Articles

Function: determiner + noun

Form:

Definite article: THE

Generic reference:
● The + singular noun:
➔ class/groups
➔ musical instruments/dances (the guitar)
● The + plural noun:
➔ nationality nouns
➔ personal adj. hds.

Specific reference:
● Endophoric (the reference is in the linguistic context)
➔ anaphoric: go backwards ← to see the reference. direct (I bought a TV. The TV…), indirect (I went
to a wedding. The bride…)
➔ cataphoric: keep on reading → to see the reference (the radio that I bought…)
➔ logical use: grammar rules (superlatives, ordinal numbers, only, same, sole)
● Exophoric (the reference is outside the linguistic context, it is shared knowledge)
➔ immediate situation: known only between (the test)
➔ longer situation: global, known by many (the pope is coming)
➔ parts of the body
➔ unique reference (the moon)
➔ sporadic reference (institution of human society, mean of transport/communication)

Indefinite article: A/AN

Generic reference:
● any (the best way to learn a [any] language is…)

Specific reference:
● first mention (I bought a TV and a radio. The TV…)
● one (I always run a [one] mile or two)
● parts of the body (that have 2 or more parts: she broke an arm)
● descriptive role (describing: she is a teacher)

Zero article
Generic reference:
● uncountable nouns (cigarettes are bad)
● plural countable nouns (milk is good)

Specific reference:
● parallel structure (2 or more with the same syntactic value: from father to son)
● unique role (tom is captain of the team)
● sporadic reference (institutions of human life, means of transport/communication, times of day and
night, seasons, meals, illnesses)
 Pronouns
Function: - determiner + noun
- independent: subject, object, complement (CS: copular verb / CO: complex transitive verb) / to
the preposition) They chose the candidate who was best
Form:

Specific pronouns

Central
Features:
● Person:
➔ 1st
➔ 2nd
➔ 3rd
● Number:
➔ singular
➔ plural
● Gender:
➔ personal (female/male)
➔ non-personal (it)
● Case:
➔ subjective (before the verb)
➔ objective (after the verb)
➔ genitive (possessive and whose)
Personal:

1st s 1st p 2nd s 2nd p 3rd s 3rd s 3rd s 3rd p

Subject I we you you he she it they

Object me us you you him her it them

IT meanings:
● Empty it (time, distance, weather): doesn't have a specific meaning
● Referring it: replace a noun
● Anticipatory it: anticipates (it’s surprising that no one came)

WE meanings:
● Inclusive: I/you included in the speech act
● Exclusive: somebody is outside the speech act (how are we feeling today)
● Rhetorical: nation/party
● Generic reference: not a specific person (we/they/you/one never knows when it’s going to rain)

➔ INDEPENDENT

Possessive:

1st s 1st p 2nd s 2nd p 3rd s 3rd s 3rd s 3rd p

Independent mine ours yours yours his hers - theirs

Determiner my our your your his her its their

 ➔ INDEPENDENT
➔ DETERMINER: - emphatic own (w/ very)
- parts of the body
Reflexive:

1st s 1st p 2nd s 2nd p 3rd s 3rd s 3rd s 3rd p

Reflexive myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself herself itself themselves

- I hurt myself while playing football (basic use-cannot be omitted)

- We were all by ourselves (basic use-cannot be omitted)
- I did it myself (emphatic use-can be omitted)

Obligatory use:
● Reflexive verb (she prides herself in art: fixed expression)
● Semi-reflexive (he has to shave [himself]: we can omit it or use it)
● Non-reflexive verb (he blamed himself for the accident: coreference)

Non-obligatory use (optional):

● Spatial prepositional phrase (jason closed the door behind him/himself)
● After prepositions: like, than, (as)...as, but (for), except for, as for (for someone like me/myself, this
is a big surprise)
● Coordinated w/ another noun phrase (they didn’t invite margaret and me/myself)

➔ INDEPENDENT

Reciprocal:
● One another
● Each other
➔ to denote reciprocity and people evolved
➔ not as a subject

➔ INDEPENDENT

Demonstrative:
● This (singular, close to speaker) (present)
● These (plural, close to speaker)
● That (singular, far from speaker) (past)
● Those (plural, far from speaker)
➔ anaphoric or cataphoric
➔ number
➔ distance
➔ personal or non-personal
➔ time

➔ DETERMINER
➔ INDEPENDENT

Relative:
➔ Restrictive: defines the noun (cannot be omitted)
➔ Non-restrictive: between commas (can be omitted, no se usa zero/that)
 ● Who (personal): independent
● Whom (personal): independent
● Whose (personal or non-personal, genitive case): determiner
● Which (non-personal)
● That (personal or non-personal): independent
● Zero (personal or non-personal): independent
➔ Who: preposition used at the end (who you spoke to)
➔ Whom: preposition used before relative pronoun (to whom you spoke to) or at the end (whom you
spoke to)

Interrogative:
● Who: independent
● Whom: independent
● Whose (only personal): independent or determiner
● What: independent or determiner
● Which: independent or determiner

Direct questions:
● Inversion (what’s your name? independent as complement)

Indirect questions:
● Reported speech: backshift, one tense backwards (she asked me what my name was)

Non-specific pronouns

Indefinite:
Universal:
Positive
● Of series: each, every, all, both (every + one + of…)
● Compounds: everybody/thing/one
Negative
● Of series: non, neither (NO: no se usa en of constructions y siempre determiner)
● Compounds: nobody/thing/one

Partitive:
Assertive (affirmative sentences)
● Of series: some (determiner o independent) (singular uncountable nouns, plural countable nouns,
singular noun that refers to time)
● Compounds: somebody/thing/one
Non-assertive (negative/interrogative sentences)
● Of series: either, any
● Compounds: anybody/thing/one

COMPOUNDS:
● Gender: non-personal (thing) or personal (one/body)
● Number: always singular
● They to avoid sexism
● Case: subjective or objective
● Only independent
OF SERIES:
● Independent as subject
● All: plural or singular uncountable noun / both (2): plural
● Every: singular / each: singular
● Any (indefinite number (0): plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns / either (2)
● No: 0
● None / neither (singular)

Quantifiers
● Few / a few: countable small number
● Little / a little: uncountable small amount
● One:
➔ Substitute (singular or plural): I like that one
➔ Generic reference: one never knows
➔ Numerical (determiner or independent as subject)

Numeral:
Cardinal

Ordinal:
General
Numerical