998. Greenhouse Technology: Fundamentals, Design,
Modelling and Applications. Narosa Publishing House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
Wankhade, P.K., Sapkal, R.S., Sapkal, V.S., 2014. Design and performance evaluation of
solar dryer. Int. Confer. Adv. Eng. Tech. 70–73.
Yuan, G., Hong, L., Li, X., Tang, W., Wang, Z., 2015. Experimental investigation of solar
dryer system for drying carpet. Energy Procedia. 70, 626–633.