Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

A state of art review on the opportunities in automatic generation control of

hybrid power system
Ritu Verma a, *, Suresh K. Gawre a, N.P. Patidar a, Sonali Nandanwar b, c
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal, India
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, IES College of Technology, Bhopal, India
c
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, IES University, Bhopal, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Load and generation must be balanced for the system to be stable, which implies frequency deviation must be
Genetic Algorithm (GA) minimal. Whenever load perturbation takes place in the network, frequency diverges from its nominal value and
Hybrid Power System (HPS) unplanned exchange of power leads to unfortunate consequences. This will cause the mal-operation of electrical
Electric Vehicle (EV)
equipment such as change in speed, low efficiency, vibrations, harmonics, inaccuracy etc. Automatic Generation
Photo-Voltaic (PV)
Teaching-learning based optimization (TLBO)
Control (AGC) provides a signal to alter the actual output power of multiple generators within a certain range
based on changes in system frequency. For this purpose, several control techniques were employed in the system.
This paper focuses on various approaches in the domain of automatic generation control for microgrid based
hybrid power system. AI based techniques shows progressive results as compared to other classical and cascaded
approaches. Machine learning and deep learning based controlling schemes has also been studied and study
shows that these techniques provides loftier performance in comparison of other AI methods due to the avail­
ability of large number of trained data sets of controlled variable. Further massive data of controlled variables
can be used to restore the system after cyber-attack. It is also addressed how to integrate electric vehicles with
the power grid for Load Frequency Control. At the end of this article, some research gap such as role of demand
response, protection and control issues, resilient controllers for cyber threats etc. are also addressed which will be
useful for researcher working in this area.

1. Introduction implementation of solar photovoltaic (PV) and Wind system is to ensure

With the rapid increase in the load demand of consumers, it has been
required that power generation should also be increased. Conventional
energy sources always be the major generation entity in the power
sector. Since these sources are exhaustible in nature and their require­
ment for power generation increases day by day, availability of different
sources should be explored [1]. Renewable energy sources are
non-exhaustible, free of cost and provides safe environment with less
pollution, also becomes very important to meet the demands of elec­
trical loads. Now-a-days, the foremost clean energy sources are solar,
wind and biogas. As the availability of these sources depend on nature,
power generation varies accordingly [2,3]. Moreover, contribution of
power from solar and wind has increased in the energy sector. The basic
power in the islanded area along with grid integration. Since the
installation of solar panels are more flexible and can be installed on
domestic regions. Moreover, PV array and wind power plants are mainly
deployed in microgrids as well as in Distributed Generations (DG) [4].
Since the power generation from these sources have stochastic behavior
and can be utilized to meet the local demand of consumer as well as
power injection into the grid [5]. Due to the intermittent nature, these
sources faces several technical and economical hurdles. Microgrid is a
local group of electricity users which utilize the existing infrastructure
and defined as a system which is able to manage its operation whether to
operate autonomously or grid connected and have seamless transition i.
e. connect and decouple from the utility for power trading and supply of
ancillary services [6]. These are installed with several distributed

Abbreviations: AGC, automatic generation control; LFC, load frequency control; MG, microgrid; DER, distributed energy resources; AI, artificial intelligence; PID,
proportional derivative controller; DEG, diesel engine generator; PSO, particle swarm optimization; HPS, hybrid power system; GWO, Grey Wolf optimization; DFIG,
doubly fed induction generator; ML, machine learning; DL, deep learning; AVR, automatic voltage regulation.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ritumits3@gmail.com (R. Verma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2023.109945
Received 20 October 2022; Received in revised form 7 October 2023; Accepted 11 October 2023
Available online 20 October 2023
0378-7796/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
R. Verma et al.
generations focused mainly on renewable sources and energy storage
system along with a synchronous diesel generator [7]. Due to the
perforation of renewable power in to the grid, system instability
occurred. Instability in the system is an important aspect of controlling
microgrid. With the increasing development in the power network,
various controlling techniques has been developed to face the technical
issues occurred in the system. These technical issues emerges in the
system led to instability such as rotor angle, voltage and frequency
instability presented in Fig. 1.
When a physical disruption occurs in the system, the system loses its
synchronism, which causes rotor angle stability, which can be reduced
by using power system stabilizers, thyristor excitors, etc. [8]. The
disruption at the network interface also caused voltage instability, and
the system failed to keep the voltage at a constant level. Maintaining the
load-generation equilibrium is necessary for the system’s frequency
regulation. The stability of the system is badly impacted by any
load-generation imbalance or by irregular loading. When a sudden load
change occurs due to an increase or decrease in the amount of power
needed, power generation needs to be adjusted appropriately. However,
because the load generation balance is not maintained in a timely
manner, frequency fluctuation occurs, which makes the system unstable
[9]. To resolve this problem in a PV system, the Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) method is used to make sure that PV modules produce
the most electricity possible. The MPPT method is very effective and
desirable because it guarantees maximum power output even when
there are system disturbances. Additionally, the system’s rotational
inertia has decreased as DG penetration in the utility connected via
power convertors has grown. As a result, Synthetic Inertia Control (SIC),
which injects an additional power component whenever there is a fre­
quency disturbance event, must be activated for frequency regulation
[10]. Some energy storage systems and a hybridization of systems-based
control approach have also been deployed alongside these strategies.
Matching generation and demand is accomplished through Automatic
Generation Control (AGC), which allows the system to operate effort­
lessly and continuously [11]. When load changes suddenly, generation
adjusted automatically while maintaining frequency and voltage sta­
bility of the system is Known as AGC [12].
The prime benefaction of this literature is delineated below:
1 Deals with the various optimization techniques employed for mini­
mizing frequency deviation and active power regulation.
2 Various issues such as sensitivity analysis, load perturbation, optimal
power flow etc. in renewable based hybrid microgrid systems are
addressed.
3 AI based control schemes are focused throughout the literature.
4 Paper also provides some emerging research gap in the field of
electric vehicle integration to the grid.
5 Role of Demand side management in AGC is also addressed.
The prime purpose of AGC is to conserve the frequency in a specified
minimal range along with acquiring tie-line power in multi area system
at some specified values. This paper is categorize in following manner,
section II microgrid systems, its mode of operation, section III shows the
concept of AGC in conventional AGC schemes. Section IV gives us brief
Fig. 1. Types of instability.
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Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
idea about the need of constant frequency. Implementation of AGC
schemes in microgrid connected Hybrid Power System is described in
section V. Section VI shows the study of various control techniques in the
field of AGC. Final conclusions are given in section VIII along with a
discussion in Section VII.
2. Overview of microgrid
According to the description given by IEEE in [13], Microgrid is
described as a lot of integrated loads and DERs that acts as a sole unit in
reference to power grid under specified electrical limits and it is shown
in Fig. 2. Microgrid allows seamless changeover among off grid mode
and on-grid mode and the point at which the transition takes place is
called Point of Interconnection (POI). Microgrid is also classified of
having a control system which is able to manage automatically, by
integrating generation, energy storage and controllable loads. Microgrid
control system(MCS) controls the microgrid connection and disconnec­
tion from the utility grid for energy exchange and provision of auxiliary
services without any voltage and frequency fluctuation. It also in­
corporates the function of microgrid energy management system.
A Microgrid includes following components [14]:
(i) An equipment which connects the microgrid with the main grid at
POI.
(ii) A system which includes microgrid energy management system.
(iii) Local distribution systems like transformer, switchgear etc.
(iv) Distributed energy resources and loads within the microgrid
boundaries.
(v) Control elements like microgrid controller, sensors communica­
tion network etc.
MG serves several objectives subjected to the prime purpose of their
demand. Distributed energy resources (DERs) are commonly perceived
as a mechanism for effectively managing the reliability of energy supply
within a grid during contingencies. Additionally, they serve to enable
localized optimization of energy supply by exerting control over the
distribution of energy resources. Microgrids are also a way to get elec­
tricity to remote areas, to use green energy as a systematic way to get
electricity to rural areas, and to make the supply more reliable and
secure for end users [14]. A microgrid or distribution system of a grid
may encounter a number of difficulties as a result of the deployment of
DER, including problems with fault prevention and dynamic control.
However, there are several problems that are more frequent in small
grids when it comes to protection and management. These problems
include bidirectional power flow that causes voltage excursions outside
of acceptable bounds, fault current supplied from multiple sources, loss
of synchronism between multiple sources when a fault occurs, a po­
tential limit on the magnitude of the fault current, a lower inertia or
lower primary time constant, frequent changes in operational configu­
ration brought on by economic optimization, and the intermittent na­
ture of distributed renewable generators. Also, according to IEEE
standards, an electrical system is consider to be a microgrid , if it possess
three main features (i) specified electrical limits (ii)microgrid control
system and (iii) critical load which is less than the installed capacity else
microgrid disconnected from main grid and act as standalone system
and serve local loads [15]. Microgrid is classified on account of their
connection and named as grid connected (on-grid) systems shown in
Fig. 3 and islanded mode (off-grid) shown in Fig. 4.
Whenever microgrid is associated to the utility, local operator are
bounded in such a way that they can not regulate either voltage or
frequency due the grid standards, such systems are called grid connected
system or on-grid system. Energy storage needed for on-grid system is
less and they introduce voltage, frequency and harmonic disturbance in
the system. In this mode, the microgrid feeds to both local loads and the
grid.. This mode is also called non autonomous mode [15]. On the other
hand ,when microgrid operates in islanded mode i.e. they are not
R. Verma et al. Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945

Fig. 2. Microgrid structure.

Fig. 3. On grid PV system.

Fig. 4. Off grid (OR) stand alone PV system.

connected with the grid either due to planned transition, unplanned
transition or due to black out, they are called stand alone system or off
grid systems. During islanded mode, operators are free to regulate
voltage and frequency with in specified electrical boundaries. Off- grid
systems is in need of adequate storage proficiency in regards to control
power alteration owing to irregular power generation and serves local
loads. This mode is also called autonomous mode [16]. When the
microgrid runs in island mode and has numerous converter-based gen­
erators (CBGs), certain problems like low inertia, low fault current etc.
get exacerbated. Because of these problems conventional protection and
control methods might not be adequate for microgrids. It might be
necessary to use protection systems that are different from the usual
ones. Protection mechanisms may occasionally need to be dynamically
changed dependent on the microgrid’s operational state.
Microgrid acquire power from DER’s like solar, wind systems or DEG
and possess an inverter which specifies voltage and frequency i.e. they
follows strict guidelines drew on voltage and frequency of MG. Islanded
microgrids are now studied commonly due to increased load demand
from industries and urban areas [17]. Non conventional sources with
large transients are more often used power source for islanded micro­
grids and the fluctuations caused due to renewable will leads to system
black out. An islanded microgrid basically consist of a source, load, and
a controllable energy storage. Storage system is preferred as per the
necessity of microgrid. As power production is nil during night time,
energy system should be assembled to serve the local loads. And these
storage should counter quick , so as to abolish the power fluctuations of
PV system and can withstand the grid during night. Energy storage
system are categorized as (i) Short term energy storage mainly deals
with voltage fluctuation (ii) long term deals with frequency deviation
and energy management during transients [18]. DG’s of microgrid are
generally PV, wind which possess intermittent behavior and suffer se­
vere fluctuations due to climate effects. Power ramp rates needs to be

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R. Verma et al.
controlled within a specified limit, while reducing the chance of
destruction when suddenly clouds clear out over a solar power station.
Variation in the flow of power at certain rate is termed as ramp or slew
rate. Energy storage is in need of ramp rate to stabilize solar based MG
and this rate maintains the microgrid voltage within a specified range.
Its concept is simple and assist in minimizing the size of storage required
for the PV network. Ramp rate control for a solar panel is given as [19]
dPPV ΔP
R(t) = = (1)
dt ΔT′
Where,
R(t) = instant ramp rate
PPV = instant power generated by PV panel
When ramp rate reached beyond a specified limit, power output
needs to be regulated. Under such conditions energy storage systems
such as battery, super capacitors etc. or generating units such as fuel
cells are integrated to overcome these fluctuations and maintain smooth
generation.
3. Automatic generation control
In the present competitive market, diminishing frequency deviation
in an interconnected system is a difficult task. Modification in stability
services mainly focuses on reliability, better control and efficiency.
These modern controls fulfill the utility and user’s requirement of sys­
tem operation and control. Installation of large number of generators
increases in proportion of power demand. When the systems are inter­
connected, area having maximum power generation will share the load
demand of other area. These areas are called regulated areas and linked
with the tie lines [20]. For system stability, total power generation in a
system should be a resultant sum of demand and losses occurred in the
system during operation. Violation of this case leads to the frequency
deviation as well as irregularity in tie line power exchange. In order to
maintain this condition, a control scheme is used known as Automatic
Generation Control and Fig. 5 shows a basic AGC scheme in the system.
For economical operation, AGC is designed to prolong frequency of the
grid at or near the minimal value i.e. 50 Hz by diminishing the deviation
occurred due to load perturbation and maintaining the supply between
control areas. The prime purpose of AGC schemes is given below [21];
(i) Maintaining power balance in the existing system.
(ii) Keeping operating limits in the range of generators and tie line
limits.
(iii) Frequency deviation should be zero.
Fig. 5. Basic scheme of automatic generation control [1].
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Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
The main purpose of AGC should be known by reviewing an isolated
system where load is fulfilled by a single generating unit. Frequency
varies with the load deviation and can be easily seen in the character­
istics of governor droop magnitude and load frequency. When power
demand of the system increases, governor tries to increase its speed,
hence the generation increases (act as a primary control) and meets the
required demand. As a result the change in frequency will also settle
down to the zero. But after this phenomenon, a steady state frequency
error still persists, which is further diminished by secondary control
action where a controller is employed for the governor which retains the
system frequency in its specified range of operation. This phenomenon
adjusts the reference point of speed and regulates the frequency by
making zero error. While imposing AGC mechanism in multi area sys­
tem, power exchange takes place through two ways i.e. flat tie line and
flat frequency control. Frequency should be kept constant regardless of
tie line power in any case.
Real power transfer under normal operating condition for a two area
system is [1]:
P12 =
|E1 ||E2 |
sinδ12 (2)
X12
Where, E1 &E2 are sending end and receiving end excitation voltages.
X12 = X1 + Xtie + X2 (3)
δ12 = δ1 − δ2 (4)
Small change in tie-line flow,
dP12
ΔP12 = .Δδ12 (5)
dδ12
= PS Δδ12 (6)
Where,
dP12
PS = = PS (Δδ1 − Δδ2 ) (7)
dδ12
4. Requirement of constant frequency
Some authors studied different controlling schemes of microgrid
such as generation excitation control, load tripping, reactive power
compensation, fault clearance technique etc. Some of these schemes are
always active at the point of generation and act as a real time power
balancing. When there is a disturbance occurred in the load generation
balance, system stability degrades effectively. Kundur [3] addresses real
and phantom power control in view of the network as an entity and also
described the modeling and characteristics of the equipment used for the
control purpose. Author depicts that frequency deviation is an index in
R. Verma et al.
load generation balance in a defined area. System operator maintains
the energy equilibrium by conserving the system frequency in the
minimal range of operation.
Main function of AGC are listed below:
(i) When any large power imbalance occurred in the system, it ap­
plies drastic emergency control i.e. primary or secondary control
while maintaining load generation balance.
(ii) Synchronize and strongly coupled synchronous generators should
be employed in control areas.
(iii) Frequency deviation and power deviation caused in control area
due to power imbalance should be zero.
A major goal in the development of LFC is regulating the generation
and crossline power between multiarea systems. In order to maintain
scheduled power exchanges, each region should posses controlled gen­
eration [22]. Below are the main control loops of AGC.
(1) Primary AGC loop: Primary loop act at an initial step. Whenever
the demand of user varies, i.e. more electrical energy is required
at the output of generator, as a result the turbine governor set
tries to adjust its speed while sustaining the power between user
and mains.
(2) Secondary AGC loop: A steady state error is found in the system
frequency following the execution of primary control loop. In
secondary AGC control, controller is employed (which is integral
controller) in the system which adjusts speed governor setting by
doing fine frequency adjustment. As this loop has large response
time, this loop acts slowly in comparison to primary loop and a
schematic of these are shown in Fig. 6. Controller action is
∫ Pnetint is the difference between power leaving in area 1 and 2
ΔPe = − KI Δf . dt (8)
Where,
KI is integral controller gain
After taking Laplace,
ΔPe (s) =
− KI
Δf (s) (9)
S
(1) Tertiary AGC loop : After the execution of both the above loops ,
a third loop comes into action which make sure that load is
economically shared among all the generators in the system. For
economic load dispatch, tertiary loop adjusts the generator speed
Fig. 6. Control loops of AGC [1].
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Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
changer setting. At control centers, optimum operating point is
determined by the economic load dispatch method. It is a slowest
control action in generator.
Tertiary control maintains generator power output due to economic
reason. In steady state, generation change due to load change may not be
economical. Since different generators have different cost of power
generation, a system operator desired to regulate the power generated in
several units for maximum economic profit. This generation adjustment
is done manually and often known as tertiary control.
AGC operation is mainly carried out by two system inputs,
(i) System frequency
(ii) Net in or out tie line power
A complete schematic diagram of all control loops incorporated in
the network is shown in Fig. 7. In two area system, power exchange
between two control areas occurred. Let these two areas be A1 andA2 .
Change in system frequency is,
Δω = ω − ω0 (10)
Where,
ω = system frequency
ω0 = nominal frequency
Change in net tie line power flow is,
ΔPnetint = Pnetint − Pnetsched (11)
Where,
Pnetsched is power scheduled contractually.
Due to load generation mismatch between two areas, various sce­
narios occurred in the system. Scenario of power imbalance is given in
Table 1 below [23–25]:
From the above scenario it has been observed that governor sets the
required control action. Area control error is evaluated by
Pre specified tie line power and specified frequency,
ACE = − ΔPnetint − Δω.B (12)
Where,
B= frequency bias factor in MW/Hz
Fig. 7. Frequency control loops of AGC [5].
R. Verma et al. Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945

Table 1 function is used. Author considered a solar and wind based microgrid
Different scenarios. incorporated HPS shown in Fig. 8. SMES system is also used as an energy
Frequency in Tie line power in Cause Action required storage system as it provides fast response, higher efficiency etc. [25].
area 1 area 2 Influence of battery storage on isolated HPS is addressed in [27]. A
Δf < 0 ΔPnetint < 0 Increase in load Area 1 generation to simulation has been done in order to analyze both unvarying and dy­
of area 1 be increased namic system stability. Author chooses GA to tune the controller
ΔPnetint > 0 Increase in load Area 2 generation to parameter. Load frequency analysis of microgrid incorporated HPS
of area 2 be increased using fuel cell was done by Singh et al. [28] and simulation results shows
Δf > 0 ΔPnetint < 0 Decrease in load Area 2 generation to
of area 2 be decreased
that Diesel Engine Generator(DEG) improves frequency regulation.
ΔPnetint > 0 Decrease in load Area 1 generation to Author [29] developed a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) designed for
of area 1 be decreased AGC in an islanded wind diesel network whose parameter are basically
optimized using Bee Colony Optimization(BCO) and it has been
observed that FLC is too sturdy as compared to other. Several optimi­
5. AGC schemes in hybrid power system
zation algorithm such as PSO, GWO, BCO has been utilized for opti­
mizing different controller paraments. An optimization problem is
A HPS is explicated as the amalgamation of more than one renewable
formulated for PID controller and solved using Krill heard (KH) algo­
generation sources for producing power and it is seen that wind and
rithm [30]. Krill heard algorithm is also a nature inclined technique
solar are more prominent source of power due to their reliability and low
which utilizes the krill herding motions. PID controller is optimized by
cost operation. Automatic generation control allows signal to all the
employing KH technique for minimizing frequency deviation in micro­
generators of a specified area for regulating real power output which
grid system. PID is a conventional controller also called three term
changes due to system frequency variation. Several LFC control methods
controller shown in Fig. 9 contains control action of proportional(P),
and control strategies were given by researchers over a long time for the
integral (I) and derivative (D) controllers. As P controller is utilized for
regulation of frequency as it is a foremost factor for power system
latest inaccuracies, I controller for former faults where as D controller is
operation and control. Several literatures were proposed to understand
utilized in determining the error variation rate.
various control schemes, as these are developed to improve LFC
These controllers are mostly used in industrial control system and
mechanism.
can be used as P, I, PI, PD, PID for dissimilar control applications. In this
paper PID controller reduces steady state error while improving dy­
namic response. Simulation results obtained shows undershoot, oscil­
5.1. Advanced optimization method in HPS
lation amplitude etc. Exploration of PID controller is given in Table 2.
Apart from these conventional controller, there are some non con­
Singh et al. [23] shows the affect of Superconducting Magnetic En­
ventional controllers such as fuzzy controller, novel fuzzy controller is
ergy Storage System (SMES) on microgrid integrated HPS and this
also exists. The foremost dissimilarity between conventional and non
microgrid is mainly based on PV and wind power. Due to sudden load
conventional controller is that mathematical model of the process is
change and variable nature of generation , frequency deviation occurs
required in designing a conventional controller. A novel fuzzy logic
which has been mitigated by the combined effect of SMES and Grey Wolf
controller was proposed in [31] which ensures the effortless jump over
Optimization (GWO) optimized PI controller. Pratibha and Bhavni [26]
from on- grid to islanded mode, while retaining in solidity of the system.
proposed an AGC mechanism utilized restructured network amidst
Diesel engine generators(DEG) are most commonly used distributed
incorporation of wind power generation. Wind generator integration
generation technology due to their reliability in plug and play operation
minimizes the total system inertia during disturbances, as the wind unit
of microgrids. During grid connected mode, designed controller per­
provides no inertia and disconnects the system from the mains. Optimal
forms its task by operating PV at maximum power output and DEG at
speed control parameters based on a doubly fed induction generator
their optimal point. Similarly, in off grid or isolated mode, controller
(DFIG). Speed control variables of Doubly Fed Induction Generator
tracks the frequency of the microgrid and support the system stability.
(DFIG) deployed wind turbine has been obtained by utilizing PSO which
DEG and PV are co ordinately controlled. Here the DG’s are operated at
inflates the involvement of DFIG in the frequency control action. PSO is
their maximum power output, so as to reduce the consumption from the
a computing approach which fine -tunes an issue by repetitively
DEG. Proposed controller is tested and verified under certain operating
improving a candidate solution with respect to the specified quality
condition and model is presented in Fig. 10. Result obtained indicates
standard. PSO is a metaheuristic technique which employs the concept
that the controller renders very good performance under real time
of swarm intelligence and efficient to solve any mathematical
environment.
complexity.
Silva et al. [33] depicts that energy storage are also beneficial in the
Bhongade et al. [24] developed a Proportional Integral (PI)
area of power system stability by focusing on several merits of BESS like
controller having gain KP and KI are tuned by adopting GWO algorithm.
power quality improvement, load frequency control, load sharing etc.
For optimum response, Integral Time Square Error (ITSE) objective

Fig. 8. Model of AGC applied microgrid incorporated HPS [23].

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R. Verma et al. Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945

Fig. 9. Block diagram of PID controller [30].

conventional sources. Researcher shows the experiment performed on

Table 2 microgrid based on solar and wind in an islanded mode. Author [35]
Performance of PID controller.
discuss about the modeling of microgrid incorporated HPS and their
Controller Rise Time Settling Overshoot Steady State scope in future as renewable are clean energy sources and helps in
Parameter Time Error
serving local as well as industrial load (when connected to the grid.).
KP Reduced Shoot up Minor Reduced Also the emerging advancements of smart grids for load side manage­
deviation ment and their control strategies has been done by [36]. Maiti et al. [37]
KI Reduced Shoot up Shoot up Eliminated
KD Minor Reduced Reduced Minor
presents the PSO optimized Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controller. For
deviation deviation optimum response, ITAE objective function is used. A fractional PID
controller shown in Fig. 11 is an addition of classical PID controller as it
provides increased flexibility in controller design in regards of standard
Electric vehicle is also an emerging technology in system functioning PID controller. These controllers are less sensitive for parameter change
and are used in regulating the microgrid frequency. Whenever load in a control system. Transfer function of FOPID controller is ,
variation takes place, how electric vehicle action take care of the power
required is shown in some literature. Padhy et al. [32] shows a plug in GC (s) =
U(s) KI
= KP + λ + KD Sμ (λ, μ > 0) (13)
vehicle connected hybrid system which optimizes a cascaded PI-PD E(s) S
controller using GWO. Reformed GWO tuned cascaded PI- PD Where,
controller is designed in support of LFC in the presence of plug in EV.
Developed approach is applied to tune controller gains in the vicinity of KP = gain of proportional controller
uncertainties like governor dead zone, rate limits etc. Researcher also KI = gain of integral controller
proposed hierarchical control strategies like device level control, system KD = gain of derivative controller
level control in the field of energy storage involved in HPS. As genera­
tion from renewables have stochastic behavior, instability occurred in 5.2. Application of control strategies
the system, which is diminished by optimizing a PID controller. PID
controller gains are tuned using GWO. Microgrid is a combination of Khamis et al. [38] presents the microgrid incorporated HPS con­
several DG’s and Energy storage systems, which supplies power to local taining solar, battery, fuel cell linked with the utility using grid tied
utility while improving power quality. Power produced from DER’s like inverter. An experiment has been performed on this system which shows
solar, wind etc. is assemble in DC bus via power regeneration system. that voltage and frequency deviates with load change. As fast as the load
Benefits of microgrid is utilized in [34] and due to the advancement of demand varies these factors also varies in microgrid based system.
electrical entity in need of more power generation from non Different control strategies and application of power electronic

Fig. 10. . Schematic of DEG-PV hybrid AC microgrid [32].

7
R. Verma et al.
Fig. 11. Block diagram of FOPID [37].
converters for frequency regulation has seen. Author [39] emphasis on
hybrid power system using battery energy storage. It has been shown
that for frequency regulation, battery energy storage provides good re­
sults and is used most widely in the power system. Some researchers
[40] also focuses on the HVDC system and provides an optimum solution
for power flow with less cost and presents a solution for optimal power
flow. Literature [41] also shows that these strategies are efficient when
wind farms are integrated with grid and also proposed some advanced
control methods. At device level control, hybrid storage control strategy
firmed on Port Controlled Hamiltonian (PCH) is designed to achieve
better output performance. Similarly, at system level control a multi­
level power allocation and fuzzy logic is proposed to obtain efficient
wind integrated grid.
6. AGC control schemes
Frequency deviations occurred in microgrid due to the disturbance of
load generation balance and this imbalance is mainly due to the smart
grids relying on renewable energy sources as they are variable in nature
[42]. Several control strategies like conventional control, robust control,
adaptive control etc. have been proposed to overcome this issue. Con­
ventional methods or classical control methods are usually graphical
design based and proposed in the domain of frequency. Several con­
trollers have been employed in the system , so as to perpetuate the
system stability. Following are the classification of various control
schemes:
(i) Classical Control
Classical control mainly focuses on root locus, Nyquist and bode
plots. John et al. [43] shows that classical control methods are simple as
compare to others and can be easily implemented in the existing sys­
tems. These methods are used in AGC and primarily developed for
nominal operation without any constraint breach and while changing
any operating point ,they are ineffective. Due to the use of Single Input
Single Output methods (SISO), classical controls are rarely used in
present scenario.
(ii) Robust Control Schemes
Researchers in [44,45] proposed several techniques viz. H∞ control,
mixed control ( H∞ / H2) and μ analysis and synthesis which provides
solidity and better attributes in opposition of unpredictability and
change in load demand. Author works in the deregulated environment
under bilateral policy and proposed these control techniques to develop
a distributed vigorous AGC scheme. In this approach, H2 approach re­
duces tracking error and linear-quadratic cost of the control inputs, and
H∞ control ensures control- loop system stability in the presence of
control limits and non linearities. Pan et al. [46] developed a FOPID
controller applied for AGC scheme in distributed energy system. Author
consider a solar, wind, fuel cell , aqua electrolyzer based HPS and gains
of controller is optimized by implementing these methods.
8
Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
(iii) Control using soft computing and intelligent techniques
System stability is enhanced by incorporating microgrid generation
sources and several methods have been proposed. Bhatti et al. [47]
shows the LFC scheme in multi area system in which a PID controller is
employed and their parameters are optimized with Integral Square Error
(ISE) and Integral Time Average Error (ITAE) using genetic algorithm
for primary control based optimal scheduling on generation side. LFC
mechanism of interconnected system containing wind power generation
has been developed in [48]. As power generation from wind is variable
in nature, frequency fluctuation occurs which are mitigated using AGC
technique.
Literature [49] shows that author developed a method named Dy­
namic Gain Tuning Control (DGTC)for wind generating sources involved
system so as to automatically calculate the parameters of PI controller
under disturbances occurring system. Similarly [50] shows the imple­
mentation of AGC in wind integrated multi area system by describing an
algorithm for active power balance control. Solar and wind based
microgrid incorporated HPS by designing a Biogeography-Based Opti­
mization (BBO) based PID controller has proposed by Rehman [51].
Output power from microgrid is nature dependent, its efficiency has to
be improved by applying MPPT method in order to extricate maximal
power from PV panel.
Author [52] demonstrated a new fractional order fuzzy PID
controller and examined it on 3 composition of multi area multiple
source AGC system. Proposed controller is tuned using BFOA. Study
shows that proposed controller gives superior outcomes in contrast with
other optimized controller. But the literature mentioned have not dis­
cussed the impact of MPPT in the area of AGC. Thus researchers [53,54]
focuses on AI based control approaches like fuzzy logic, ANN etc. for
load frequency regulation. Author considered load perturbation in
hydro thermal interconnected system. Studies shows that AI techniques
are time consuming, complex designing and inefficient for the system.
Computational intelligence method such as GA, Bacterial Foraging
Optimization Algorithms (BFOA) etc. is a combination of artificial in­
telligence and optimization techniques presented by Pandey et al. [55].
Literature [56] focused on obtaining tune parameters of integral
controller by applying trajectory insensitivities and these parameters are
tuned using gradient type N-R algorithm. Recently a technique is pro­
posed in [57], named Biogeography-Based Optimization (BBO). This
method optimize the gain parameter of a unique controller called 3
Degree Of Freedom ID Controller (3DOF-ID Controller) simultaneously
and its structure is shown in Fig. 12.
Along with this, it also optimizes parameters of electric governor in a
two area system. Parameters are tuned using Integral Square Error (ISE)
as objective function. This method also calculated certain uncertainties
like Governor Dead Band (GDB), Generation Rate Constraints (GRC) etc.
by taking 1% step load change in consideration.
(iv) Other control techniques
Author [58] studies a new method which is Decentralized Sliding
R. Verma et al. Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945

Fig. 12. Structure of 3-degree of freedom controller [57].

Control Method (SMC called Sliding Mode Control) implied for LFC in an
interconnected system having uncertainties. In [59] author depicts the
behavior of SMC controller applied in multiarea interconnected AGC
scheme in de regulated environment and result shows that its perfor­
mance is better and robust as certain factors such as GRC, GDB etc. will
remain unaffected from this technique. Some researcher [60,61] focuses
on AGC scheme applied in thermal, solar and gas based multi area
interconnected system communing several uncertainties such as GDB,
Fig. 13. Auxiliary control logic [67].
GRC etc. For non linearity like GDB, error between the calculated and
ideal output of generator is sum up to the controller output for rejection.
Similarly for GRC, difference of real and ideal response is supplied back generator fed by the existing governor control. Bio-diesel based syn­
to the controllers observer for estimation and elimination. chronous generator is considered as a power source of microgrid whose
Mohamed et al. [62] presents decentralized Model Predictive Control frequency deviation is minimized using proposed control logic. Author
(MPC) for multi area system. This paper shows that this method is not [68] depicts that the control logic acts faster than the existing governor
well suited in co ordinating each subsystem as there is no any kind of controls and performance has been compared. Fig. 14 shows the modi­
interactive information between them. Recently paper [63] explains a fied system in which the proposed control logic is employed in AGC
Distributed Model Predictive Control (DPMC) while working under loop.
deregulated environment. Authors worked on a multi area system where
user demand fluctuates in sight of nonlinearities and glitches. Simula­ (v) Hybrid Intelligent control
tion has been done and shows that this control is beneficial in deregu­
lated environment. DPMC has certain disadvantage like it involves more Some researchers [69,70] uses Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMI) and
computational power and cost. Ma et al. [63] proposed an outline of genetic algorithms to evolve a sturdy PI controller in LFC schemes due to
distributed control system for large deregulated system. This outline load perturbation. A GA based PI control for a 3 area multi source system
breaks the larger system into small subsystems and controller is con­ has also studied in [71]. This study also helps in determining frequency
nected to each subsystem locally. These controllers transfers data be­ bias factor. This is mainly depends on primary control action and
tween each other using a communication bus. damping coefficient in a control zone. Hosseini et al. [72] proposed a
Researchers [64,65] focus on dealing with the strategy to control the LFC control for a deregulated system based on PSO and Adaptive Arti­
missed sampling data caused due to the time delay occurred while ficial Neural Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) for optimal scheduling of
interacting with different subsystem. These researchers presents a MPC gain. ANFIS is investigated by communing uncertainties like GRC in a
based AGC scheme in an interconnected system, as this method is very control area and determines DB. Simulation has been done and result
popular to handle multivariable and constrained system. Some re­ obtained shows AGC mechanism is completely obeyed as both the ob­
searchers also explained MPC control applied in the interconnected jectives like frequency regulation and no tie line error in the control
system having large renewable penetration along with the existing time areas is obtained. Real time solutions has obtained as adaptive control
delay. Recently a Quasi Oppositional Harmony Search Algorithm gains are updated in accordance with the perturbation of load. This
(QOHS-PID) in a five domain system operating in a restructured envi­ method shows good results but the PSO involve takes large computation
ronment is proposed by Shive [66]. These areas consist of certain power time to optimize controller which seems ineffective for real time prac­
generating unit like reheat thermal, hydro, gas units and non linearities tice. To take care of this limitation Debbarma [73] proposes a Bacterial
like GDB,GRC were tested. Gains of controller i.e. KP , KI , KD are tuned Foraging optimization(BFO)Technique to perform two functions simul­
using QOHS algorithm while taking Integral Square Error (ISE) objective taneously such as optimizing non integer controller gain and speed
function. Multi area , power system is simulated and test result shows adjustment variable in multi area system. BFO is also a nature inspired
that this algorithm stabilize the frequency regulation, profiles of algorithm which utilizes the pasturing action of E.coli bacteria. It is
scheduled tie line power and also regulate the power from GENCO’S to a
rated value under physical constraints. Several soft computing tech­
niques or artificial intelligent techniques are also investigated under
deregulated environment for control purpose. Mishra et al. [67]
designed an auxiliary control system to mitigate the frequency variation
in a microgrid. Author uses an additional signal in the LFC loop shown in
Fig. 13, to prolong frequency by regulating the generator power output.
Proposed logic is tested on standard IEEE 13,33 and 69 bus distribution
system , for its performance under certain conditions.
Control logic is the power imbalance results because of the later
alteration in user demand and modified mechanical input from the
Fig. 14. Modified system based on auxiliary control logic [68].

9
R. Verma et al.
simple and easy to use with a limitation of poor convergence in complex
optimization problems.
Researchers like Li et al. [74] depicts the problem of DMPC in non
linear system restricted with communication delays. Author proposed a
DMPC scheme by utilizing a robust constraint in which a time lag is
involved to analyze the system security. This paper also shows that
achieving stability is a problem faced in non linear systems because of
the complexity in computation and certain limitation in bandwidth
communication. In [75] Author proposed a novel bi-objective optimi­
zation model of real-time AGC dispatch (BOAD) approach for maxi­
mizing the technical and economical aspects simultaneously of
independent system operator when they allocate real time generation
command to distinctive generation sources. For such purpose author
utilizes a non dominating sorted GA-II to achieve high quality pareto
front for real time AGC consign. Proposed approach minimizes mileage
payment of frequency regulation market as well as total generation
variation. Literature study shows that coordinated optimization in AGC
dispatch while using model predictive control as well as machine
learning method are considered as key methods. In this BOAD based
approach computation time is large and due to this delay real time
optimization is not achieved. Due to this a research gap is obtained
focusing on improvising the speed of optimization.
In [76] author proposed a cascaded proportional integral FO- PID
controller for minimizing frequency deviation in hybrid systems.
Controller gains are tuned using novel Gorilla Troops Optimizer (GTO)
as it is not earlier implemented in microgrids . Author considered 2 area
system containing diesel, wind ,solar PV system along with energy
storage system.. Efficiency and robustness of proposed controller is
collated with primary FOPID controller whose gains are tuned using
GTO ,GWO,PSO etc. under distinct structures like step and dynamic load
change, variation in source power etc. An integral absolute error
objective function is used in PI FOPID controller which improves the
fitness function compared to other structure controller and provide
better transient response thereby diminishing the frequency deviation.
Since two area system is considered frequency regulation in area1 ,
area2 and tie line power is observed under different cases. GTO tuned
cascaded PI FOPID controller shows high superiority and improved
dynamic results when subjected to different operating conditions in
hybrid system [77]. Model is simulated in Simulink and it has been
observed that it provides improved settling time as well as overshoot it
comparison of other techniques.
Jenna et al. [78] proposed an adaptive control strategy to regulate
frequency fluctuation and power deviation, while improving the reli­
ability and performance of microgrid network. As the sources incorpo­
rated in microgrid is stochastic in nature, they have suffered from lack of
inertia which in turn requires a reliable controller to achieve the load
generation balance. Non linearities such as GRC, communication delay ,
load perturbation are certain issues reside in microgrid. In this litera­
ture, author integrates small hydro power plant (HPP) in the MG thereby
enhancing the functioning of the system. Selfish Herd optimization
(SHO) and fuzzy based adaptive SHO (FASHO) is employed to fine tune
the controller gain thereby increasing its response on any system vari­
ation. Fuzzy logic control decides the optimizing parameters of SHO
which in turn improves the efficacy of algorithm [79]. Centralized
sliding mode control based controller is employed whose parameter are
tuned using FASHO and its performance is compared with other PID,
FOPID etc. controller. Performance analysis shows the superiority of
FASHO integration in the microgrid. Nayak et al. [80] proposed a
Grasshopper Optimization Approach (GOA) based PDF plus (1+ PI)
controller and this controller is employed for AGC in FACTS containing
power systems. In this paper author considered three thermal units
having different GRC rates along with FACTS devices. Author introduces
a metamorphic PDF plus (1+PI) controller keeping filter with PD and
(1+ PI ) controllers. For better efficiency transient response of PI, PID,
and PIDF controllers are equated. Performance analysis of GOA based
controller is tested under OPAL RT environment. Controller gains are
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Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
tuned and compared using several AI methods such as genetic algorithm,
PSO etc. Study shows that GOA optimized PDF plus (1+ PI ) imparts
superior response in comparison with other PI, PID controller in respect
of low stability time and maximum overshoot. The efficacy of proposed
controller is tested in power system containing FACTS devices by doing
sensitivity analysis under several load perturbation and parameter
variations.
In [81–83] authors developed a FOPID controller with filter coeffi­
cient to analyze the influence of realistic HVDC tie line in addition to
realistic dish sterling solar thermal system (RDSTS). Proposed controller
is employed to study the active power regulation in multiarea under de
regulated environment. Three areas containing thermal RDSTS system
having different GRC rates are modelled in which each area have dis­
tribution and generation companies. A novel cascaded controller is
proposed which involves the properties of FOPDN and FOPIDN and
controllers gains are simultaneously tuned employing a new meta­
heuristic algorithm termed as crow search algorithm. Response of sug­
gested work is analyzed with the response of PID, FOPID etc. and it is
represented as oscillation amplitude, overshoot , stability time. In de
regulated environment , policy schemes like Poolco, bilateral are
contemplated and analysis shows that the effect of proposed method on
LFC in RDSTS and RHVDC tie line is superior than other cascaded
controller in de regulated environment as well. Dynamic performance of
the considered system is tested under deregulated scenario. Khamari
et al. [84] proposed a hybrid TLBO based Tilt-Integral-Derivative (TID)
controller for load frequency regulation under de-regulated scenario.
TLBO method is metaheuristic population based algorithm which does
not use specific parameters for reducing the time duration to produce
efficient output and stable convergence. This method mimics the
teaching nature of teacher in classroom and its impact on the nature of
student.
Author considered two area four unit system initially and the pro­
posed controller is tested under MATLAB/ SIMULINK environment.
Output response of proposed approach is compared with GA, differential
evolution techniques optimized PI, PID controller under same scenario.
Result shows that the proposed approach is superior and the result is
given in the form of settling time, overshoot, undershoot etc. After that
the author considered two area six unit system and each area is incor­
porated with SMES and Thyristor controlled phase shifter. And some
non-linearities such as GRC, DB has also employed in the system. With
large renewable penetration proposed method is gone through sensi­
tivity analysis by changing the load conditions and it has been seen that
gains of proposed controller need not to be change under such condi­
tions. It is evident that due to low inertia support , intermittent nature of
renewables enlarge the change of frequency deviation under islanded
mode of operation. Alteration rate of frequency is maximum in islanded
mode as compared to conventional system. So, it is require to in co-
operate an effective solution which compensate the shortage of ancil­
lary services required for frequency regulation.
In [85] author proposed a novel supplementary control strategy for
DER based islanded microgrid system. Due to these converter based
sources requirement of fast frequency regulation arises. Some of these
sources like flywheel energy storage system (FESS), solar etc. is taken as
potential source of power for active power regulation in LFC scheme.
Author developed a more efficient dynamic model in comparison of
previous model of energy storage system. Proposed fuzzy droop
controller is optimized using artificial bee colony optimization method.
High energy density, good power exchange are some of the benefits of
FESS which will be utilized for frequency excursions under load dis­
turbances. Similarly, wind system are capable to make use of the dy­
namic energy saved in rotational mass whereas fuzzy droop enhances
frequency regulation in comparison with traditional droop of wind
system. Several control strategies based on DERs has been proposed and
proper co-ordination of these sources provides reasonable solutions
under several operating scenarios. Propose approach is tested under
MATLAB environment and it has been shown that solar , wind, flywheel ,
R. Verma et al.
DEG system has the ability to diminish the frequency deviation under
various operating scenario even when small signal dynamic model is
incorporated in the standalone microgrid.
Paper [86] proposed a novel distributed secondary control technique
for AGC and AVR which maintains the load generation balance while
reducing the generation cost of power in microgrids. As DGs suffers from
lack of inertial support, and to obtain the frequency voltage recovery of
such system [87], author employs continuous time distributed control to
initiate a control variable for the cause. On the other hand it employs a
distributed economical increment also in secondary control to reduce
the economic dispatch problem (EDP) by neglecting the issue of speed
inconsistency in communication between secondary and tertiary level
control. This method is employed in both on-grid and synchronizing
mode for voltage frequency recovery and EDP. As it is known that low
proportion of X/R results in sturdy linking of real power and phantom
power and author is primarily focusing on voltage frequency recovery
under the influence of inductive line impedance. Proposed method is
tested while switching between isolated mode to on-grid mode and
initializing the plug and play operation. Author considered an AC
microgrid consisting five DGs for voltage frequency regulation and EDP
in secondary level control. Two level algorithm is employed in the
microgrid and it provide helpful response in optimal economical oper­
ation by reducing the communication fault condition between second­
ary and tertiary control. Proposed system is tested and result shows
improved stability under the communication link failure.
Paper [88] proposed an Integrated FOPI and TID controller for fre­
quency excursion in hybrid microgrid system. Suggested controller
make use of the properties of both the controller stated above and
provides effective and robust AGC in modelled system. Proposed
controller is optimized by a novel metaheuristic algorithm named as
wild horse optimization(WHO). Author considered renewable such as
solar PV and wind integrated conventional power system along with
electric vehicle employed in each area for study. Suggested controller
performance is verified under various operating scenarios such as load
perturbation, renewable fluctuation , sensitivity analysis etc. reliability
of suggested controller is assessed by applying wave oscillation in area 2
. Suggested controller is corelated with other traditional controller
optimized using WHO and result proves the dominance of developed
method over other in respect of better settling time, oscillation ampli­
tude etc. Inclusion of electric vehicle also provides advantage such as
improving the frequency regulation together with minimization of
power flow in tie line. Time domain analysis has been implemented on
proposed controller under Simulink framework. An intelligent inte­
grated standalone microgrid control is proposed in [89]. Microgrid
system comprises of solar PV , wind turbine generator , DEG as
distributed source of power as well as battery and flywheel based energy
storage system. For extracting maximum power from solar PV system an
improved incremental conductance based MPPT method is used where
as fuzzy wing power generation is used as an MPPT for wind system.
Prime novelty of the work is controlling power flow in microgrid thereby
improving the load frequency control in the system. For maintaining
optimal flow between generation, load, and energy storage an intelligent
fuzzy based adaptive control is developed. Fuzzy based PID controller is
employed to obtain wind and DEG droop control . Fuzzy observer is
developed to direct the flow of power among the load and source. Pro­
posed system is tested under IEEE 39 bus system and result shows that
the suggested approach is 90% more efficient than the primary MPPT
method as it has high tracking efficiency and fast MPP tracking speed.
In [90,91] an artificial bee colony(ABC) optimization inspired ter­
minal SMC (TSMC) is developed to overcome the frequency oscillations
in stand alone system occurred due to the penetration of renewables in
the microgrid system. It is a finite time control method This control
strategy is used to design a non linear sliding surface to make sure the
system state should be converge to origin in the definite time by using
fractional power terms. Due to the distinct stability of the control it
ensures, convergence of state variable along with higher precision. The
11
Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
gain of developed controller is tuned using ABC method and is tested
under MATLAB environment. ABC tuned TSMC controller gives
magnificent performance in microgrid for AGC by giving excellent
damping efficiency, low steady state error etc. Propose controller damp
out frequency oscillation under disturbance and uncertainty conditions
and proves its robustness and sturdiness for the LFC.
Author [92] proposed a secondary frequency control also called
rapid start operation by using the concept of several machine learning
algorithms. ML algorithms are firmed on neural networks, clustering
techniques, decision trees and helps in starting several rapid start units
to perform LFC in the system and its classification is shown in Fig. 15.
This paper basically focused on rapid start units which means system
will continue to sustain the operation close to the nominal frequency
range for maintaining better efficiency.
ML based algorithms are used to anticipate that the condition of AGC
is fulfilled and rapid start (RS) unit is connected, as the initiation of RS
unit is one of the complex issue due to its operation in real time. This
work is classified into two parts (i) proposing multiple machine learning
based algorithm for AGC and (ii) selection of these algorithm in multi
objective decision problems. A future research objective is found as it
should to be employed for economical reliability of the Spanish system.
In addition to that a machine learning process is shown in Fig. 16.
In [93] author focuses on the issues of AGC in isolated two area
numerous sources based microgrid when there is inconstancy and vague
in generation and load demand. Author proposed a microgrid based two
area model having multiple energy sources and energy storage equip­
ment for LFC. Dynamic characteristic of discrete time Markov based
method is used for the formulation of solar, wind and load variations.
Frequency controller is proposed whose parameter are tuned using
simulated annealing-based Q learning (SAQ) algorithm [94]. Q learning
method is used to optimize controller parameters without falling into
local optima. Dynamic response of the controller for two area microgrid
is tested under MATLAB environment. Author basically works with the
secondary frequency control where small variation in frequency should
be diminished in multiple sources based microgrid system. Response of
suggested controller is tested and analyzed with other conventional Q
learning based controller and outcomes shows the supremacy of SAQ
controller as it map with the CPS economic evaluation index. CPS index
of interconnected system is the measure of quality of power system
control considering environmental index as well as economic assessment
index for long drawn accomplishment of AGC. CPS is used to assess the
execution of SAQ learning controller and given as :
CPS1 = (2 − CF) ∗ 100% (14)
( )
ACE∗ Δf
CF = AVG (15)
− 10Bi ∗ ∈21
10min
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
CPS2 : AVG(ACE)10min < 16.5∈10 Bi ∗ Bs (16)
Where,
∈1 = control target value of frequency deviation in 1 min.
∈10 = control target value of frequency variation in 10 min
Bs = total frequency deviation coefficient used as evaluation index
Fig. 15. Classification of ML.
R. Verma et al.
Fig. 16. Process of ML [92].
A novel multiagent control strategy is proposed in article [95,96] for
AGC primarily focusing on the deep reinforcement learning (RL). DL is
subset in ML which represents the operation of human brain to perceive
interdependence and patterns by filtering data based on defined logical
anatomy and its basic process is shown in Fig. 17. Deep learning
methods provides accurate output response as they depict supervised
data as an input. This concept mimics the functioning of biological
neural network and compares the new data with unspecified data to
obtain the decision. Concept of deep learning and machine learning is
achieving great interest for active power regulation schemes.
As deep learning utilizes large aggregate of hidden layers in NN
which defies the primary neural network and restrain only few numbers
of hidden layers. Fig. 18 shows the performance comparison of deep
learning from other AI techniques. In order to progress an efficient AGC
scheme, RL based control strategy has been developed for grids having
high renewable penetration. So, in expansion of this a multi agent deep
RL algorithm is proposed in this article and it sinks the phenomenon of
Double Deep Q Neural (DDQN) algorithm and action discovery strategy.
This technique possesses self-exploration and optimization ability. For
real time precise control, action set of DDQN does not map with the
condition specified for AGC as they are artificially fixed. Whereas this
issue was overcome by the action discovery (AD) strategy as it will
interrupt the boundaries of action set and optimize it in the real time
whereas enhancing the dynamic efficiency of LFC system. Simulation is
performed on Simulink platform and result shows that deep learning-
based method gives fast convergence speed under high penetration of
renewable sources.
In [97,98] author focused on neural network based AGC in microgrid
system. As it is evident that conventional AGC methods are not more
promising with the evolving distributed generation system due to their
stochastic nature. As a result large disturbance from source as well as
load side causing issue in power grid. So, a DL firmed three network dual
delay actor critic (TDAC) approach is developed for LFC to overcome the
issues caused by large penetration of renewable and non linear loads.
This control strategy make use of several neural network to assess the
system value and accommodate its action strategies. Modified actor
critic approach as well as incentive heuristic mechanism is wielded to
maximize the exploration efficiency , system dominance performance
and standard of AGC. TDAC based approach take care the large distur­
bance caused by renewables to the power grid. This method merges
DDQN and modified actor critic strategy to enhance the learning and
decision making ability. As stated DDQN is a type of deep reinforced
learning technique entrenched on iteration function which is a fusion of
neural network and Q learning. To achieve optimal coordinated control,
a novel iterative method which minimizes the optimization bias is used.
Fig. 17. Deep learning Process [95].
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Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
System performance is tested under MATLAB environment and it has
shown that TDAC approach gives exceptional learning and exploratory
stability as well as improved dynamic performance of the designed
system.
Electric vehicle (EV) is one of the emerging area of research nowa­
days due to their support to grid stability. Vehicle to grid technologies
are drawing keen interest of researchers due to their benefits of con­
trolling and planning of large power network. As these vehicles are
employed with large number of high rating batteries and bidirectional
capabilities of converters put together it for better frequency support. In
[99] author integrates EV to the grid as a controllable load along with
other generation units so as to provide frequency support, when dis­
turbances occurs in multi area power system delineated in Fig. 19.
Author employs tilt ID (TID) controller for EV and controller gain is
tuned using artificial bee colony algorithm. For better performance
analysis AGC parameters such GRC, DB etc. are taken into consideration.
System is tested for three condition (i) step load change (ii) sensitivity
analysis of coordinated control and (iii) frequency and tie line power
deviations. Suggested method is tested under MATLAB environment and
it has been shown that controller has improved reliability for 50%
change in GRC of turbine and synchronizing coefficient independently.
In [100] author focused on electric vehicle based frequency regulation.
Due to the operational benefits of EV such as fast response and its sup­
port to the grid, control strategies are proposed which withdraw high
frequency signal from ACE and ARR (active regulation requirement)
using digital filter.
Regulation capacity of EV is evaluated on the basis of maximum
vehicle to grid power and its present power and it will be consign the
regulation task among EVs. Simulation result shows that efficiency of
proposed approach as it reduces frequency deviation and tie line power .
After reviewing all these literature , benefits and limitation of employed
techniques are concluded in Table 3 given below :
7. Discussion
After the thorough study of AGC schemes, controller implemented
for frequency regulation and optimization methods for tuning controller
parameter, it has been observed that all these robust control techniques
lacks on several parameters such as large settling time, low controller
efficiency, slow operation, unreliable operation etc. [101]. These issues
are more severe when DGs comes into picture as there is large pene­
tration of renewable which causes stochasticity in generation also
continuously varying load in the existing system influence system sta­
bility severely. Some methods like SMC, MPC suffers from high cost
optimization, absence of real time optimization etc. Several AI based
controllers are implemented and enhances the system response but
certain performance parameters still lags these techniques to completely
dominate the existing conventional droop control scheme. As AI based
techniques are metaheuristic techniques and mimics the environmental
scenarios for controlling purpose, so to find the finest optimal solution it
requires more convergence time which lags the process and delays the
regulation. Some adaptive and coordinated control methods are also
developed by some researchers for better LFC due to their good per­
formance output but these methods are not applicable for large and
multi area interconnected system. Some authors implemented EV based
control schemes for active power regulation in microgrid system. EVs
are integrated with the grid and their support is tested under various
operating condition. After the study it has been observed that controllers
are proposed which charges and discharges the battery of EV under
different loading conditions but there is a gap for proposing an adaptive
controller which performs three function (i) charging when load de­
mand is less (ii) discharging during high load condition (iii) Employed
battery acts as reserve for lightning the EV charging station. For such
purpose properties of several controllers are combined and their benefits
are taken into consideration. Lithium ion batteries are used in EVs which
are expensive but has good life span, compact, better energy density as
R. Verma et al.
Fig. 18. Comparison between deep learning and other Neural Network [96].
Fig. 19. EV incorporated Grid for AGC [100].
compared to lead acid batteries, nickel batteries etc.
Paper also briefs about Newly emerging area of research in ML and
DL based optimization methods [102,103]. As both the methods are
subset of AI techniques but possess several advantages over conven­
tional approaches such as it can generate automation feature, improved
learning capabilities, coordination with unstructured data, cost inten­
sive, scalable etc. These methods are different from other AI methods as
in AI methods, data is given as input and after some traditional pro­
gramming, output is obtained. Whereas in case of ML, data is given as
input along with some desired output at initial stage and after data
training, latest data in the form of program is generated and training
algorithm will finally produce the desired output. Along with this, in
deep learning data is given as input and after training the data (using
deep learning algorithm) desired output is achieved. Efficiency and
effectiveness of Machine learning is depend upon both input data and
performance of training algorithm. DL and ML methods required large
number of data sets to produce a trained output and these benefits
should be further employed for cyber security attacks on microgrids
where the attackers injects faulty data or false data to disorient the
system objective. Existing cyber security solutions slow down the power
system operation and they took some time to recover from pre attack
point [104,105]. A schematic block diagram has been developed which
shows the implementation of ML in the system for LFC is shown in
13
Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
Fig. 20. Authors in [106] proposed a hybrid Demand Response (DR)
control method by introducing communication latency and result shows
it improves the stability margin and proposed method is validated using
OPAL -RT based real time simulator following some experimental
analysis. It has been observed that demand response based frequency
regulation in traditional generation system is performed but in order to
improve system performance, existing literature lags the concept of
demand response regulating frequency stability in DG incorporated
hybrid system. Some researchers [107,108] involves Renewables in
frequency control but the effect of sporadic behavior of RE’s ,sudden
load change while considering communication latency and physical
constraints still needs to be explored. After thorough study, it has been
observed that area of demand side management for frequency regulation
in presence of DG is still unexplored. Therefore, suitable algorithm and
techniques can be developed to implement demand side management
activities for frequency regulations in DG incorporated Hybrid power
system.
In [109], author discussed recent work done in the area of smart grid
and cyber security issues is one of the prominent issue occurred in the
system. This paper also deals with the new controller like FACTS
controller (Distributed Power Flow, DPFC) and Energy storage devices
based strategies developed for restructured power system. This paper
also presented frequency regulation in 5 and 6 area of multi inter­
connected power system. Similarly, [110] presented challenges like
stability, low virtual inertia of hybrid microgrid in optimal regulation of
voltage and frequency. Author proposed a bio energy model for hybrid
microgrid system by incorporating renewable sources as well as energy
storage system. This model helps in replacing the costly diesel engine
generator by waste to energy concept and provides stability and effec­
tive power regulation. In [111] author proposed a novel Green
Leaf-hopper Flame optimization (GLFO) algorithm for synchronized
voltage and frequency regulation in hybrid MG system. An isolated
microgrid is modelled to produce power using various energy sources
like solar, wind , agricultural waste etc. along with bio-hydrogen based
energy storage system. Stochastic behavior of these sources leads to
certain issues like optimal power flow, reliable power supply etc. A PID
controller is tuned using novel GLFO approach with Integral-Square of
Weighted Absolute Error (ISWAE) based objective function. This
controller helps in minimizing the power fluctuations in the system.
Proposed controller is tested under MATLAB environment and shows the
superiority over other conventional optimized controllers. Author [112]
developed a novel proportional fractional integral derivative filter plus
R. Verma et al.
Table 3
several control methods with their benefits and limitations.
Control Techniques Benefits
Classical linear Elementary design and easy
control i.e. P,PI,PD, to implement
PID [8,11,16]
Deterministic Provides optimal control
technique such as gains.
Newton- Raphson
[5].
Metaheuristic Preferable dynamic
techniques like behavior, lower controlling
PSO,ACO etc. [9, order.
19,20]
AI methods like Better dynamic response,
ANFIS+PSO, real time optimization
ANFIS+ ANN [48,
60,72]
Hybrid control Optimization techniques are
methods like useful for large
GA+SA, PSO+CRO interconnected systems
[37,55] having various non -
linearities.
BBO [51,57] Improved dynamic response
in terms of oscillation
magnitude, peak variation
etc.
Adaptive control [78, Good performance under
89] limited condition
Fuzzy , neuro fuzzy Good performance in small
control [29,52] area system
QOHS-PID [44,50] Beneficial optimization for
several non linearity present
multi area system
Sliding mode control Low computational cost,
[78,90,91] less sensitive for parameter
variations
MPC and DMPC [62, Stability performance in
65] closed loop increases
Mixed control [44] Improved stability, better
experience of error tracking
H∞ [45] Effective in multi area
system
Analyzer control Productive results in
[61] disturbance rejection
Electric vehicle based Bidirectional capabilities of
[99,100] converter
Machine Learning Trained data will improve
and Deep Learning the system performance,
[92,95,96] wide range application,
learning from large data set
Limitations
Long settling time, large
frequency fluctuations,
poor results over wide
operating range
No real time testing only
simulation study has done.
optimization is not easy in
actual time, large settling
time.
For better efficiency,
controller requires large
training sets
Simulation study shows
that it is not useful for
online optimization,
Hit and trial error method
is used to find parameters.
Not practical for large area
system.
Impractical tuning of
parameters
Trial and error method for
B and R parameter
determination.
Execution is impractical
Costly on line optimization
Need of LMI and SFS.
Acquire higher order
control
Min. frequency regulation
against load uncertainty
Increased cost due to Li-ion
Batteries
—
Fig. 20. ML based load frequency control scheme.
14
Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
double derivative ((PI)^λ (DFD)^2) controller optimized using Memetic
Salp swarm algorithm for low voltage AC microgrid to improve the
stability and robustness of the system, under the variations of operating
parameters. Concept of virtual power and virtual impedance is utilized
to introduce an improved droop controller which provides improved
accuracy in comparison to other distributed controller during load
perturbation, activating controller parameters as well as reconfiguring
the structure. Proposed controller is tested and validated using real time
simulator test bench using OPAL-RT 4510 for practical implementation
in the power system. In [113], a control strategy has been developed to
improve the power quality in residential Solar PV system. A modified
power control based strategy is implemented in grid integrated auton­
omous MG having multiple solar PV units. Proposed strategy provide
smooth automatic transition from grid tied mode to off grid mode and
vice versa while multiple PV units are operating in parallel. During grid
tied mode, power obtained from solar PV is used to fed the load demand
whereas the remaining power is supplied to the grid at unity power
factor while working under current control mode. During grid failure,
the current control mode of operation in grid tide mode is switched to
voltage control mode in autonomous mode of MG to maintain contin­
uous power supply to the system. During grid restoration, solar PV
inverter units at PCC resynchronizes the voltage at PCC with the utility
voltage and switched to grid tied mode. Result shows smooth transition
takes place during grid failure and gris restoration with out any
communication setup while maintaining optimal power flow in the
network. This method minimizes the requirement of large communica­
tion setup , thereby reducing complexity as well as cost of the system.
Proposed method tested under simulation environment and shows that it
works efficiently during load fluctuations, attenuates harmonics,
maintains the total harmonic distortion as per IEEE standard 519.
Author [114] proposed a control strategy for secondary frequency
regulation during cyber attacks in AC microgrids. A cyber resilient
control strategy is developed to provide end to end security against
cyber attacks for micro AGC. For this purpose, data driven based
microgrid modeling is done which utilizes the rank deficient properties
of inverter based renewable sources. This modeling provides end to end
cyber security during false data injection and developed for micro AGC.
Scheme does not requires frequency computation and can be imple­
mented during load as well power fluctuations. Control scheme is tested
for two MG system and result shows that it minimizes the deviation
under various operating conditions along with fast detection of cyber
attacks. A future scope is provided to test the system for large microgrids
as it requires communication links and centralized controller which is at
high risk of cyber attacks and leads to system black out. A novel
distributed event-triggered hierarchical control scheme is developed in
[115] to improve the multi time scale frequency response in solar PV
R. Verma et al.
systems. This method involves primary as well secondary control loops
of AGC. For primary control, solar PV inverters are operating under
regulatory mode responding in sub- seconds using automatic de-loading
strategy whereas for secondary control, PV invertors fives response to­
wards reference instruction given by high level AGC control in seconds
of time duration. Primary control is easy to employed as energy storage,
irradiance sensors is not required along with its stable operation. Pro­
posed scheme is independent of initial operating conditions and
designed to reduce the cost of communication setup among PV invertors.
Proposed system is tested on IEEE − 13 bus MG system having multiple
PV units and results shows that it will refines the frequency regulation
while minimizing the requirement of energy storage systems. In [116] a
PI-PD cascade controller is employed to reduce the frequency fluctua­
tions in electric vehicle integrated RE based microgrid. A test system is
developed by incorporating biogas, biodiesel, solar etc. sources and it is
evident that these sources are inherent in nature so optimal power
balancing is one of the difficult task in a system. So to improve the power
flow, energy storage and electric vehicle is introduced in the existing
system. Optimal gain of cascaded controller is obtained from
magneto-tactic bacteria optimization method using integral square error
as an objective function. Proposed controller is tested under MATLAB-
SIMULINK environment and output shows the superiority of controller
over other classical controller during several operating conditions.
Similarly, [117] proposed a Salp Swarm Algorithm(SSA) based FOPID
controller in grid integrated virtual power plant(VPP). Developed VPP
system consist several power generating entities like solar PV, bio diesel
engine generator, plug in hybrid EV etc. interconnected to conventional
power system. Centralized control method is embraced to attain fre­
quency regulation in VPP system. Optimal gain of proposed controller is
obtained from Salp optimization method by using ISE and ITAE as an
objective function. ISE and ITAE provides minimum settling time as well
as reduced overshoots. Proposed controller is compared with other PID,
PI controllers optimized using GOA, ALO, PSO optimization techniques
and comparative analysis proves the efficacy of controller for frequency
regulation as well as for tie line power flow. Proposed controller is
investigated under different operating conditions such as load change,
irregular power generation and output shows improved system perfor­
mance. Author [118] proposed a distributed hybrid scheme for fre­
quency regulation in an islanded AC microgrid. Primary and secondary
control loops are utilized to obtain large signal stability of a non linear
network. Control strategy includes nonlinearities like switching and
affine in inverters and minimizing dwell time obstruction in the signal.
Consensus strategy exerted secondary control loop improves battery life
by analyzing state of charge (SOC) of batteries, robustness of the system
during plug and play operation or any failure in communication link.
Similarly primary control loop controls the DC-AC power conversion of
battery during discharging mode by utilizing dynamic hybrid system
model. Singular perturbation theory is applied to achieve large signal
stability analysis by selecting the gains of controller properly. Proposed
strategy ensures MG scalability as well as improves the health of energy
storage [119]. A distinctive strategy is developed in [120,121] to
maintain the frequency fluctuation in a three area interconnected and
independent hybrid system. Suggested topology comprises of solar
chimney, solar gas turbine, ESS, SMES etc. and integration of these units
in three area hybrid system is one of the recent work done by the au­
thors. A cascaded PI-TID controller is used for frequency regulation of
hybrid microgrid and controller parameters are optimized using chaotic
butterfly optimization algorithm. Control strategy shows better results
over different algorithms and controllers during sensitivity analysis and
variation in operating conditions. Proposed control schemes is tested
while considering real time scenarios.
After critical review of these literature it has been found that
following research gap are available in the field of AGC :
1. Role of demand side management in renewable based hybrid power
system is not explored thoroughly.
15
Electric Power Systems Research 226 (2024) 109945
2. Natured inspired optimization techniques provides inherent solution
to our problems. In order to achieve a stable solution, some new data
driven and model based approaches should be proposed which is not
critically explored for microgrid incorporated hybrid power system.
3. Small signal stability analysis is not performed in multi area based
hybrid power system.
4. Present literature lacks in showing optimal planning of energy stor­
age systems for enhancing the stability of MG.
5. Fault diagnosis approach for AGC is not shown in the present
literature.
6. Cyber attacks and fault data injections are some crucial issues in
hybrid systems. A fast decentralized control approach needs to be
developed to enhance the capability of AGC loops.
8. Conclusion
This work is predominantly emphasizes on the opportunities in the
area of AGC. Prime focus of this article is to review and compare mul­
tiple control approaches available in the required area. Since several
control methods has been developed to overcome the issues occurred
due to the load perturbation and power generation deficit. In order to
deal with the non linearities like GDB, GRC, DB etc. available in the
system, several control strategies has been developed. This literature
also shows that a research gap is available in the area of resilient
controller optimized using deep learning and machine learning tech­
niques for LFC in microgrids against cyber security attacks. Further
demand response based frequency regulation in RE integrated hybrid
power system considering operational constraints is one of the unex­
plored domain in the field of power system. In addition, advanced
methods in the moder power system, such as fractional order-based
controllers, fuzzy aided approaches, cascaded controllers, electric ve­
hicles, demand response, local frequency estimator, and resilience, are
thoroughly examined. In addition, recently published works on the AGC
of existing power system utilizing both conventional and renewable
energy sources are presented. Finally, the comprehensive review of this
article covers all technical control aspects and current trends in the field
of AGC-based modern power systems and identifies the future research
trajectory for mitigating frequency fluctuations in future power grids.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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