Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Recent advances in the use of natural fibers in civil engineering structures

Kusum Saini a, *, Vasant A. Matsagar a, Venkatesh R. Kodur b
a
Multi-Hazard Protective Structures (MHPS) Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016,
India
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, 3574 Engineering Building, 428 S. Shaw Lane, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The recent boom in the construction sector, either for building new infrastructures or for retrofitting and
Natural fibers strengthening of old structures, has placed a great demand for conventional materials, which often consume high
Bio-based materials energy and release high carbon. To overcome this challenge, there are efforts to explore bio-based materials as an
Biocomposites
alternative to conventional materials. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the development of plant-
Construction materials
based natural fibers for construction applications. The mechanical properties of different types of natural fibers
Sustainable
Structural applications and their composite are reviewed. The suitability of these natural fibers for new construction and retrofitting of
structures applications is discussed. Further, strategies that can be developed for incorporating natural fibers in
place of conventional reinforcement are provided. Finally, research needs for further developing natural fibers
for a wider range of construction applications are elaborated.

1. Introduction
The concept of using natural fibers as a construction material is not
entirely new. For centuries, natural fibers have been part of construction
in the form of straw reinforcement for earthen walls, ropes for bridges,
and plant waste for roofing bamboo shelters. The housing units and
other rural structures built using plant-based materials were sustainable
and provided desired strengths under various loads and environmental
conditions. In addition, these structures have the advantages of being
low cost, as they are made of locally available materials, thermally
insulated, lightweight, and easy to repair and maintain. Roman and
Greek housings were mainly constructed with straw-reinforced adobe
bricks and gypsum-based clay, and roofing was usually made of agri­
cultural waste. Some rural houses are still made of bamboo and agri­
cultural waste in many countries, including Bangladesh, China,
Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. With indus­
trialization, urbanization, and commercialization, these materials are
gradually replaced by concrete and steel structures, and with that, the
knowledge and practice of using natural fibers are becoming obsolete.
However, in construction, cradle-to-gate processes for these conven­
tional materials (e.g., cement and steel) are causing a vast amount of
energy consumption, carbon emission, and pollution [1] compared to
bio-based materials. The annual greenhouse gas emission (kg CO2
eq./kg) in carbon dioxide equivalent per kg production of carbon fibers
up to 31, glass fibers 2.6, jute fibers 1.9, hemp fibers 1.6, and flax fibers
0.4 was obtained [2]. The worldwide annual production of various
natural fibers is shown in Table 1, where the production of sugarcane
bagasse and bamboo is the highest, and a comparison of the production
cost of the most used synthetic and natural fibers is also shown in
Table 2.
The recent focus on finding solutions to global warming caught the
attention of researchers towards developing plant-based natural fiber
solutions depleting for new materials (such as sand, stone, etc.). The
problem of stubble burning has also been observed as one of the most
critical reasons for air pollution. Every year in India [3] and Colombia
[4], the cause of immense air pollution is the burning of mainly rice
husks and sugarcane waste due to a lack of storage capacity and use. To
reduce these issues, locally available agricultural waste can also be
proposed as a replacement for conventional construction materials.
The replacement of synthetic reinforcements with natural fiber
reinforcement could be one of the affordable solutions to reduce the
adverse effects of air pollution problems. The additional advantage of
natural fibers is that they act as a carbon sink; for example, hemp can
absorb up to two tons of CO2 per ton of fiber, making it an environment-
friendly choice. Natural fibers can also be used for thermal and sound
insulation foams. Due to the hygroscopic nature of natural fibers, the
insulation foams can also absorb, store, and release moisture, naturally
controlling condensation levels within the building and improving

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kusum.saini@civil.iitd.ac.in (K. Saini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134364
Received 15 June 2023; Received in revised form 16 October 2023; Accepted 26 November 2023
Available online 5 December 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Saini et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

Table 1 straws, hemp, and kenaf, for various structural purposes, for example,
Worldwide annual production of different natural fibers [2,253]. thermal insulating walls, roofing, and architectural purposes. Some re­
Fiber Annual production (×1000 tonnes) searchers investigated the possible applications of natural fibers in
construction [10], such as thermal insulating material [11],
Coconut 100
Hemp 214 sound-insulating material [12], geotextile in rural roads [13,14], rein­
Roselle 250 forcement [15], for strengthening, confinement, creep and shrinkage
Sisal 378 reduction, structural walls, and architectural purposes [16]. Various
Flax 830 studies showed the use of natural fibers in various forms, such as with
Kenaf 970
Jute 2300
earth, cement, concrete, and polymer composites, for several applica­
Palm 4200 tions in structures. Various ways of using biodegradable fibers as an
Bamboo 30000 alternative to conventional building materials were proposed [17]. A
Sugarcane bagasse 75000 study showed that bamboo could be used as an alternative to steel
reinforcement in low-load applications [18]. Moreover, limitations with
the use and performance of natural fibers were explored and compared
Table 2 with that of synthetic fibers [19–21].
Physical and mechanical properties of different synthetic and natural fibers However, there is no comprehensive state-of-the-art that discusses all
[122,142,251,254–257]. aspects of using natural fibers for structures, such as possible ways and
forms of application, behavior under different loads, durability, and
Fiber Density Tensile Young’s Elongation Cost
(g/cm3) strength modulus at breakage (USD/kg) performance, as well as associated challenges. The current paper details
(MPa) (GPa) (%) all these aspects and explores the feasibility of using plant-based natural
Steel 7.8 250–2850 210 2–4 0.3–6.0 fibers for several structural applications, considering their limitations in
E-glass 2.50–17 1956–3400 73–78.5 2.5 1–10 strength, stiffness, and durability. In addition, the current study com­
Carbon 1.4–1.78 3400–4800 240–425 1.4–1.8 5–25 pares sustainable aspects (i.e., CO2 emission) associated with the use of
Kevlar 1.44 3000 60 2.5–3.7 30–40 natural and synthetic fibers to promote the use of natural fibers.
Aramid 1.4 3000–3150 63–67 3.3–3.7 3.5–22
S-glass 2.5 4570 86 2.8 1–50
Basalt 2.6–2.8 2200–4800 85.8–89 2.8–3.2 1.5–20 2. Plant-based natural fibers as construction materials
Jute 1.35–1.46 200–800 10–55 1.4–3.1 0.25–0.80
Sisal 1.2–1.50 80–855 9–38 2–25 0.16–0.21
The plant-based natural fibers commonly used for construction
Hemp 1.4–1.50 310–900 17–70 1.6–6 4.80–6.40
Coconut 1.15–1.50 105–220 4–6 14–51 0.17–0.21
include hemp, coconut, bamboo, sisal, wheat straw, rice husk, pine­
Flax 1.4–1.54 85–2000 20–85 1–10 0.25–0.40 apple, jute, and banana (as shown in Fig. 1). A comparison of the me­
Bamboo 0.6–1.10 140–230 10–30 1.3–3.7 2.30–2.90 chanical properties of synthetic and natural fibers is shown in Table 2.
Kenaf 1.2–1.6 240–1195 2.85–55 1.6–6.9 0.78–1.45 Additionally, based on some research [22–25], the stress-strain behavior
Palm 0.7–1.0 309 2.7–11 2.5–13 0.12–0.20
of various synthetic and natural fibers is presented in Fig. 2. This
Banana 1.3–1.35 350–910 8–33 3–10 0.35–0.44
Pineapple 1.4–1.56 126–1600 4.4–82 0.8–3.2 0.75–1.05 behavior is useful in analyzing and comparing the expected performance
Roselle 0.75–0.85 145–290 1.75–2.76 2.2–8 0.52–0.95 of natural fiber-reinforced structural members over synthetic
fiber-reinforced structural members. Natural fibers exhibit lesser
Note: here cost (USD/kg) of fibers are given for chopped fibers.
strength than synthetic fibers; however, some natural fibers (i.e., sisal)
show enhanced ductility compared to synthetic fibers. Also, flax shows
internal air quality [5].
comparatively higher strength than other natural fibers. These response
Numerous research were conducted to explore the feasibility of using
curves can be helpful in deciding the feasible structural applications of
natural fiber as a construction material. The most used natural fibers (i.
natural fibers. Natural fibers can be utilized for construction in various
e., hemp, coconut, bamboo, sisal, wheat straw, rice husk, pineapple,
forms, as already shown in Fig. 3. The following sections discuss using
jute, and banana) for construction are shown in Fig. 1. The natural fibers
natural fibers in building units made of earth, concrete, cement, and
can be used in various forms, i.e., fabric, rebars, laminates, strips, and
polymer composites.
chopped fibers, for structures. Natural fibers, such as straws and other
agricultural waste, are primarily used in the form of short fibers rein­
forced composites for structural members due to their advantageous 2.1. Natural fibers in earth bricks
properties, such as shrinkage resistance, bridging in cracks, insulation,
and read availability. Some researchers [6–9] demonstrated the use of The use of natural fibers in earth and adobe bricks has been common,
biocomposites based on agricultural wastes, such as rice and cereal especially in rural areas of Morocco, Italy, Algeria, Turkey, and India

Fig. 1. Plant-based natural fibers commonly used for construction.

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K. Saini et al.
Fig. 2. Stress-strain curves of different fibers: (a) synthetic fibers and (b) natural fibers.
Fig. 3. Plant-based natural fibers commonly used: (a) in various forms and (b) various forms of composites for construction.
since ancient times. The abundant local availability of natural fibers,
clay, and soil makes them preferred construction materials for afford­
able housing and rural infrastructure. These fibers reduce shrinkage and
increase the flexural and tensile strengths, cracking resistance, and
thermal insulation properties when used with an optimum length and
content ratio. The mechanical characterization and performance eval­
uation of earth bricks or adobe bricks reinforced with various plant-
based natural fibers, such as straw [26–30], barley [31], rice husk
[32], hemp [33], sisal [34], flax [35], and jute [36], have been per­
formed in the past few decades by some researchers. Various agricul­
tural waste of plant fibers (with optimum length), such as coconut
(50 mm), bagasse (80 mm), and oil palm fibers (38 mm), were proposed
as reinforcement (0.5% optimum content) in earth bricks for low-cost
housings in Ghana [37].
Straw fibers are the most used natural fibers in constructing different
structural members [38]. Based on the stress-strain curves obtained from
the straw-reinforced earth bricks tests, constitutive equations were
developed for various percentiles of the normal stress under static load
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Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364
[39]. Moreover, empirical equations to predict fracture energy based on
the compressive strength were proposed. The average compressive and
tensile strengths of the straw-reinforced earth brick were around
2.84 MPa and 0.35 MPa, respectively, based on the presented literature.
The dynamic performance and the rate-dependent constitutive behavior
of the earth brick reinforced with a mix of wooden and straw fiber were
also investigated using the split Hopkinson test under various strain
rates [40]. It was found that Spanish broom [41] and seagrass-reinforced
[42] adobe bricks performed better mechanically and thermally as
compared to straw-reinforced adobe bricks. Recent research investi­
gated the effects of sisal (Agave sisalana), hemp (Cannabis sativa), co­
conut (Cocos nucifera), banana (Musa), palm (Arecaceae), pineapple
(Ananas comosus), flax (Linum usitatissimum), wood chips, rice husk,
and alfa fibers in earth and adobe bricks. An approach to developing
artificial neural networks based on the data available for natural fibers
in literature was implemented to predict the compressive and tensile
strengths of the natural fiber-reinforced earth blocks [43]. The perfor­
mance of sorghum stalks and fibers in earth brick and cement blocks was
K. Saini et al.
investigated for potential use in low-cost single-story housing with low
levels of loading [44]. In this study, the nonlinear and linear stress-strain
behaviors were obtained for sorghum stalks and fibers, respectively. The
stalks maintain the fiber integrity; therefore, progressive failure of fibers
leads to nonlinear behavior. Thus, the use of stalks can be preferred over
fibers. Additionally, the importance of the porosity consideration of the
stalks and fibers is studied. The mechanical properties and thermal
conductivity of the alfa fiber-reinforced earth brick increase and
decrease due to the addition of the fibers, respectively [45]. The per­
formance of structural walls with straw bales was investigated by
Magwood et al. [46] and Peng et al. [47]. The in-plane and out-of-plane
behaviors of the walls were assessed with and without lime plaster. The
authors attributed the improved load-carrying capacity of the wall to the
plaster [47]. It was observed that natural fibers also helped in improving
the water resistance of earth bricks [48]. Detailed fracture analysis of the
flax fiber-reinforced earth concrete was performed using digital image
correlation and acoustic emission techniques [49]. Therefore, it can be
concluded that natural fibers improve the performance of the natural
fiber-reinforced earth brick compared to the unreinforced earth brick.
2.2. Natural fibers in cementitious composites
The performance of cement composites reinforced with plant-based
fibers, such as bamboo, coir, jute, sisal, flax, hemp, palm, banana,
kenaf, eucalyptus, kelp, and straws, were investigated by various re­
searchers [50–52]. Lesser crack development and better anchorage
development were observed in the case of the flax-reinforced cement
composite than sisal and glass-reinforced cement composite [53]. The
effects of adding sisal fibers in cement mortar in terms of improved
flexural strength and crack and shrinkage resistance are observed [54,
55]. Also, a delay in the corrosion of steel rebar was observed due to sisal
fibers in hybrid sisal and steel-reinforced cement composite. The
improvement in tensile and flexure strengths of sisal fabric and sisal
fibers reinforced cement composite panels were assessed [56,57],
respectively. The flexural behavior of the cement beam reinforced with
hemp fiber grids in six layers with latex and resin coatings was inves­
tigated and compared to the strength of the plain cement beam [58]. The
improvement in the strength and bond strength of the fiber-reinforced
cement composite was observed due to resin coating and latex
coating, respectively. The addition of banana, jute, eucalyptus, and sisal
fibers leads to an increment in fracture resistance [59] in natural
fiber-reinforced cementitious composite panels. The advantages of crack
arresting and bridging by natural fibers to prevent cracks were reported
by some researchers [55,60].
Moreover, natural fiber cement composites, such as coconut fiber-
reinforced cement sheets, are shown to have better thermal insulation
properties as compared to the commercially used heat insulation sheets
available in the market [61]. The cementitious composites with rice
husk [62] and jute fibers [63] demonstrated good thermal insulation
properties. A study showed that the autogenous healing properties of
natural fiber-reinforced cement composites could be a new direction for
environment-friendly and sustainable structures [64]. The enhancement
in strength, interfacial bond, and durability was observed due to the
surface treatment of the natural fibers in cementitious composites [65].
The surface treatments NaOH and AlCl3 were found to be effective for
hemp fibers [65]. Through scanning electron microscope (SEM) anal­
ysis, it was found that hemp fibers possess good adherence (bond) to
cement due to their geometrical shape [66]. The better performance of
the natural fiber-reinforced lime mortar over cement mortar was
observed [67]. Additionally, limestone-calcined clay cement as an
alternative to cement in natural fiber cement composites could also help
in reducing greenhouse gas emissions [68]. Hence, it can be said that
natural fiber-reinforced cementitious composites can be used in struc­
tural applications (with surface treatments of the fibers) due to their
aforementioned advantageous properties.
4
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364
Fig. 4. Optimum volume content ratio and length of natural fibers for natural
fiber-reinforced concrete.
2.3. Natural fibers in concrete
The mechanical characterization of concrete reinforced with various
natural fibers, such as jute, hemp, sisal, bamboo, flax, kenaf, and many
more plant-based fibers, has been evaluated by some researchers.
Compressive, tensile, and flexural properties of the natural fiber-
reinforced concrete (NFRC) are required to evaluate the feasibility of
using NFRC for structural members. Some researchers presented the
improvement in the properties of the concrete due to various natural
fibers [69–74]. Moreover, optimum design parameters (length and
content ratio of natural fiber) for natural fiber-reinforced concrete were
recommended. These optimum parameters (obtained from literature,
presented in subsequent sections) are presented in the form of bar
charts, as shown in Fig. 4.
2.3.1. Jute (Corchorus olitorius) fibers
The tensile, compressive, and flexural strengths of the jute fiber-
reinforced concrete with various lengths and content of fibers in the
concrete mix were assessed by many researchers [75–78], experimen­
tally. They inferred that the use of optimum fiber length (< 15 mm) and
optimum fiber content (< 0.25% of mix volume) led to significant
improvement in the properties of the concrete. It was found that an
increment in cement content increased the strength of jute
fiber-reinforced concrete. Moreover, the addition of jute fibers increased
the resistance to crack propagation and improved the tensile,
compressive, and flexural strengths of the concrete compared to that of
plain concrete.
The fracture resistance of the jute fiber-reinforced concrete under
individual and combined tension and shear loadings was evaluated by
[76]. It was found that the extent of cracking is greater under mode II as
compared to mode I and combined modes. Nonlinear empirical models
were also proposed to assess the mechanical properties of the jute
fiber-reinforced concrete using response surface methodology (RSM),
artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), and
response surface methodology coupled with crow search algorithm
(CSA) computational approaches [79,80], respectively. The SVR
approach provided accurate results as compared to the other ap­
proaches, so this approach can be used effectively to analyze the me­
chanical properties of the jute fiber-reinforced concrete [80]. A CSA
approach was used to estimate the optimal design parameters (fiber
length, fiber content, and water-cement ratio) with respect to the ob­
tained strength of the jute fiber-reinforced concrete [79].
2.3.2. Sisal (Agave sisalana) fibers
The tensile, compressive, and flexural strengths of the sisal fiber-
K. Saini et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

reinforced concrete were evaluated by some researchers [81–83]. They

observed 30 mm length and < 2% content of sisal fiber (with respect to
volume of mixture) as optimum parameters for the design of cement
composite. Their studies demonstrated that sisal fiber contributes to the
increment of tensile and flexural strengths of the fiber-reinforced con­
crete significantly. A comparison between sisal and
polypropylene-reinforced concrete was made [84]. It was observed that
the increment in the tensile and compressive strength due to sisal fibers
is higher than due to polypropylene fibers. They inferred that natural
fibers could be used as an alternative to plastic fibers. Hybridization of
Fig. 5. Natural fiber-reinforced concrete beam strengthened with natural
fibers in reinforced concrete has become a norm for better performance
fiber wrap.
and durability of the reinforced concrete structure. A hybrid combina­
tion of sisal and coir fiber-reinforced concrete (HRC) was compared with
Moreover, a reduction in compressive strength and elastic modulus of
individual sisal fiber-reinforced concrete (SRC) and coir fiber-reinforced
the concrete was noted. However, hemp fiber-reinforced concrete
concrete (CRC) [85]. The highest tensile and compressive strengths were
showed increased strength and durability for optimum fiber content and
observed in the case of HRC, followed by CRC and SRC in sequential
length with the treated surface.
order.

2.3.7. Other fibers

2.3.3. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) fibers
The mechanical behavior and strength assessment of the concrete
The behavior of concrete reinforced with coconut fibers was
reinforced with fibers, e. g., banana, palm, kenaf, coir, roselle, sugar
explored by some researchers [86–89]. They have assessed the tensile,
cane bagasse, and agricultural waste, are investigated by some re­
compressive, and flexural strengths of the fiber-reinforced concrete with
searchers [21,103–106]. Banana pseudostem fiber was not found to be a
various lengths and contents of the fiber in concrete. Based on property
preferable choice for polymer-reinforced concrete [107], as no
tests, they inferred that lengths < 50 mm and fiber content < 1.5% of
improvement in the compressive strength of the concrete was observed.
volume are observed to be the optimal parameters for obtaining
However, an increment in tensile and flexural strengths for the fiber was
enhanced compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths of the concrete.
observed with an optimum banana fiber content of 2% of the volume
Further increment in the fiber content beyond the optimum limit leads
mixture. The behavior of concrete masonry blocks (for lightweight with
to a reduction in the compressive strength of the concrete due to the
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle) was investigated with lechu­
development of the weak transition zone around the fibers.
guilla fibers (optimum fiber content 0.5–0.75%). It was observed that
0.75% of the fiber with a 25 mm length led to a 10% increment in the
2.3.4. Bamboo (Bambusoideae) fibers
compressive strength of the concrete as compared to plain concrete. The
Bamboo is a very commonly used natural fiber for various structural
effects of coir fibers on high-strength (HS) and normal-strength (NS)
applications. Currently, bamboo-reinforced structural members are still
concrete were assessed [108]. Adding coir fibers leads to a reduction in
used in urban areas of bamboo-rich countries, China, India, Bangladesh,
the compressive strength and an increment in the tensile and flexural
and Brazil. Some researchers [18,90] showed the use of bamboo in
strengths in both normal and high-strength concretes, considering coir
concrete in various forms, such as bamboo strips and culms. A detailed
fiber content of 0.5% and 1%. The fracture and flexural strengths of the
study on the mechanical and thermal properties and performance of
concrete with coir fibers were found to be higher as compared to the
bamboo-reinforced concrete has been assessed [91,92]. The optimum
other natural fiber-reinforced concrete. Additionally, the coir-reinforced
content of the bamboo fibers for achieving maximum compressive and
concrete beam (1.5% optimum content with respect to the weight of
tensile strengths of the reinforced concrete was observed as 0.5% [93,
cement) showed improved ductility and energy absorption due to the
94]. A comparison between the performance of the bamboo-reinforced
enhanced fracture strength [109]. A machine learning algorithm was
concrete with steel-reinforced concrete for the structure was made
developed to estimate the tensile strength, compressive strength, den­
[91,95]. Also, life cycle assessments of steel and bamboo reinforced
sity, and water absorption capacity of palm fiber-reinforced concrete
structures incorporating the total carbon emissions were compared [91].
[110]. Kenaf fibers require a rich cement mix compared to the con­
It was observed that bamboo could be used as reinforcement in
ventional concrete mix, which has the disadvantage of high CO2 emis­
load-bearing structural members with enhanced performance (interfa­
sions from the cement industry [104].
cial bond, strength, and durability) through surface treatments.
The concrete reinforced with a hybrid combination of natural and
synthetic fibers shows higher strength and durability as compared to the
2.3.5. Flax (Linum usitatissimum) fibers
concrete reinforced with individual fibers. The performance of rein­
The feasibility of using flax fiber-reinforced concrete for structures
forced concrete with a combination of steel and sisal and abaca and steel
was explored [96]. The effects of flax fiber on the strength and toughness
fibers was compared [111]. It was found that concrete mix with abaca is
of the reinforced concrete were analyzed. The fiber length of 30 mm was
more efficient than with sisal; also, a hybrid combination of abaca and
reported as optimum for the improved strength of the flax
steel reinforcement provided higher tensile and flexural strengths of the
fiber-reinforced concrete structural members. The optimum fiber con­
concrete than that of the combination of sisal and steel fibers. The hybrid
tent of 0.3% (with respect to volume mix) was reported as effective in
combinations of coir (volume fraction of 0.2%) and Polyvinyl alcohol
increasing the flexural and tensile strengths of the reinforced concrete
(volume fraction of 0.3% content) helped in increasing the durability,
[97,98]. Moreover, these fibers increase energy absorption capacity and
strength, impact, and abrasion resistance of the concrete [112]. Further,
mitigate shrinkage.
an increment in the load-carrying capacity could be achieved with sisal
fabric wrap (approximately 43%) around the natural fiber-reinforced
2.3.6. Hemp (Cannabis sativa) fibers
beam (shown in Fig. 5) as compared to the plain concrete.
The performance of the concrete reinforced with hemp fibers was
The behavior of the natural fiber-reinforced concrete beam-column
investigated by some researchers [99,100] to show the improved flex­
joint connections was studied [73]. The connection made with natural
ural and fracture strengths, ductility, thermal, freeze, and thaw resis­
fiber-reinforced concrete showed higher stiffness, ductility, energy ab­
tance properties as compared to that of plain concrete. The effect of
sorption, and load-carrying capacity compared to the steel-reinforced
treatments, such as alkali, acetyl, silane, and Ca(OH)2, on hemp fibers
concrete connections. The compressive strengths of the concrete
over untreated hemp fibers in concrete was compared [101,102].

5
K. Saini et al.
Fig. 6. Natural fiber as a reinforcement in concrete structural members, (a) natural fiber rebars as main longitudinal reinforcement and (b) natural fabric reinforced
polymer (NFRP) composite as stirrups.
columns reinforced with rice husk, wheat husk, coconut fibers, and
wood fibers were compared [113]. The highest load-carrying capacity
with rice husk reinforcement and the lowest ductility and debonding
with coconut fibers were reported. For improved flexural strength and
water retention, sugarcane residues were proposed in interlocking
concrete blocks [114]. The damage performance of concrete with
alkali-treated pine needle fibers (content 0.5–2% of mixture volume)
was observed to be the highest compared to concrete reinforced with tap
water and boiling water-treated fibers [115].
Moreover, the behavior of foam and lightweight aggregate concrete
reinforced with various natural fibers, such as coir, bamboo, abaca,
bagasse, banana, sisal, flax, eucalyptus, and henequen fibers were
investigated [116–118]. The chopped natural fibers in concrete helped
reduce the shrinkage and increase the toughness and strength of the
concrete. Based on the above review, the various plant-based natural
fibers can be highly effective when used with concrete to enhance the
performance of reinforced concrete structures.
2.4. Natural fibers in polymer composites
Natural fiber composite (NFC) beams and columns have been
considered the most beneficial for large-span structures due to consid­
erable weight savings. Additionally, natural fibers have the advantage of
corrosion resistivity as compared to steel fibers. Several studies pre­
sented the mechanical characterization and use of various natural fiber-
reinforced polymer composites for structures [5,119–124]. Also, theo­
retical models for mechanical properties [125–130] and for different
behavior [131,132] of natural fiber-reinforced composites were devel­
oped. Some researchers investigated the behavior of various natural
fiber composites, such as pineapple [133], cotton [133], sisal [134],
artichokes [135], roselle [136], and flax [137,138]. Other studies
focused on the durability, water absorption [139], and various pro­
cessing techniques [140,141] of natural fiber composites. A detailed
review showed the applicability of natural fiber composites for infra­
structure applications [142]. Moreover, various challenges related to the
interfacial bond strength of the fibers, mechanical properties, durability,
hybridization, processing techniques, and fire resistance of the natural
fiber composites were highlighted by Dittenber and GangaRao [142],
Fan [143], and Khan et al. [144]. The bamboo-reinforced polymer
composites were used for walls, roofs, beams [145], and columns [146]
of green structures, especially in countries like India, China, and
Bangladesh, where extensive bamboo forests are available. The
enhanced performance of the bamboo polymer composite beams as
compared to that of the conventional wooden beams was observed for
structural applications [147,148]. The dynamic modulus and moisture
effect on bamboo composites were investigated for varying densities of
the biocomposites [149]. The low-density bamboo composite had less
strength and was more susceptible to moisture effects. The performance
of natural fiber-reinforced composites was observed to be comparable to
synthetic fiber-reinforced composites.
The performance of the flax fiber-reinforced polymer composites
6
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364
(FFRP) was compared with glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)
composites [150]. In the case of flexural, FFRP showed better perfor­
mance than GFRP. However, in the case of tension, FFRP was not rec­
ommended over GFRP due to lesser tensile strength. Therefore, some
researchers explored the performance of hybrid fiber composites, i.e., a
hybrid of banana and sisal fibers [151]. The hybrid composites of nat­
ural and synthetic fibers, such as kenaf and carbon hybrid composite
plate [152] and natural and glass fibers [153], show improved me­
chanical properties and strength of the composite as compared to the
natural fiber composites. The net tension, cleavage, shear out, and
bearing were observed as major failures in the composites (glass and
flax, flax, and glass fibers) under bearing tensile tests [154]. To use glass
and flax fiber composites for mechanical pin connection, the ratio of
elastic modulus and weight with respect to the hole diameter should be
2.4 and 3.1, respectively.
A study on the mechanical and thermal properties and applicability
of the less common fibers, such as Marran and Napier grass, Grewia
optiva, Arundo donax, Isora, quadrangularis, Sansevieria cylindrica
(snake plant) reinforced composites were analyzed by Sarasini and Fiore
[155]. The mechanical behavior of flax fabric reinforced polymer
composite plate was assessed analytically and numerically with varying
angles of plies [156]. It was observed that the stiffness of unidirectional
laminate was higher as compared to the cross-ply and angle-ply lami­
nates. A detailed study of the physical and mechanical characterizations,
applications, processing techniques, and life cycle assessment of the
natural fiber composites was presented [157]. Also, the challenges
associated with natural fiber composites, such as the weak bond be­
tween natural fiber and matrix, low fire and impact resistance, and low
durability, were highlighted.
A study presented the effect of creep, moisture, fatigue, and fire on
natural fiber composites [158]. Moreover, the mechanical, physical, and
thermal properties of natural fiber and adhesives were studied with the
manufacturing and processing of natural fiber or biocomposites to assess
the feasibility of their use for various purposes. Therefore, it can be seen
from the section that various natural fiber-reinforced polymer compos­
ites can be used for various structural purposes as per their mechanical,
physical, and thermal properties.
3. Applications of natural fibers for structural members
There are few studies that show the use of natural fibers as a main
structural component, as presented in subsequent sections. Natural fi­
bers can be used as a main structural component or for strengthening of
structures. The uses of natural fibers as main reinforcements and for
strengthening the structural members are highlighted in the following
sections.
3.1. Main reinforcement of structures
Bamboo is one of the plant-based natural fibers most used for
housing in rural areas due to its high stiffness and strength and the
K. Saini et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

advantage of being easy to use for functionally graded products. The

behavior of structural members such as bamboo reinforced columns was
assessed [18], as shown in Fig. 6(a), and concrete slabs with permanent
bamboo shutters experimentally. The strength of the Negrolin-sand
treated bamboo reinforced beam (BRB) (with 3.33% and 5.0%
bamboo reinforcement) of 3.4 m was compared with that of the steel
reinforced beam (SRB) (with 0.78% steel reinforcement) [70]. The
deflection of the BRB was observed to be higher than the SRB because
the elastic modulus of bamboo is approximately 1/15th times the elastic
modulus of steel. Also, fewer cracks were observed in BRB as compared
to SRB. The treated nonwoven flax-reinforced cementitious composite
was proposed for ventilation façade walls [159]. They demonstrated a
significant reduction in carbon footprint as compared to the conven­
tional materials used for façade walls, such as wood, aluminum,
ceramic, and stone. The performance of the natural fiber composites
reinforced with prestressed jute and flax strands was compared [160]
theoretically and experimentally. Due to the better tensile properties of
the flax fibers, the flexural and tensile strengths of the composites
reinforced with flax strands were observed to be higher as compared to
the solid, unreinforced, and jute-reinforced composites.
Natural fiber fabric-based composites are proposed as reinforcement
in concrete, cement, masonry, and timber structures [161]. Moreover, a
detailed study on various fiber and matric treatments and hybridization
to enhance the durability of the composite was conducted. Some re­
searchers [162–164] presented the possibility of using banana fiber re­
bars (12–18 mm diameters) as a reinforcement in concrete beams
(similar arrangement shown in Fig. 6(a)) of length 1 m. These rebars
were made of banana waste produced in Egypt. Further, the perfor­
mance of the concrete beam (reinforcement 0.7–1.5%) was analyzed
numerically and experimentally [162,164]. Moreover, the concrete
beams reinforced with banana fiber bars, a hybrid of banana and glass
fiber bars, and steel bars were compared numerically and experimen­ Fig. 7. Strengthening of the structural members, (a) concrete column with
tally. The banana reinforcements increased the strength of the beam by natural fiber rope reinforced polymer (NFRP) composite wrap and (b) masonry
25% as compared to the plain concrete beam. Additionally, wall with cement and natural fabric composite layers.
banana-reinforced beams showed 60% flexural strength as compared to
that of the steel-reinforced beams. The hybrid combination of glass and members was investigated by Sen and Reddy [172] and Salih et al.
banana reinforcement resulted in 25% reduction in ultimate load ca­ [173]. A 25–43% increment in the flexural capacity of the beams
pacity and an approximately 110% increment in the ultimate displace­ wrapped with jute fabric was reported as compared to the unwrapped
ment capacity (ductility) of the beam as compared to that of the beams [174]. Akid et al. [175] also reported a 40–56% increment in the
glass-reinforced beams. The predominant failure of beams occurs due flexural capacity of the corroded reinforced beams due to strengthening
to the rupture of banana rebars. Therefore, concrete strength had a less with a jute fiber-reinforced polymer (JFRP) composite. The performance
significant effect on the strength of the beams. of a masonry wall strengthened with the jute fabric reinforced cement
The behavior of reinforced concrete beams was investigated with mortar (JFRCM) and JFRP composite was compared [176]. The flexural
flax fabric as stirrups [165], as the arrangement shown in Fig. 6(b). They strength and energy absorption capacity of the masonry walls with JFRP
also highlighted the importance of the natural fiber stirrups in terms of composite were recorded to be higher than the masonry walls with
cradle-to-gate processes and compared the life cycle assessment of the JFRCM. Moreover, brick crushing was observed as a predominant failure
natural fiber and steel reinforcements. It was observed that natural fiber than the delamination made of failure in the unstrengthen wall.
fabric composite stirrups improve the shear capacity of the beam and The flax fiber-based cementitious composite in multiple layers
reduce carbon emission significantly as compared to steel stirrups. improved the strength of the masonry walls [177,178], as shown in
However, the use of resin for the composite has a negative impact on the Fig. 7(b), subjected to concentric and eccentric loads significantly.
environment. From this section, it can be observed that natural fibers Additionally, the flax fabric-reinforced cementitious composite system
can be used as the main reinforcement of the structural members in improved the ductility of the masonry structure subjected to compres­
various forms to improve the performance of their structural members. sion loads with large eccentricities. A study was conducted to investigate
the use of natural fibers for strengthening masonry structures that could
3.2. Strengthening of structures be implemented for cultural heritage buildings [179]. Also, a way of
using flax fabric in masonry ring beams was proposed to strengthen
Strengthening or retrofitting of the structural members in the case of heritage buildings [180]. The effective use of the flax fiber composites
the additional applied loads and extreme loads is a prevalent practice. was demonstrated for strengthening structural members [181,182].
Some researchers [166–170] investigated the use of natural fiber in Some researchers analyzed the behavior of the natural fiber-
various forms, such as rope, reinforcement for cement, concrete and reinforced structural members strengthened with natural fiber wrap or
polymer composites, and fabric for strengthening of structural members. laminate, as shown in Fig. 5. The behavior of the coir-reinforced beam
Coir and hemp fiber ropes were used in multiple layers with epoxy to and column strengthened with flax fabric-reinforced polymer (FFRP)
provide confinement around concrete columns [171], the arrangement composite was investigated [183,184]. It was found that coir rein­
shown in Fig. 7(a). A significant improvement in axial strength and forcement helped with crack control, energy dissipation, and the
ductility of the columns due to the confinement was observed. post-peak softening response of the load-displacement curve, and FFRP
The effect of jute fiber wrap on the strengthening of concrete increased the flexural strength and fracture energy of the beam as

7
K. Saini et al.
compared to the plain concrete beam. Similarly, an increment in the
load-carrying capacity of the sisal fiber-reinforced column strengthened
with jute fiber wrap was observed [185]. Similarly, bamboo strips were
used effectively to strengthen bamboo (rebars) reinforced masonry walls
[186]. The impact of the bamboo reinforcement in the mortar was
observed to be higher than that of bamboo strips to enhance the
load-carrying capacity, energy dissipation, and ductility of the wall.
Also, the improved performance of the sisal fiber-reinforced recycled
aggregate concrete column strengthened with jute fiber-reinforced
polymer composite wraps was obtained [187].
The performance of structural members, such as columns strength­
ened with a hybrid of glass and sisal fabric polymer composite wraps and
jute and polyester polymer composite sheets, was investigated [188,
189], respectively. The confinement with the composites resulted in a
high increase in the axial load-carrying capacity of the columns. Further,
an increment in the number of layers of wraps led to an increment in the
strength and ultimate strain of the column. The performance of beams
strengthened carbon fiber polymer composite (CFRP) with natural fiber
polymer composite (NFRP) of kenaf, jute fibers, and jute rope, and jute
and flax natural fibers were compared [190,191], respectively. The
performance of the beam strengthened with NFRP can be compared with
that of CFRP if seven times of CFRP area is used for strengthening for
NFRP. However, the required epoxy for the NFRP reduced the advantage
of the natural fibers for the environment over CFRP. The performance of
the prestressed hollow concrete core slab strengthened with bamboo
laminates was assessed experimentally [192]. The bamboo laminates
were implemented with two configurations, namely plain pressed and
side pressed. In the case of reinforcement ratios lesser than 4.8% and
greater than 4.8%, flexural and shear failures were observed predomi­
nantly in respective cases. A study showed that a reinforced concrete
beam strengthened with sisal fabric polymer (SFRP) composite laminate
results in improved flexural strength of the beam with reduced ductility
of the beam due to the delamination [193]. They also proposed
anchoring of SFRP to prevent delamination and to improve the ductility
of the reinforced concrete beam as compared to the plain concrete beam.
Moreover, the increase in the ultimate load of the laminate with epoxy
resin was observed more than the laminate with polyester. Based on
these studies, it can be concluded that natural fibers, such as bamboo,
sisal, flax, jute, coir, hemp, and kenaf fibers, can effectively be used for
the strengthening or retrofitting of the structure in various forms.
4. Response of natural fiber-reinforced structural members
under extreme loadings
There have been limited studies on the use of natural fibers for a
response of natural fiber-reinforced structures subjected to extreme
dynamic and thermal loadings. Data from these studies can be used to
evaluate the behavior of the natural fibers under extreme load, and the
most suitable natural fiber can be chosen for the construction. The
section focuses on the response and performance of the natural fiber-
reinforced structures under extreme loading conditions.
4.1. Earthquake
The flexibility or ductility of the structure is one of the determining
factors for the performance of the structure under earthquake shaking.
The increment in the flexibility and compressive strength of the earth
bricks reinforced with natural fibers was observed compared to that of
the unreinforced bricks in Section 2.1. The high ductility of natural fiber-
reinforced earth bricks, cement composites, and mortar made them
preferable for earthquake resistance building units [27,194,195],
respectively. The seismic performance of the bamboo portal frame was
estimated using pushover analysis for earthquake-resistant bamboo
structures [196]. The frame showed high lateral drift with no cata­
strophic failure under pushover loading.
A study on coconut fiber-reinforced concrete conducted by Ali et al.
8
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364
Fig. 8. Natural fiber rope reinforcement for mortar free wall interlocking block
under gravity and earthquake loadings.
[197] reported the reduction in both static and dynamic elastic moduli
of the concrete with increments in the coconut fiber length and content.
Moreover, an increment in damping ratio and reduction in fundamental
frequency were obtained with the increment in fiber content, which
represents good performance under dynamic load (i.e., earthquake). The
use of coconut fiber was also proposed as ropes for vertical re­
inforcements in interlocking mortar-free block walls for
earthquake-resistant affordable houses [198], as represented in Fig. 8.
The in-plane and out-of-plane movements and responses of the wall are
controlled by vertical rope reinforcements. They also proposed an
empirical relation equation for the tensile behavior of the coconut rope.
A reduction in the bond strength and increment in the pullout energy
was reported with increasing embedment length and diameter of the
rope. In a similar study, an empirical relation was also proposed to assess
the tensile load of coconut-reinforced mortar-free block wall in terms of
peak ground acceleration of the earthquake loading, which had a sig­
nificant difference in estimating the structural response [199]. Addi­
tionally, the predominant failure, rope tension followed by uplift of
blocks, was observed under applied earthquake excitation.
4.2. Impact
Some researchers assessed the performance of the natural fiber-
reinforced structural members subjected to impact. Mainly, the tough­
ness and impact resistance of the structural member have been consid­
ered as governing parameters. The increment in toughness and impact
strength of the palm tree leaves reinforced concrete beam was compa­
rable to the glass fiber-reinforced beam [200]. Jute and steel
fiber-reinforced slabs showed higher crack resistance as compared to the
jute-reinforced slabs. The addition of jute fibers leads to an increment in
fracture and impact resistance of natural fiber-reinforced cementitious
composite panels [201]. The hemp-reinforced composite with maleated
polyethylene adding 10% ground tire rubber powder led to a 50%
increment in the impact strength of the composite [202]. Nurazzi et al.
[203] reported that the impact strength of the natural fiber-reinforced
composites is close to the Kevlar and aramid-reinforced polymer com­
posites. Therefore, natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites can be
used for structures as an alternative to synthetic fiber-reinforced poly­
mer composites under impact. The behavior of the pre-cracked coir-­
reinforced beam with the strengthening of flax fiber-reinforced polymer
(FFRP) wraps was investigated [182]. The strengthening increased the
impact resistance force from 6 kN to over 50 kN. In addition, debonding
of FFRP was observed as a predominant failure, which should be
prevented.
Some researchers investigated the impact performance of the struc­
tural member reinforced with hybrid fibers. The impact resistance and
K. Saini et al.
Fig. 9. Bamboo strip reinforcement in concrete panel.
dynamic properties of the jute fiber-reinforced slabs and the hybrid of
jute and steel-reinforced slabs were assessed with impact heights of
60 cm and 90 cm via drop-weight test [204]. The highest increment
(approximately six to seven times) in impact resistance through the use
of the hybrid of jute and steel reinforced was recorded, followed by steel
reinforced, jute reinforced, and plain concrete slabs. Moreover, empir­
ical relations were developed to evaluate the impact resistance of the
jute fiber-reinforced concrete slabs. The impact resistance of walls
reinforced with a hybrid of glass and jute fibers, steel and glass fibers,
steel and jute fibers, and steel fibers were compared by undertaking
comparative tests [205]. The highest impact resistance was reported in
walls reinforced with jute and glass fibers, followed by jute and steel
fibers. It was observed that the impact resistance of a hybrid (various
natural fibers or synthetic and natural fibers) reinforced polymer com­
posite is higher than compared to the single natural fiber-reinforced
composite [206–209]. A reduction in the impact resistance of the
hybrid basalt and hemp fiber composite with an increment in temper­
ature (30–50 ◦ C) was observed [206]. Additionally, a higher strength of
the hybrid composite was observed as compared to the hemp fiber
composites. The observed compressive and impact strengths of the
hybrid coir and glass fiber-reinforced concrete were higher as compared
to the plain, coir, and glass fiber-reinforced concrete found [210]. It was
also shown that hybrid natural fiber composites with treated natural
fibers could be a sustainable, effective, and durable solution under
impact loading [211].
4.3. Fire
Fire or elevated temperature exposure are common possible hazards
in housing due to accidents such as fires or vandalism. Natural fibers are
highly combustible and thus highly susceptible to burning under fire
exposure. Therefore, assessing the behavior and improving the fire
performance of the natural fiber-reinforced structures is necessary. A
recent study presented various test methods to assess the mechanical
and thermal properties of the bio-based polymer composites under
elevated temperature exposure (20–600 ◦ C) [212] and the requirement
of fire resistance for biocomposite structural members [213]. The per­
formance of various natural fiber-reinforced composites was reported by
some researchers. Manfredi et al. [214] reported the lower performance
of sisal fiber-reinforced composites and better performance of jute and
flax fiber-reinforced composites under fire. The fire resistance of the
biocomposites was found to be comparatively less than the glass com­
posite; however, the carbon di-oxide gas emission was higher in the case
of the glass composite. The performance of hemp-reinforced concrete
was assessed at elevated temperatures up to 400 ◦ C, and partial disin­
tegration of the hemp fibers was observed [215]. Therefore, only
non-disintegrated hemp fibers in concrete helped in improving the
strength of the concrete subjected to elevated temperature.
The use of coconut, pinewood, and rattan fibers reinforced cement
9
Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364
composite was explored for thermal insulating walls and structural di­
aphragms specific to areas in Gujarat (India) and Gorkha (Nepal) for
affordable and comfortable housing at temperatures where summer goes
up to 50 ◦ C [194]. A significant improvement in thermal conductivity
was observed compared to conventional materials. The applicability of
natural fibers (jute, coconut, sisal, and sugarcane) was also assessed for
the tropical areas of South Asian countries where the temperature goes
around 50 ◦ C by evaluating the thermal stability of the fiber-reinforced
concrete [216]. A higher thermal instability was reported in the case of
the lightweight concrete reinforced with sugarcane and jute fibers
compared to sisal and coconut fibers at 50 ◦ C. The performance of
cement mortar panels reinforced with interwoven bamboo strips, as
shown in Fig. 9, was investigated at various temperatures, 100 ◦ C,
200 ◦ C, 300 ◦ C, and 400 ◦ C [217]. The effects of elevated temperature
were observed in various forms, such as up to 200 ◦ C insignificant
disintegration of bamboo, at 300 ◦ C color change and brittleness in
bamboo, at 400 ◦ C charred bamboo strips, up to 70%. The effect of
elevated temperatures on the performance of jute fiber-reinforced con­
crete and coconut fiber-reinforced concrete was explored at up to
800 ◦ C, and 250 ◦ C and 150 ◦ C by Zhang et al. [218] and Bamigboye
et al. [219], respectively. The main effects observed under elevated
temperatures are disintegration, weight loss, change in permeability,
charring, and degradation in strength.
The use of fire retardants helps in increasing the fire-resistant
properties of natural fiber composites. Various fire retardants, such as
ammonium phosphate, can be used to enhance the fire performance of
the natural fiber composite structural members [220–222]. Fire re­
tardants such as aluminum trihydrate reduced the heat release rate from
361 kW/m2 to 176 kW/m2 on hemp fiber-reinforced composite [223]. A
study by Sankar and Singh [224] also highlighted the improved impact
and fire resistance of the natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
with fiber treatment and fire retardants, respectively. Moreover,
compressive strength and elastic modulus were reduced with an incre­
ment in the moisture content. Therefore, fire retardants and
fire-resistant coatings that protect natural fiber-reinforced structural
members can perform effectively under elevated temperature exposure,
as encountered in building fires.
5. Durability of natural fiber-reinforced structural members
The short-term and long-term durability of natural fibers with con­
crete, cement, and polymer composites is one of the challenges with
their use for structures. Therefore, many researchers investigated the
durability of natural fibers when used in construction applications. Air
cure and aging effects of the natural fiber (about 2% fiber content) (coir,
eucalyptus, and both eucalyptus and sisal) reinforced cement compos­
ites were investigated for roofing tiles and wall panels used for a pro­
totype house of 20 m2 in Sao Paulo city of Brazil [225]. The reduction in
modulus of rupture, warping, and dampness was observed for the
short-term and long-term (16 and 60 months) effects. Also, using
alternative binders such as ground granulated blast furnace slag with a
controlled alkaline environment improved the durability of
coir-reinforced cement composite. A comparative study was conducted
on coir, sisal, jute, and Hibiscus cannabinus fibers reinforced cement
mortar under a wetting and drying cycle for 60 days [226]. The results
showed that coir fibers retained the highest strength as compared to
other natural fibers after 60 days. The effect of seawater on coconut
fiber-reinforced concrete was investigated by Ramli et al. [227]. They
observed that increasing the fiber content increased natural degradation
and proposed a 1.2% optimum content of the fibers for better durability.
A new model was proposed to estimate the degradation of the physical
and mechanical properties of sisal fibers in cementitious composites
[228]. Also, an improvement in the durability of sisal fiber-reinforced
cementitious composites was reported with the addition of 30 wt%
metakaolin in the composites. The short-term durability of hemp fibers
confined to concrete was assessed [229] with the process of the wetting
K. Saini et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

and drying cycles of 1800 hrs. An insignificant change in the strength Table 3
and ductility of the natural fiber-reinforced concrete was obtained. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from production of different natural fiber-
Reducing natural fiber content up to the optimum value of 1.5% (for açaí reinforced polymer composites [258–262].
fibers) could be an effective way of improving the durability of the S. Biocomposite GHG Emission Reference
natural fiber-reinforced composite with increased strength compared to N. (kg CO2 eq./ton
plain cement composite [230]. natural fiber)

Various strategies for improving the durability of natural fibers for
construction were proposed by some researchers. Adding silica fume
was presented as a solution to improve the durability of the cellulosic
fiber-reinforced cement mortar composite [231,232]. The treatment of
NaOH on the surface of jute and flax fibers resulted in improved dura­
bility [233,234]. The paraffin-treated lecheguilla fiber with pozzolana
admixture in Portland cement composites performed well under adverse
conditions compared to the nontreated fiber-reinforced cement com­
posites [235]. Dávila-Pompermayer et al. [236] also assessed the per­
formance of the lecheguilla-reinforced self-compacting concrete with
water absorption. Replacing Portland cement with calcined clay in sisal
fibers reinforced cement composite and with blast furnace slag in coir
fibers reinforced cement composite was proposed to be an effective way
of increasing the durability of the composites [237,238]. The long
bamboo fibers presented high durability after immersing in a cement
matrix [239]. Fire retardants and ultraviolet stabilizers can be used to
prevent the natural fiber-reinforced composite if they are in direct
contact with the adverse environment [240,241]. Some researchers
[228,242] demonstrated that thermal and Na2Co3 treatments of the
natural fiber surfaces effectively improve durability. Also, the effect of
humidity variation of sisal fibers in cementitious composite was inves­
tigated at high temperatures (> 70 ◦ C) to assess the performance of the
fibers in extreme environmental conditions [243]. The cyclic wetting
and drying process was implemented, which resulted in approximately
40% decomposition of fibers after 30 cycles. Moreover, the cyclic change
in moisture and temperature conditions accelerated the degradation
compared to the static aggressive conditions. However, applying heating
and soaking at 90 ◦ C resulted in approximately 30% decomposition of
natural fibers after 100 days. The increment in fiber fraction led to
increased water absorption and reduced chemical resistance for
bamboo-reinforced polymer composite [244]. The reduction in alka­
linity for improving the durability of sisal fiber-reinforced cement
composites can be achieved by adding supplementary cementitious
materials, such as metakaolin, nano clay, limestone, rice husk ash, fly
ash, and diatomite [245]. Rice husk was used to increase the durability
of the sisal fiber-reinforced cement composite [246]. The treatment of
hemp fibers using an alkali Ca(OH)2 solution increases the surface
roughness, which improves the interfacial bond and adhesion between
fiber and cement [102]. Natural fibers surface treatment with 4% stearic
acid was reported as an effective way of improving hygrothermal
resistance of palmyra-reinforced polymer composite for structures
[247]. The effects of exposure to moisture on jute and flax
fiber-reinforced composites are investigated for columns, which resulted
in a 50% reduction of strength [248]. Increased weather resistance of
shellac resin-treated sisal fiber-reinforced cement composite was
observed as compared to the uncoated sisal and non-reinforced cement
composites [57].
The hybridization of the fibers in composites also helps in improving
the durability of the composite. The performance of hybrid wood and
kenaf fiber-filled polyethylene composite was analyzed under ultraviolet
radiations and moisture cycles to assess the environmental effects on
hybrid natural fiber-reinforced composite [249]. The results showed a
reduction in flexural strength, elastic modulus, and bond strength be­
tween fibers and the composite matrix. Even after reducing the elastic
modulus, it was found to be 2.5 times higher than that of the composites
without natural fibers. Hybrid jute and basalt fiber composites were
proposed to increase the durability of the structure where a basalt layer
can be applied outside in contact with the environment [250]. There­
fore, it can be inferred that by using the various surface coatings,
treatments of fibers (i.e., NaOH, Ca(OH)2, AlCl3, alkali, Na2CO3, shellac
1. Kenaf fiber-reinforced - Korol et al.[258]
polypropylene
2. Jute fiber-reinforced - Korol et al.[258]
polypropylene
3. Rice straw-reinforced methylene 548.31 Jagtap et al.[259]
diphenyl diisocyanate composite
4. Wheat straw composite 767 Wanhua Ecoboard
Co. Ltd[260]
5. Agro-composite 940 Jain[261]
6. Wood composite 853 Puettmann et al.
[262]
resin, Acetyl, and thermal) [251], hybridization of fibers, coating to fi­
bers [252], and preventing the direct exposure of fibers to the envi­
ronment, the durability of the natural fiber-reinforced structure can be
enhanced.
6. Environmental impact of natural fiber-reinforced composites
The environmental impact of natural fiber-reinforced composites
prominently depends upon the material, i.e., natural fibers and resin
used for polymer composites, material volume content, transportation,
manufacturing infrastructure, equipment, and human resources
involved in the production process, and energy consumption. There is
very limited research that provides explicit measures of carbon footprint
for different types of natural fiber-reinforced composites, especially
including all processes involved in the production. The assessment of
various footprints, i.e., carbon, ecological, and water footprints of Eu­
ropean pallets made of cotton, jute, and kenaf fibers-reinforced poly­
propylene composites, has been presented by Korol et al. [258]. In a
recent study, the calculations and comparison of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emission in the production process of rice straw [259], wheat straw
[260], agro waste [261], and wood [262] polymer composites based on
some research reports and industrial guides is presented by Jagtap et al.
[259], see Table 3. Further studies on GHG emission assessment of
various natural fiber-reinforced composites can be considered as a future
scope of study.
7. Research needs
Although the use of natural fibers offers an environment-friendly
solution to replace synthetic fibers, their use as effective construction
materials still has some challenges. Some of these challenges are
mentioned in the previous sections of this paper. To increase the use of
natural fibers for structures and to improve the performance of these
structures, the following research problems must be investigated.
1. The considerable variability in mechanical and physical properties of
plant-based natural fibers due to various reasons, such as soil and
local environmental conditions, requires to be incorporated in
developing a standard design for natural fiber-reinforced structures.
2. Low strength, stiffness, and other mechanical properties of natural
fibers need to be improved to utilize them as reinforcement in
construction.
3. The durability of biocomposites under various environmental con­
ditions, as mentioned in Section 5, and insect problems need to be
addressed.
4. Exploring various surface treatments, fire treatments, and advanced
techniques (i.e., Physical vapor deposition coating) to improve the
mechanical and physical properties of natural fibers.

10
K. Saini et al. Construction and Building Materials 411 (2024) 134364

Fig. 10. Summary chart of the research papers cited in the study based on several categories.

Fig. 11. Time history of the research on natural fiber-reinforced earth, cement, concrete, and polymer composites cited in the study.

5. The lack of standardized test methods for the characterization of
natural fiber products discourages their use for construction.
6. The lack of design guidelines discourages engineers from imple­
menting the use of natural fibers for structures, especially under
adverse loading and environmental conditions.
8. Conclusions and future scope
The study presents various approaches to using natural fibers for
different structural members and strengthening structures. This study
also summarizes the behavior of natural fibers under various loads and
environmental conditions and presents their benefits and use for struc­
tural applications. The summary and time history of the reviewed
studies based on various categories of use of natural fibers are shown in
Figs. 10 and 11. Based on the literature reported, the following con­
clusions are drawn.
1. Natural fibers can be used as effective reinforcement in structural
members, either for new construction or for retrofitting structures.
These structural members perform well for optimum design param­
eters under low to medium load levels.
2. Various advanced approaches, such as neural networks, response
surface methods, support vector regression, and machine learning
algorithms, can be implemented to predict the mechanical properties
of natural fiber-reinforced composites.
3. The performance and durability of natural fiber-reinforced structures
can be enhanced by applying techniques, such as surface treatment,
fire retardants, reducing the alkaline environment in composites,

11
K. Saini et al.
using them in a hybrid combination with synthetic fibers, applying
surface coating, and preventing direct exposure of natural fibers to
harsh environmental conditions and fire.
4. Flax-reinforced composites (i.e., cement, concrete, and polymer)
exhibit better performance (crack development, impact, flexural,
and tensile) compared to composites reinforced with some
commonly used natural fibers.
5. Natural fibers can be used as an alternative sustainable solution to
conventional synthetic fibers for affordable housing. However,
further enhancement in the durability, strength, and stiffness of
natural fibers is required for better structural performance.
6. There is a need to develop standardized methods to use natural fibers
for structures. Also, strength design equations and calculation pro­
cedures are required to be developed to design structures incorpo­
rating natural fibers.
7. The life cycle assessment of the natural fiber-reinforced and
strengthened structural members needs to be studied to assess the
possible reduction in carbon emission as compared to conventional
materials. Moreover, the short- and long-term behavior and reli­
ability of the natural fiber-reinforced structure under various loads
and environmental conditions need to be assessed timely to analyze
the aging effects of the structure and considered in design practices.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Matsagar Vasant A.: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Conceptualization. Kodur Venkatesh R.: Writing – review & editing,
Supervision, Conceptualization. Saini Kusum: Writing – review &
editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Data
curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided
by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of
Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, under the VAJRA
(Visiting Advanced Joint Research) Faculty Scheme, VJR/2020/
000011. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and not
necessarily of the funding agency.
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